1.
Mark di Suvero
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Marco Polo Mark di Suvero is an abstract expressionist sculptor and 2010 National Medal of Arts recipient. Marco Polo di Suvero was born on September 18,1933 in Shanghai, China, to Matilde Millo di Suvero, di Suvero was one of four children, the eldest being Victor di Suvero. His father was a naval attaché for the Italian government and the family resided in Shanghai until his father was relocated to Tientsin shortly after the birth of the familys last son in 1936. With the outbreak of World War II, di Suvero immigrated to San Francisco, di Suvero attended San Francisco City College from 1953 to 1954 followed by the University of California, Santa Barbara from 1954 to 1955. He began creating sculptures while at UC Santa Barbara after reflecting that he couldnt make a contribution in his philosophy major. Under the guidance of Robert Thomas, who allowed di Suvero to take his sculpting course and he transferred to the University of California, Berkeley and graduated with a B. A. in philosophy in 1957. After graduating from college, di Suvero moved to New York City in 1957 to pursue an art career. He worked part-time in construction and began to incorporate wood and metal from demolition sites into his work, shortly before his first solo exhibition at Green Gallery, di Suvero was involved in a near-fatal elevator accident on March 26,1960, while working at a construction site. He suffered a back and severe spinal injures, doctors believed he wouldnt be able to walk again. While in rehabilitation, he learned to work with an arc welder which became critical for later pieces and he made a recovery in four years and could walk without assistance by 1965. He is one of the sixteen artists included in the book Chronicles of Courage, Very Special Artists as a result of this accident and the subsequent effect it had upon his health. Di Suvero was a member of the Park Place Gallery in 1963 with Forrest Myers, Leo Valledor, Peter Forakis, among others. Di Suvero protested the Vietnam War, for which he was twice arrested and his French barge, Rêve de signes, has since been turned into La Vie des Formes, an atelier for emerging artists, which has been moored at Montceau-les-Mines since 2009. He later returned to the United States and opened a studio in Petaluma, while the Petaluma studio is still active, di Suvero moved to New York City and opened a studio there. He founded the Athena Foundation in 1977 and Socrates Sculpture Park in 1986 and his early works were large outdoor pieces that incorporated wooden timbers from demolition buildings, tires, scrap metal and structural steel. This exploration has transformed over time into a focus on H-beams, many of the pieces contain sections that are allowed to swing and rotate giving the overall forms a considerable degree of motion. He prides himself on his approach to the fabrication and installation of his work. Di Suvero pioneered the use of a crane as a working tool
2.
Texas State Highway Spur 366
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Spur 366, also named Woodall Rodgers Freeway, is a highway that connects Beckley Avenue and Singleton Avenue in West Dallas to Interstate 35E and U. S. Highway 75 in central Dallas, Texas. The highway, as part of the downtown loop, also serves as a dividing line between downtown Dallas on the south and the Uptown and Victory Park neighborhoods on the north. In 2012 the Santiago Calatrava designed Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge was opened, extending Woodall Rodgers west of Interstate 35E across the Trinity River, the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge is first of three planned bridges of the Trinity River Project. Klyde Warren Park, completed in 2012, spans the freeway from Saint Paul Street to Pearl Street, the freeway travels in a tunnel under the park. The highway is named after Woodall Rodgers, a mayor of Dallas responsible for the construction of Love Field. Spur 366 is often referred to by most locals as Woodall Rodgers Freeway, the only signage for Spur 366 is on the ramps to the highway at the interchanges with I-35E and US 75/I-45. As such, the highway is signed TO I-35E westbound and TO US 75/I-45 eastbound, the highway begins at a traffic signal at Beckley Avenue. Westbound traffic can continue past the light onto Singleton Boulevard, after the light, Spur 366 crosses the Trinity River on the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge. From the bridge, traffic can exit to Riverfront Boulevard, an incomplete interchange with I-35E follows, before the freeway serves as the dividing line between Downtown and Uptown. There are many exits for the mile, most of which contain multiple ramps to serve different streets. The freeway ends at an interchange with US 75/I-45 in northeast Downtown, the exit ramp to northbound US75 also serves Hall Street. The Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge is a bridge that carries Woodall Rodgers Freeway over the Trinity River. This is the first steel bridge across the river, the bridge opened in March 2012 and was designed by Santiago Calatrava. Klyde Warren Park is a 5. 2-acre park that connects Downtown Dallas with Uptown, the park is located above the freeway between Pearl and St. Paul streets to the west and east, and the frontage roads to the north and south. Spur 366 was built along sections of Cochran and Munger Streets between I-35E and US 75/I-45, once the freeway opened in 1983, it remained relatively unchanged until the construction of the Margaret Hunt Hill Bridge and Klyde Warren Park in 2012. The entire route is in Dallas, Dallas County, dFWFreeways. info, Spur 366 Woodall Rodgers Freeway History Official site, Woodall Rodgers deck park project
3.
Dallas
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Dallas is a major city in the U. S. state of Texas. It is the most populous city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, the citys population ranks ninth in the U. S. and third in Texas after Houston and San Antonio. The citys prominence arose from its importance as a center for the oil and cotton industries. The bulk of the city is in Dallas County, of which it is the county seat, however, sections of the city are located in Collin, Denton, Kaufman, and Rockwall counties. According to the 2010 United States Census, the city had a population of 1,197,816, the United States Census Bureaus estimate for the citys population increased to 1,300,092 as of July 1,2015. In 2016 DFW ascended to the one spot in the nation in year-over-year population growth. In 2014, the metropolitan economy surpassed Washington, D. C. to become the fifth largest in the U. S. with a 2014 real GDP over $504 billion, as such, the metropolitan areas economy is the 10th largest in the world. As of January 2017, the job count has increased to 3,558,200 jobs. The citys economy is based on banking, commerce, telecommunications, technology, energy, healthcare and medical research. The city is home to the third-largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the nation. Located in North Texas, Dallas is the core of the largest metropolitan area in the South. Dallas and nearby Fort Worth were developed due to the construction of railroad lines through the area allowing access to cotton, cattle. Later, France also claimed the area but never established much settlement, the area remained under Spanish rule until 1821, when Mexico declared independence from Spain, and the area was considered part of the Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas. In 1836, the Republic of Texas, with majority Anglo-American settlers, in 1839, Warren Angus Ferris surveyed the area around present-day Dallas. John Neely Bryan established a permanent settlement near the Trinity River named Dallas in 1841, the origin of the name is uncertain. The Republic of Texas was annexed by the United States in 1845, Dallas was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1856. With construction of railroads, Dallas became a business and trading center and it became an industrial city, attracting workers from Texas, the South and the Midwest. The Praetorian Building of 15 stories, built in 1909, was the first skyscraper west of the Mississippi and it marked the prominence of Dallas as a city
4.
Arts District, Dallas
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The Arts District is a performing and visual arts district in Downtown Dallas, Texas. It is located south of State Thomas, southeast of Uptown, north of the City Center District, west of Bryan Place and it is bounded by St. Paul Street, Ross Avenue, Spur 366, and the US 75/I-45 elevated freeway. The Arts District is the founder and member of the Global Cultural Districts Network, the district is 68 acres large and is home to some of Dallas’ most significant cultural landmarks including facilities for visual, performing, and developing arts. In addition, multiple other organizations perform in the District on an ongoing basis and this includes everything from concerts to outdoor festivals, to lectures, youth education programs, and more. Spur 366 US75 Central Expressway/ I-45 connection The Arts District is served by the Dallas Independent School District, one school, the Booker T. Washington High School for the Performing and Visual Arts, is located in the Arts District. Residents of the Arts District north and east of Akard Street are zoned to Sam Houston Elementary School, residents south and west of Akard are zoned to Hope Medrano Elementary School. All Arts District residents are zoned to Thomas J. Rusk Middle School and North Dallas High School
5.
Downtown Dallas
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Downtown Dallas is the Central Business District in Dallas, Texas USA, located in the geographic center of the city. The square miles, population and density figures in the adjacent table represent the data for this traditional definition, however, the strong organic growth of Downtown Dallas since the early 2000s and continuing into the present has now resulted in Downtown Dallas, Inc. In total there are 15 districts that now form the definition of Downtown, Downtown Dallas achieved notoriety on November 22,1963, with the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. Both President Kennedy and Texas Governor John Connally were shot as their motorcade passed through Dealey Plaza in what is now the West End Historic District, part of the former Texas School Book Depository is now the Sixth Floor Museum, with exhibits about Kennedy and the assassination. Nearby is the John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, the building boom of the 1970s and 1980s produced a distinctive contemporary profile for the downtown skyline, influenced by nationally prominent architects. Downtown Dallas has also gained more recent national attention, as it was the location of the 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers, the area is undergoing a transition as dozens of residential conversions and new high rise condos bring more permanent residents to the downtown area. As of mid-2013, there were approximately 4980 residences available in downtown Dallas and its redeveloped Main Street has recently become more of a place for Dallasites to play after several restaurants, hotels, and residential towers opened their doors along the strip. The city has invested $160 million of funds in downtown Dallas for residential development that attracted $650 million of private investment. Additionally, the $200 million 42-story Museum Tower residential skyscraper in the Downtown Dallas Arts District was completed in 2013, importantly, The Trinity River Corridor is poised to undergo a significant transformation into a giant urban park. The park is expected to include a center, lakes, trails. Funding over the years, however, has been a constant problem, though serious work on the project now appears eminent, with the first two bridges having received significant private backing. Downtown Dallas has undergone a series of important changes that city officials believe will drastically improve the citys core and these changes are located in four downtown areas, Victory Park, the Arts District, the Trinity River, and the Convention center corridor. Also currently under construction in Victory Park is the new Perot Museum of Nature and Science, One of the prominent attractions in the Arts District is the Dallas Museum of Art. Of all the changes in downtown Dallas, the Trinity River corridor is undergoing the most dramatic, dubbed the Trinity River Project by local officials, plans are also in place for improved levies to protect downtown from possible flooding. Separated from Victory Park and the Arts District by the Downtown Central Business District, is the Convention Center corridor, the Omni Dallas Hotel is a new 23-story convention center hotel that opened in 2011. The park is called an urban oasis due to its unique location. AT&T is headquartered at the Whitacre Tower in Downtown Dallas, AT&T moved to Dallas from San Antonio, mayor of Dallas Tom Leppert said in 2008 that he hoped that AT&T would stay in the central city. Comerica is headquartered in the Comerica Bank Tower, TM Advertising has its headquarters in the same building
6.
Fair Park
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Fair Park is a 277-acre recreational and educational complex located in Dallas, Texas. The area, which is immediately southeast of downtown Dallas, is registered as a Dallas Landmark, many of the buildings were constructed for the Texas Centennial Exposition in 1936. Fair Park has been designated a Great Place in America by the American Planning Association, the site was established as an 80-acre fairground on the outskirts of East Dallas for the Dallas State Fair in 1886. In 1904, after a fire and financial loss by the fair association and it became Dallas second public park and became known as Fair Park. An important figure in Fair Parks development was landscape architect and city planner George Kessler, in 1906, he was responsible for the first formal plan for the park influenced by the City Beautiful Movement. The City Beautiful Movement advocated well planned public spaces, tree-lined boulevards, monuments, public art, a milestone in Fair Parks history was 1936, when the Texas Centennial Exposition was held there. In preparation for the event, the appearance of the park was dramatically altered by architect George Dahl. The park was transformed from an early 20th-century fairground into an Art Deco showcase, while many of the expositions buildings were meant to be temporary, several have survived and have been restored to some extent. Over the years the park was expanded to its current 277 acres, Fair Park was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1986 and in 1988 administration of the park was transferred to the Dallas Parks Department. Today, the facilities and annual events attract an unsubstantiated estimate of 5 million visitors annually. Many of the art deco buildings have been restored visually to their 1936 appearance. In anticipation of DARTs light rail service the historic Parry Avenue entrance gates were restored in 2009, the four cameo reliefs on Centennial Building underwent a professional conservation treatment in 2000 and the Esplanade fountain pylons and six monumental sculptures in 2004. Several sculptures were reconstructed and feature a light and water show. In 2003, the Fair Park Comprehensive Development plan was produced by Hargreaves Associates and this comprehensive plan included recommendations for the physical site, park programs, activities, funding options, and management alternatives. The park received a $72 million city bond allocation in 2006 for repairs, in September 2014, a blue ribbon task force appointed by Mayor Mike Rawlings submitted a report on the rejuvenation of Fair Park. In March 2015, the State Fair pushed back on any notion of tightening up the footprint of its current operation, wilonsky also quoted a ‘prominent member of the Mayors Task Force’ as suggesting privately that the State Fairs presence at Fair Park also needs to be greatly reduced. Under the Mayors plan, the city would own the 277-acre site. Many Dallas cultural institutions call Fair Park home, Hall of State The Hall of State is managed by the Dallas Historical Society, which hosts exhibits inside about Dallas history and culture
7.
Edward Larrabee Barnes
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Edward Larrabee Barnes was an American architect. He graduated from the Harvard Graduate School of Design in 1942, after the war he worked for Henry Dreyfuss in Los Angeles designing prototypes for mass-produced homes. In 1949 Barnes founded Edward Larrabee Barnes Associates in Manhattan, many of his buildings are widely recognized, including the Dallas Museum of Art, Walker Art Center, and the IBM Building at 590 Madison Avenue in Manhattan. In 1969, Barnes was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1978. In 2007 he was honored with the American Institute of Architects highest award. He also received the Thomas Jefferson Medal in Architecture, the Harvard University 350th Anniversary Medal and his Haystack Mountain School of Crafts won the AIA Twenty-five Year Award. Louis, Missouri,1982 Nora Eccles Harrison Museum of Art, Utah State University, Logan, Utah,1982 Dillon, Edward Larrabee Barnes, Modern Architect, Dies at 89, The New York Times, September 23,2004. Snatched from Oblivion, Metropolis magazine, October 2006, p.56 by Jeffrey Head Emporis. com biography Edward Larrabee Barnes at the archINFORM database
8.
American Institute of Architects
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The American Institute of Architects is a professional organization for architects in the United States. The AIA also works with members of the design and construction team to help coordinate the building industry. The AIA is currently headed by Robert Ivy, FAIA as EVP/Chief Executive Officer and Thomas V. Vonier, wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They met on February 23,1857 and decided to invite 16 other prominent architects to join them, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Prior to their establishment of the AIA, anyone could claim to be an architect and they drafted a constitution and bylaws by March 10,1857, under the name New York Society of Architects. Walter, of Philadelphia, later suggested the name be changed to American Institute of Architects, the members signed the new constitution on April 15,1857, having filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. As of 2008, AIA has more than 300 chapters, the AIA is headquartered at 1735 New York Avenue, NW in Washington, D. C. A design competition was held in the mid-1960s to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters in Washington, mitchell/Giurgola won the design competition but failed to get approval of the design concept from the United States Commission of Fine Arts. The firm resigned the commission and helped select The Architects Collaborative to redesign the building, the design, led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973. More than 90,000 licensed architects and associated professionals are members, AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct intended to assure clients, the public, and colleagues of an architects dedication to the highest standards in professional practice. There are five levels of membership in the AIA, Architect members are licensed to practice architecture in the United States, international associate members hold an architecture license or the equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States. Emeritus members have been AIA members for 15 successive years and are at least 65 years of age or are incapacitated, allied membership is a partnership with the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation. The AIA’s most prestigious honor is the designation of a member as a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects and this membership is awarded to members who have made contributions of national significance to the profession. Slightly more than 2,600, or 2% of all members, have elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Foreign architects of prominence may be elected to the College as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, the AIA is governed by a Board of Directors and has a staff of over 200 full-time employees. Although the AIA functions as an organization, at its heart are some 300 local. The components are spread throughout the United States, United Kingdom, Europe, Japan, by speaking with a united voice, AIA architects influence government practices that affect the practice of the profession and the quality of American life. The AIA monitors legislative and regulatory actions and uses the power of its membership to participate in decisionmaking by federal, state
9.
Frederic Edwin Church
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Frederic Edwin Church was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. Churchs paintings put an emphasis on light and a respect for natural detail. In his later years, Church painted classical Mediterranean and Middle Eastern scenes and cityscapes, Church was the son of Eliza and Joseph Church. The familys wealth came from Churchs father, a silversmith and watchmaker in Hartford, Joseph, in turn, was the son of Samuel Church, who founded the first paper mill in Lee, Massachusetts in the Berkshires. Joseph later became an official and a director of The Aetna Life Insurance Company, the familys wealth allowed Frederic Church to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. At eighteen years of age, Church became the pupil of Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, in May 1849, Church was elected as the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design and was promoted to Academician the following year. Soon after, he sold his first major work to Hartfords Wadsworth Athenaeum, Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School and the pupil of Thomas Cole, the school’s founder. The Hudson River School was established by the British Thomas Cole when he moved to America and started painting landscapes, mostly of mountains, both Cole and Church were devout Protestants and the latters beliefs played a role in his paintings especially his early canvases. Cole, along with his friend Asher Durand, started school in New York. The paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional American pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains and this style attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the feelings of discovery and appreciation for natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century, Church did differ from Cole in the topics of his paintings, he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Coles propensity towards allegory. Church, like most second generation Hudson River School painters, used extraordinary detail, romanticism, romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the Enlightenment virtues of order and logic. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature and this tradition carries on in the works of Frederic Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by creating excruciatingly detailed art. The technical skill comes in the form of luminism, a Hudson River School innovation particularly present in Churchs works, luminism is also cited as encompassing several technical aspects, which can be seen in Church’s works. One example is the attempt to “hide brushstrokes, ” which makes the scene more realistic. Most importantly is the emphasis on light in these scenes, the several sources of light create contrast in the pictures that highlights the beauty and detailed imagery in the painting. Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, Church’s method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches created of views in the summer months. In these earlier years of his career, Church’s style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, Church’s work was immediately divergent from Cole’s focus on ethereal, almost mythological, scenes, but his early work did resemble Cole’s tone
10.
Dallas Public Library
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The Dallas Public Library system serves as the municipal library system of the city of Dallas, Texas. In 1899, the idea to create a public library in Dallas was conceived by the Dallas Federation of Womens Clubs. She helped raise US$11,000 from gifts from public school teachers, local businessmen, the library became a reality when Mrs. Exall requested and received a US$50,000 grant from philanthropist and steel giant Andrew Carnegie to construct the first library building in Dallas. On October 22,1901, the Carnegie library opened at the corner of Harwood and Commerce streets with a head librarian, the first story held the entire collection, the second floor held the Carnegie Hall auditorium and an Art Room. The art room was the first public art gallery in Dallas, an Oak Cliff branch opened in 1914 to serve the citizens of the area, annexed into Dallas in 1903. Four more branches opened in the 1930s including the Paul Lawrence Dunbar Library, in World War II, the library was fully established as a War Information Center. By the 1950s the Carnegie Library was badly deteriorating and overcrowded, during construction, the Library was housed temporarily on the mezzanine of Union Station. The new building, now known as Old Dallas Central Library, had room for over 400,000 volumes, during the 1960s and 1970s, the Dallas Public Library added 17 branches to the system. Days after she was put into office, she faced a censorship push from a Dallas council-member, the City Council, in response, overwhelmingly approved her appointment and passed a resolution not to censor books purchased by the library. By the 1970s, the Central Library had again become overloaded and was unequipped to handle emerging technology, in 1972, the City selected a 114,000 square feet site at Young and Ervay across from the Dallas City Hall for a new central library facility. In 1982, the technologically sophisticated structure opened its doors and it was one of the first libraries in the nation to include an Online Public Access Catalog and state-of-the-art audiovisual capabilities. It was renamed the J. Erik Jonsson Central Library in 1986 in honor of the mayor who played a large role in the library systems development. In 1996 the Library implemented the STAR computer system, which allowed patrons to access a multitude of electronic databases, by the 2000s, the system had 27 branch locations with over 2.5 million volumes, including books, magazines, videos, and cassettes. The system currently attracts 2.8 million visitors per year and has 540,000 cardholders who check out more than 3.8 million books, the Library also operates a Library on Wheels Mobile Learning Center to service Dallas communities. The Dallas Public Library is home to a copy of Shakespeares First Folio and it was purchased by the Dallas Shakespeare Club in 1984 at a cost of $275,000 and was gifted to the Library in 1986. It is displayed on the 7th floor, a Dunlap Broadside copy of the Declaration of Independence is also housed on the 7th floor. Printed by John Dunlap of Philadelphia, it is one of twenty-five known to survive. This is the only copy west of the Mississippi, and one of only 3 displayed by a public library and it was purchased by a number of individuals for $500,000 and given to the city
11.
Texas Centennial Exposition
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The Texas Centennial Exposition was a worlds fair presented June 6 – November 29,1936, at Fair Park in Dallas, Texas. A celebration of the 100th anniversary of Texass independence from Mexico in 1836, it also celebrated Texas, more than 50 buildings were constructed for the exposition, and many remain today as notable examples of Art Deco architecture. Attracting more than six people including President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Texas Centennial Exposition was held at Fair Parkno in Dallas and it was also a celebration of Texas and Western culture. George Dahl was director general of a group of architects who designed the more than 50 buildings constructed for the exposition at Fair Park, some 30 of the structures remain, representing one of the largest intact groupings of worlds fair buildings and open spaces remaining in the United States. Chief among these buildings is the Texas Hall of State, not yet completed at the time of the exposition, the Texas Centennial Exposition was held at Fair Park in Dallas, June 6 – November 29,1936. The event attracted 6,353,827 visitors, and cost around $25 million, the exposition was credited for buffering Dallas from the Great Depression, creating over 10,000 jobs and giving a $50 million boost to the local economy. The Cavalcade of Texas, a historical pageant covering four centuries of Texas history, was one of the most popular attractions at the Exposition, the Hall of Negro Life was another popular attraction and is believed to be the first recognition of African-American culture at a worlds fair. The Texas Centennial Olympics, held in the Cotton Bowl, hosted the first integrated public athletic competition in the history of the South, the production was one of the most talked-about features of the exposition and drew large, enthusiastic audiences. For many it was their first opportunity to see a dramatic performance by African American actors. Integrated seating was an experience for theatergoers in Dallas. President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited the exposition in a publicized event on June 12. Gene Autrys film The Big Show was filmed on location and shows many of the buildings, the Centennial Exposition required a massive publicity effort, but the promotion department was stymied by a lack of photographs. Never before had the state been photographed for advertising purposes, the Centennial Exposition hired Polly Smith to travel the state and tell the story of Texas through photos. After a successful run, the Texas Centennial Exposition was closed. The exhibits changed and reopened the following year as the Greater Texas & Pan-American Exposition, the Fair Park Texas Centennial Buildings were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986. In October 2010, the National Building Museum in Washington, D. C. opened an exhibition titled Designing Tomorrow and this exhibition, which was available for view until September 2011, prominently featured the Texas Centennial Exposition. Light and Color Magic at Texas Exposition Popular Mechanics, December 1935 pp. 846–847
12.
Paul Philippe Cret
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Paul Philippe Cret was a French-born Philadelphia architect and industrial designer. For more than thirty years, he taught a studio in the Department of Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania. Born in Lyon, France, Cret was educated at that citys École des Beaux-Arts, then in Paris and he came to the United States in 1903 to teach at the University of Pennsylvania. Although settled in America, he happened to be in France at the outbreak of World War I and he enlisted and remained in the French army for the duration, for which he was awarded the Croix de Guerre and made an officer in the Legion of Honor. Crets practice in America began in 1907, some of Crets work is remarkably streamlined and forward-thinking, and includes collaborations with sculptors such as Alfred Bottiau and Leon Hermant. In the late 1920s the architect was brought in as consultant on Fellheimer and Wagners Cincinnati Union Terminal. He became an American citizen in 1927, in 1931, the regents of The University of Texas at Austin commissioned Cret to design a master plan for the campus, and build the Beaux-Art Main Building, the universitys signature tower. Cret would go on to collaborate on about twenty buildings on the campus, in 1935, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1938. Crets contributions to the industry also included the design of the side fluting on the Burlingtons Pioneer Zephyr. Cret won the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Architects in 1938, ill health forced his resignation from teaching in 1937. Commission of Fine Arts from 1940 to 1945, after years of limited activity, Cret died in Philadelphia of heart disease. Crets work was displayed in the exhibit, From the Bastille to Broad Street, The Influence of France on Philadelphia Architecture, an exhibit of his train designs, All Aboard. Paul P. Crets Train Designs, was at the Athenaeum of Philadelphia from July 5,2012 to August 24,2012. With a collection of 17,000 drawings and more than 3,000 photographs, louis Kahn studied at the University of Pennsylvania under Cret, and worked in Crets architectural office in 1929 and 1930. Other notable architects who studied under Cret include Alfred Easton Poor, barber, William Ward Watkin, and Chinese architect Lin Huiyin. On the 75th anniversary of the Battle of Gettysburg, President Franklin D. Roosevelt dedicated Crets Eternal Light Peace Memorial. Following Crets death in 1945, his four partners assumed the practice under the partnership Harbeson, Hough, Livingston & Larson, the firm officially adopted this nickname as its formal title in 1976. H2L2 celebrated 100 years in 2007, 1908–10 – Organization of American States Building, Washington, D. C. C
13.
Gustave Courbet
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Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and his independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator, Courbets paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects, Courbets subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character, landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes and still lifes. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune, Gustave Courbet was born in 1819 to Régis and Sylvie Oudot Courbet in Ornans. Being a prosperous farming family, anti-monarchical feelings prevailed in the household, Courbets sisters, Zoé, Zélie and Juliette, were his first models for drawing and painting. After moving to Paris he often returned home to Ornans to hunt, fish and he went to Paris in 1839 and worked at the studio of Steuben and Hesse. An independent spirit, he left, preferring to develop his own style by studying the paintings of Spanish, Flemish and French masters in the Louvre. Among his paintings of the early 1840s are several self-portraits, Romantic in conception, trips to the Netherlands and Belgium in 1846–47 strengthened Courbets belief that painters should portray the life around them, as Rembrandt, Hals and other Dutch masters had. By 1848, he had gained supporters among the younger critics, Courbet achieved his first Salon success in 1849 with his painting After Dinner at Ornans. The work, reminiscent of Chardin and Le Nain, earned Courbet a gold medal and was purchased by the state, the gold medal meant that his works would no longer require jury approval for exhibition at the Salon—an exemption Courbet enjoyed until 1857. In 1849-50, Courbet painted Stone-Breakers, which Proudhon admired as an icon of peasant life, the painting was inspired by a scene Courbet witnessed on the roadside. He later explained to Champfleury and the writer Francis Wey, It is not often that one encounters so complete an expression of poverty and so, right then, I told them to come to my studio the next morning. Courbets work belonged neither to the predominant Romantic nor Neoclassical schools, instead, he maintained that the only possible source for living art is the artists own experience. He and Jean-Francois Millet would find inspiration painting the life of peasants, Courbet painted figurative compositions, landscapes, seascapes, and still lifes. He courted controversy by addressing issues in his work, and by painting subjects that were considered vulgar, such as the rural bourgeoisie, peasants. His work, along with that of Honoré Daumier and Jean-François Millet and he depicted the harshness in life, and in so doing challenged contemporary academic ideas of art. The Salon of 1850–1851 found him triumphant with The Stone Breakers, the Burial, one of Courbets most important works, records the funeral of his grand uncle which he attended in September 1848
14.
Texas
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Texas is the second largest state in the United States by both area and population. Other major cities include Austin, the second most populous state capital in the U. S. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State to signify its former status as an independent republic, and as a reminder of the states struggle for independence from Mexico. The Lone Star can be found on the Texan state flag, the origin of Texass name is from the word Tejas, which means friends in the Caddo language. Due to its size and geologic features such as the Balcones Fault, although Texas is popularly associated with the U. S. southwestern deserts, less than 10 percent of Texas land area is desert. Most of the centers are located in areas of former prairies, grasslands, forests. Traveling from east to west, one can observe terrain that ranges from coastal swamps and piney woods, to rolling plains and rugged hills, the term six flags over Texas refers to several nations that have ruled over the territory. Spain was the first European country to claim the area of Texas, Mexico controlled the territory until 1836 when Texas won its independence, becoming an independent Republic. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state, the states annexation set off a chain of events that caused the Mexican–American War in 1846. A slave state before the American Civil War, Texas declared its secession from the U. S. in early 1861, after the Civil War and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a long period of economic stagnation. One Texan industry that thrived after the Civil War was cattle, due to its long history as a center of the industry, Texas is associated with the image of the cowboy. The states economic fortunes changed in the early 20th century, when oil discoveries initiated a boom in the state. With strong investments in universities, Texas developed a diversified economy, as of 2010 it shares the top of the list of the most Fortune 500 companies with California at 57. With a growing base of industry, the leads in many industries, including agriculture, petrochemicals, energy, computers and electronics, aerospace. Texas has led the nation in export revenue since 2002 and has the second-highest gross state product. The name Texas, based on the Caddo word tejas meaning friends or allies, was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves, during Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas, La Provincia de Texas. Texas is the second largest U. S. state, behind Alaska, though 10 percent larger than France and almost twice as large as Germany or Japan, it ranks only 27th worldwide amongst country subdivisions by size. If it were an independent country, Texas would be the 40th largest behind Chile, Texas is in the south central part of the United States of America. Three of its borders are defined by rivers, the Rio Grande forms a natural border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south
15.
Paul Gauguin
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Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin was a French post-Impressionist artist. Underappreciated until after his death, Gauguin is now recognized for his use of color. His work was influential to the French avant-garde and many artists, such as Pablo Picasso. Many of his paintings were in the possession of Russian collector Sergei Shchukin and he was an important figure in the Symbolist movement as a painter, sculptor, printmaker, ceramist, and writer. He was also a proponent of wood engraving and woodcuts as art forms. Gauguin was born in Paris, France to Clovis Gauguin and Alina Maria Chazal on June 7,1848 and his birth coincided with revolutionary upheavals throughout Europe that year. His father, a 34-year-old liberal journalist, came from a family of petit-bourgeoisie entrepreneurs residing in Orléans and he was compelled to flee France when the newspaper for which he wrote was suppressed by French authorities. Gauguins mother, the 22-year-old Aline Marie Chazal, was the daughter of Andre Chazal, an engraver, and Flora Tristan and their union ended when Andre assaulted his wife Flora and was sentenced to prison for attempted murder. Paul Gauguins maternal grandmother, Flora Tristan, was the daughter of Thérèse Laisnay. Details of Thérèses family background are not known, her father, Don Mariano, was a Spanish nobleman, members of the wealthy Tristan Moscoso family held powerful positions in Peru. Nonetheless, Don Marianos unexpected death plunged his mistress and daughter Flora into poverty, when Floras marriage with Andre failed, she petitioned for and obtained a small monetary settlement from her fathers Peruvian relatives. She sailed to Peru in hopes of enlarging her share of the Tristan Moscoso family fortune and this never materialized, but she successfully published a popular travelogue of her experiences in Peru which launched her literary career in 1838. An active supporter of early socialist societies, Gauguins maternal grandmother helped to lay the foundations for the 1848 revolutionary movements, placed under surveillance by French police and suffering from overwork, she died in 1844. Her grandson Paul idolized his grandmother, and kept copies of her books with him to the end of his life. In 1850, Clovis Gauguin departed for Peru with his wife Alina and he died of a heart attack en route, and Alina arrived in Peru a widow with the 18-month-old Paul and his 2 ½ year-old sister, Marie. Gauguins mother was welcomed by her granduncle, whose son-in-law would shortly assume the presidency of Peru. To the age of six, Paul enjoyed an upbringing, attended by nursemaids. He retained a vivid memory of period of his childhood which instilled indelible impressions of Peru that haunted him the rest of his life
16.
Odilon Redon
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Odilon Redon was a French symbolist painter, printmaker, draughtsman and pastellist. Odilon Redon was born in Bordeaux, Aquitaine, to a prosperous family, the young Bertrand-Jean Redon acquired the nickname Odilon from his mother, Odile. Redon started drawing as a child, and, at the age of ten and he began the formal study of drawing at fifteen, but, at his fathers insistence, he changed to architecture. Failure to pass the exams at Paris’ École des Beaux-Arts ended any plans for a career as an architect. Back in his native Bordeaux, he took up sculpting, and Rodolphe Bresdin instructed him in etching and his artistic career was interrupted in 1870 when he was drafted to serve in the army in the Franco-Prussian War until its end in 1871. At the end of the war, he moved to Paris and resumed working almost exclusively in charcoal and he called his visionary works, conceived in shades of black, his noirs. It was not until 1878 that his work gained any recognition with Guardian Spirit of the Waters, he published his first album of lithographs, titled Dans le Rêve, in 1879. Still, Redon remained relatively unknown until the appearance in 1884 of a novel by Joris-Karl Huysmans titled À rebours. The story featured a decadent aristocrat who collected Redons drawings, in the 1890s pastel and oils became his favored media, he produced no more noirs after 1900. In 1899, he exhibited with the Nabis at Durand-Ruels, Redon had a keen interest in Hindu and Buddhist religion and culture. The figure of the Buddha increasingly showed in his work, baron Robert de Domecy commissioned the artist in 1899 to create 17 decorative panels for the dining room of the Château de Domecy-sur-le-Vault near Sermizelles in Burgundy. The landscape details do not show a place or space. Only details of trees, twigs with leaves, and budding flowers in an endless horizon can be seen, the colours used are mostly yellow, grey, brown and light blue. The influence of the Japanese painting style found on folding screens byōbu is discernible in his choice of colours, fifteen of them are located today in the Musée dOrsay, acquisitioned in 1988. Domecy also commissioned Redon to paint portraits of his wife and their daughter Jeanne, most of the paintings remained in the Domecy family collection until the 1960s. In 1903 Redon was awarded the Legion of Honor, Redon died on July 6,1916. In 1923 Mellerio published Odilon Redon, Peintre Dessinateur et Graveur, an archive of Mellerios papers is held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The exhibition ran from October 30,2005 to January 23,2006, the Fondation Beyeler in Basel, Switzerland showed a retrospective from February to May 2014
17.
Henri Matisse
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Henri-Émile-Benoît Matisse was a French artist, known for both his use of colour and his fluid and original draughtsmanship. He was a draughtsman, printmaker, and sculptor, but is primarily as a painter. Although he was labelled a Fauve, by the 1920s he was increasingly hailed as an upholder of the classical tradition in French painting. His mastery of the language of colour and drawing, displayed in a body of work spanning over a half-century. Matisse was born in Le Cateau-Cambrésis, in the Nord department in northern France and he grew up in Bohain-en-Vermandois, Picardie, France. In 1887 he went to Paris to study law, working as an administrator in Le Cateau-Cambrésis after gaining his qualification. He first started to paint in 1889, after his mother brought him art supplies during a period of following an attack of appendicitis. He discovered a kind of paradise as he described it. In 1891 he returned to Paris to study art at the Académie Julian and became a student of William-Adolphe Bouguereau, initially he painted still lifes and landscapes in a traditional style, at which he achieved reasonable proficiency. Chardin was one of the painters Matisse most admired, as an art student he made copies of four of Chardins paintings in the Louvre, in 1896 and 1897, Matisse visited the Australian painter John Peter Russell on the island Belle Île off the coast of Brittany. Russell introduced him to Impressionism and to the work of van Gogh and he later said Russell was my teacher, and Russell explained colour theory to me. In 1896 Matisse exhibited five paintings in the salon of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts, with the model Caroline Joblau, he had a daughter, Marguerite, born in 1894. In 1898 he married Amélie Noellie Parayre, the two raised Marguerite together and had two sons, Jean and Pierre, Marguerite and Amélie often served as models for Matisse. In 1898, on the advice of Camille Pissarro, he went to London to study the paintings of J. M. W. Turner and then went on a trip to Corsica. Upon his return to Paris in February 1899, he worked beside Albert Marquet and met André Derain, Jean Puy, Matisse immersed himself in the work of others and went into debt from buying work from painters he admired. The work he hung and displayed in his home included a plaster bust by Rodin, a painting by Gauguin, a drawing by van Gogh, in Cézannes sense of pictorial structure and colour, Matisse found his main inspiration. Many of Matisses paintings from 1898 to 1901 make use of a Divisionist technique he adopted after reading Paul Signacs essay and his paintings of 1902–03, a period of material hardship for the artist, are comparatively somber and reveal a preoccupation with form. Having made his first attempt at sculpture, a copy after Antoine-Louis Barye, in 1899, he devoted much of his energy to working in clay, fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910
18.
Piet Mondrian
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Pieter Cornelis Piet Mondriaan, after 1906 Mondrian, was a Dutch painter. Mondrian was a contributor to the De Stijl art movement and group and he evolved a non-representational form which he termed neoplasticism. This consisted of ground, upon which he painted a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines. Mondrians arrival in Paris from the Netherlands in 1911 marked the beginning of a period of profound change and he encountered experiments in Cubism and with the intent of integrating himself within the Parisian avant-garde removed an a from the Dutch spelling of his name. Mondrian was born in Amersfoort in the Netherlands, the second of his parents children and he was descended from Christian Dirkzoon Monderyan who lived in The Hague as early as 1670. The family moved to Winterswijk in the east of the country when his father, Pieter Cornelius Mondriaan, was appointed Head Teacher at a primary school. Mondrian was introduced to art from a early age. His father was a drawing teacher, and, with his uncle, Fritz Mondriaan. After a strictly Protestant upbringing, in 1892, Mondrian entered the Academy for Fine Art in Amsterdam and he already was qualified as a teacher. He began his career as a teacher in primary education, most of his work from this period is naturalistic or Impressionistic, consisting largely of landscapes. These paintings are most definitely representational, and they illustrate the influence that various artistic movements had on Mondrian, including pointillism, on display in the Gemeentemuseum Den Haag are a number of paintings from this period, including such Post-Impressionist works as The Red Mill and Trees in Moonrise. Another painting, Evening, depicting a tree in a field at dusk, even augurs future developments by using a palette consisting almost entirely of red, yellow, although Avond is only limitedly abstract, it is the earliest Mondrian painting to emphasize primary colors. Mondrians earliest paintings showing a degree of abstraction are a series of canvases from 1905 to 1908 that depict dim scenes of trees and houses reflected in still water. Mondrians art was related to his spiritual and philosophical studies. In 1908, he interested in the theosophical movement launched by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in the late 19th century. The work of Blavatsky and a spiritual movement, Rudolf Steiners Anthroposophy. In 1918, he wrote I got everything from the Secret Doctrine, in 1921, in a letter to Steiner, Mondrian argued that his neoplasticism was the art of the foreseeable future for all true Anthroposophists and Theosophists. He remained a committed Theosophist in subsequent years, although he believed that his own artistic current, neoplasticism, would eventually become part of a larger
19.
Francis Bacon
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Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, PC KC was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, orator, and author. He served both as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England, after his death, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism and his works argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature. Most importantly, he argued this could be achieved by use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid misleading themselves. This marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, Bacon was generally neglected at court by Queen Elizabeth, but after the accession of King James I in 1603, Bacon was knighted. He was later created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621, because he had no heirs, both titles became extinct upon his death in 1626, at 65 years of age. Bacon died of pneumonia, with one account by John Aubrey stating that he had contracted the condition while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat. Francis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his wife, Anne Bacon. His mothers sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health, which would plague him throughout his life. He received tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a leaning toward Puritanism. Bacons education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum and he was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect and his studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his rejection of Aristotelian philosophy, on 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Grays Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain, during his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, the sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt, Bacon stated that he had three goals, to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church
20.
African art
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African art is a term typically used for the art of Sub-Saharan Africa. Often, casual, amateur observers tend to generalize traditional African art, the definition may also include the art of the African diasporas, such as the art of African Americans. Despite this diversity, there are some unifying artistic themes when considering the totality of the culture from the continent of Africa. The term African art does not usually include the art of the North African areas along the Mediterranean coast, for more than a millennium, the art of such areas had formed part of Islamic art, although with many particular characteristics. The art of Ethiopia, with a long Christian tradition, is different from that of most of Africa. Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were often made for religious ceremonies, today many are made for tourists as airport art. African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction, since the late 19th century there has been an increasing amount of African art in Western collections, the finest pieces of which are now prominently displayed. Many West African figures are used in rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the region make pieces from wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles, eastern Africans, in many areas shorter of large timber to carve, are known for Tinga Tinga paintings and Makonde sculptures. There is also tradition of producing textile art, Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africas oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have heads with a mixture of human. An example would be Dan artistry as well as its presence in the Western African diaspora, emphasis on the human figure, The human figure has always been the primary subject matter for most African art, and this emphasis even influenced certain European traditions. Another common theme is the inter-morphosis of human and animal, visual abstraction, African artworks tend to favor visual abstraction over naturalistic representation. This is because many African artworks generalize stylistic norms, emphasis on sculpture, African artists tend to favor three-dimensional artworks over two-dimensional works. Even many African paintings or cloth works were meant to be experienced three-dimensionally, distinct from the static form of traditional Western sculpture African art displays animation, a readiness to move. For example, traditional African masks and costumes very often are used in communal, ceremonial contexts, in African thought, the three cannot be differentiated. Nonlinear scaling, Often a small part of an African design will look similar to a larger part, louis Senghor, Senegals first president, referred to this as dynamic symmetry
21.
West Africa
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West Africa, also called Western Africa and the West of Africa, is the westernmost subregion of Africa. Early human settlers from northern Holocene societies arrived in West Africa around 12,000 B. C, sedentary farming began in, or around the fifth millennium B. C, as well as the domestication of cattle. By 1500 B. C, ironworking technology allowed an expansion of productivity. Northern tribes developed walled settlements and non-walled settlements that numbered at 400, in the forest region, Iron Age cultures began to flourish, and an inter-region trade began to appear. The desertification of the Sahara and the change of the coast cause trade with upper Mediterranean peoples to be seen. Local leather, cloth, and gold also contributed to the abundance of prosperity for many of the following empires. Also, based on the archaeology of city of Kumbi Saleh in modern-day Mauritania, three great kingdoms were identified in Bilad al-Sudan by the ninth century. They included Ghana, Gao and Kanem, the Sosso Empire sought to fill the void, but was defeated by the Mandinka forces of Sundiata Keita, founder of the new Mali Empire. In the 15th century, the Songhai would form a new dominant state based on Gao, in the Songhai Empire, under the leadership of Sonni Ali, further east, Oyo arose as the dominant Yoruba state and the Aro Confederacy as a dominant Igbo state in modern-day Nigeria. The Kingdom of Nri was a West African medieval state in the present-day southeastern Nigeria, the Kingdom of Nri was unusual in the history of world government in that its leader exercised no military power over his subjects. The kingdom existed as a sphere of religious and political influence over a third of Igboland, the Eze Nri managed trade and diplomacy on behalf of the Nri people, and possessed divine authority in religious matters. The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire of what is today Western, established in the 15th century, the Oyo Empire grew to become one of the largest West African states. It rose through the organizational skills of the Yoruba, wealth gained from trade. The Benin Empire was an empire located in what is now southern Nigeria. Its capital was Edo, now known as Benin City, Edo and it should not be confused with the modern-day country called Benin, formerly called Dahomey. The Benin Empire was one of the oldest and most highly developed states in the hinterland of West Africa. Olfert Dapper, a Dutch writer, describing Benin in his book Description of Africa and its craft was the most adored and treasured bronze casting in the history of Africa. It was annexed by the British Empire in 1897 during the invasion, in the early 19th century, a series of Fulani reformist jihads swept across Western Africa
22.
Central Africa
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Central Africa is the core region of the African continent which includes Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Rwanda. All of the states in the UN subregion of Middle Africa, plus those otherwise commonly reckoned in Central Africa, since its independence in 2011, South Sudan has also been commonly included in the region. The Central African Federation, also called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, was made up of what are now the nations of Malawi, Zambia and these states are now typically considered part of Southern Africa. Archeological finds in Central Africa have been discovered dating back over 100,000 years, according to Zangato and Holl, there is evidence of iron-smelting in the Central African Republic and Cameroon that may date back to 3000 to 2500 BCE. Extensive walled settlements have recently found in Northeast Nigeria, approximately 60 km southwest of Lake Chad dating to the first millennium BCE. Trade and improved agricultural techniques supported more sophisticated societies, leading to the civilizations of Sao, Kanem, Bornu, Shilluk, Baguirmi. Around 1000 BCE, Bantu migrants had reached the Great Lakes Region in Central Africa, halfway through the first millennium BCE, the Bantu had also settled as far south as what is now Angola. The Sao civilization flourished from ca. the sixth century BCE to as late as the sixteenth century CE in northern Central Africa, the Sao lived by the Chari River south of Lake Chad in territory that later became part of Cameroon and Chad. They are the earliest people to have clear traces of their presence in the territory of modern Cameroon. Today, several groups of northern Cameroon and southern Chad. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers in bronze, copper, finds include bronze sculptures and terra cotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewelry, highly decorated pottery, and spears. The largest Sao archaeological finds have been south of Lake Chad. The Kanem-Bornu Empire was centered in the Chad Basin and it was known as the Kanem Empire from the 9th century CE onward and lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu until 1900. The history of the Empire is mainly known from the Royal Chronicle or Girgam discovered in 1851 by the German traveller Heinrich Barth, Kanem rose in the 8th century in the region to the north and east of Lake Chad. The Kanem empire went into decline, shrank, and in the 14th century was defeated by Bilala invaders from the Lake Fitri region, the Kanuri people led by the Sayfuwa migrated to the west and south of the lake, where they established the Bornu Empire. By the late 16th century the Bornu empire had expanded and recaptured the parts of Kanem that had been conquered by the Bulala, satellite states of Bornu included the Damagaram in the west and Baguirmi to the southeast of Lake Chad. The Shilluk Kingdom was centered in South Sudan from the 15th century from along a strip of land along the bank of White Nile. The capital and royal residence was in the town of Fashoda, the kingdom was founded during the mid-fifteenth century CE by its first ruler, Nyikang
23.
Benin
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Benin, officially the Republic of Benin and formerly Dahomey, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, the majority of its population lives on the small southern coastline of the Bight of Benin, part of the Gulf of Guinea in the northernmost tropical portion of the Atlantic Ocean. The capital of Benin is Porto-Novo, but the seat of government is in Cotonou, Benin covers an area of 114,763 square kilometers and its population in 2015 was estimated to be approximately 10.88 million. Benin is a nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with substantial employment. The official language of Benin is French, however, indigenous languages such as Fon and Yoruba are commonly spoken. The largest religious group in Benin is Roman Catholicism, followed closely by Islam, Vodun and this region was referred to as the Slave Coast from as early as the 17th century due to the large number of slaves shipped to the New World during the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. After slavery was abolished, France took over the country and renamed it French Dahomey, in 1960, Dahomey gained full independence from France, and had a tumultuous period with many different democratic governments, many military coups and military governments. A Marxist–Leninist state called the Peoples Republic of Benin existed between 1975 and 1990, in 1991, it was replaced by the current multi-party Republic of Benin. During the colonial period and at independence, the country was known as Dahomey, on 30 November 1975 it was renamed to Benin, after the body of water on which the country lies—the Bight of Benin—which, in turn, had been named after the Benin Empire. The country of Benin has no connection to Benin City in modern Nigeria, the form Benin is the result of a Portuguese corruption of the city of Ubinu. The new name, Benin, was chosen for its neutrality, the current country of Benin combines three areas which had different political and ethnic systems prior to French colonial control. Before 1700, there were a few important city states along the coast, the situation changed in the 1600s and early 1700s as the Kingdom of Dahomey, which was of Fon ethnicity, was founded on the Abomey plateau and began taking over areas along the coast. The Dahomey Kingdom was known for its culture and traditions, young boys were often apprenticed to older soldiers, and taught the kingdoms military customs until they were old enough to join the army. This emphasis on preparation and achievement earned Dahomey the nickname of black Sparta from European observers. The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, by about 1750, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling Africans to the European slave-traders. Court protocols, which demanded that a portion of war captives from the many battles be decapitated, decreased the number of enslaved people exported from the area. The number went from 102,000 people per decade in the 1780s to 24,000 per decade by the 1860s, the decline was partly due to the banning of the trans-Atlantic slave trade by Britain and other countries. This decline continued until 1885, when the last slave ship departed from the coast of the present-day Benin Republic bound for Brazil, a former Portuguese colony, the capitals name Porto-Novo is of Portuguese origin, meaning New Port
24.
Mali
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Mali, officially the Republic of Mali, is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of just over 1,240,000 square kilometres, the population of Mali is 14.5 million. The countrys economy centers on agriculture and fishing, some of Malis prominent natural resources include gold, being the third largest producer of gold in the African continent, and salt. About half the population lives below the poverty line of $1.25 a day. A majority of the population are Muslims, present-day Mali was once part of three West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade, the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. During its golden age, there was a flourishing of mathematics, astronomy, literature, at its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire covered an area about twice the size of modern-day France and stretched to the west coast of Africa. In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa, France seized control of Mali, French Sudan joined with Senegal in 1959, achieving independence in 1960 as the Mali Federation. Shortly thereafter, following Senegals withdrawal from the federation, the Sudanese Republic declared itself the independent Republic of Mali. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, a conflict broke out in northern Mali, in which Tuareg rebels took control of by April and declared the secession of a new state. The conflict was complicated by a coup that took place in March. In response to Islamist territorial gains, the French military launched Opération Serval in January 2013, a month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second round held on 11 August. The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire, the name was originally derived from the Mandinka or Bambara word mali, meaning “hippopotamus”, but it eventually came to mean the place where the king lives. The word carries the connotation of strength, D. Niane suggests in Sundiata, An Epic of Old Mali that it is not impossible that Mali was the name given to one of the capitals of the emperors. 14th century Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the Mali Empire was indeed called Mali and this name could have formerly been that of a city. In old Mali there is one village called Malikoma which means “New Mali. ”Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples. It is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/, Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, slaves, and other precious commodities
25.
Kingdom of Kongo
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At its greatest extent, it reached from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Kwango River in the east, and from the Congo River in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. From c.1390 to 1891 it was mostly an independent state, from 1891 to 1914 it was a vassal state of the Kingdom of Portugal. In 1914, the monarchy was forcibly abolished, following Portuguese victory against a Kongo revolt. The remaining territories of the kingdom were assimilated into the colony of Angola, the modern-day Bundu dia Kongo sect favors reviving the kingdom through secession from Angola, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Gabon. According to Kongo tradition, the origin lies in the very large. A dynasty of rulers from this small polity built up its rule along the Kwilu valley, traditions from the 17th century allude to this sacred burial ground. According to the missionary Girolamo da Montesarchio, an Italian Capuchin who visited the area from 1650 to 1652, seventeenth century subjects of Mpemba Kasi called their country Mother of the King of Kongo in respect of the territorys antiquity. At some point around 1375, Nimi a Nzima, ruler of Mpemba Kasi, made an alliance with Nsaku Lau and this alliance guaranteed that each of the two allies would help ensure the succession of their allys lineage in the others territory. The first king of the Kingdom of Kongo Dya Ntotila was Lukeni lua Nimi. The name Nimi a Lukeni appeared in later oral traditions and some historians, notably Jean Cuvelier. Lukeni lua Nimi or Nimi a Lukeni, became the founder of Kongo when he conquered the kingdom of the Mwene Kabunga and he transferred his rule to this mountain, the Mongo dia Kongo or mountain of Kongo, and made Mbanza Kongo, the town there, his capital. Two centuries later the Mwene Kabungas descendants still symbolically challenged the conquest in an annual celebration, the rulers that followed Lukeni all claimed some form of relation to his kanda, or lineage and were known as the Kilukeni. The Kilukeni kanda or house as it was recorded in Portuguese documents, after the death of Nimi a Lukeni, his brother, Mbokani Mavinga, took over the throne and ruled until approximately 1467. He had two wives and nine children and his rule saw an expansion of the Kingdom of Kongo to include the neighbouring state of Loango and other areas now encompassed by the current Republic of Congo. The Mwene Kongos often gave the governorships to members of their family or its clients, the high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo and its outskirts played a critical role in the centralization of Kongo. The capital was a settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region where rural population densities probably did not exceed 5 persons per square kilometer. Early Portuguese travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a city, the size of the Portuguese town of Évora as it was in 1491. By the end of the century, Kongos population was probably close to half a million people in a core region of some 130,000 square kilometers. By the early seventeenth century the city and its hinterland had a population of around 100,000 and this concentration allowed resources, soldiers and surplus foodstuffs to be readily available at the request of the king
26.
Visual art of the United States
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Visual art of the United States or American art is visual art made in the United States or by American artists. Early colonial art on the East Coast initially relied on artists from Europe, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, artists primarily painted portraits, and some landscapes in a style based mainly on English painting. American artists who remained at home became increasingly skilled, although there was awareness of them in Europe. The American Revolution produced a demand for art, especially history painting. A parallel development taking shape in rural America was the American craft movement, which began as a reaction to the industrial revolution. After 1850 Academic art in the European style flourished, and as richer Americans became very wealthy, the flow of European art, new and old, to the US began, museums began to be opened to display much of this. Developments in modern art in Europe came to America from exhibitions in New York City such as the Armory Show in 1913, after World War II, New York replaced Paris as the center of the art world. Since then many American movements have shaped Modern and Postmodern art, Art in the United States today covers a huge range of styles. One of the first painters to visit British America was John White, eventually the English settlements grew large enough to support professional artists, mostly portrait-painters, often largely self-taught. Among the earliest was John Smybert, a trained artist from London who emigrated in 1728 intending to be a professor of fine art and his friend Peter Pelham was a painter and printmaker. Both needed other sources of income and had shops, most of early American art consists of history painting and especially portraits. As in Colonial America, many of the painters who specialized in portraits were essentially self-taught, notable among them are Joseph Badger, John Brewster, Jr. and William Jennys. The young nations artists generally emulated the style of British art, which they knew through prints, Robert Feke, an untrained painter of the colonial period, achieved a sophisticated style based on Smiberts example. Charles Willson Peale, who gained much of his earliest art training by studying Smiberts copies of European paintings, Peales younger brother James Peale and four of Peales sons—Raphaelle Peale, Rembrandt Peale, Rubens Peale and Titian Peale—were also artists. John Singleton Copley painted emblematic portraits for the prosperous merchant class. Benjamin West painted portraits as well as paintings of the French. John Trumbull painted large battle scenes of the Revolutionary War, when landscape was painted it was most often done to show how much property a subject owned, or as a picturesque background for a portrait. Americas first well-known school of painting—the Hudson River School—appeared in 1820, Thomas Cole pioneered the movement which included Albert Bierstadt, Frederic Edwin Church, Thomas Doughty and several others
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Colonial history of the United States
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The colonial history of the United States covers the history of European settlements from the start of colonization until their incorporation into the United States. In the late 16th century, England, France, Spain, small early attempts often disappeared, such as the English Lost Colony of Roanoke. Everywhere, the rate was very high among the first arrivals. Nevertheless, successful colonies were established several decades. European settlers came from a variety of social and religious groups, few aristocrats settled permanently, but a number of adventurers, soldiers, farmers, and tradesmen arrived. They built colonies with distinctive social, religious, political, non-British colonies were taken over and most of the inhabitants were assimilated, unlike in Nova Scotia, where the British expelled the French Acadian inhabitants. There were no civil wars among the 13 colonies. The colonies developed legalized systems of slavery, based largely in the Atlantic slave trade from Africa or by way of the Caribbean, Wars were recurrent between the French and the British—the French and Indian Wars especially—and involved French support for Native American attacks on the British frontiers. By 1760, France was defeated and the British seized its colonies, on the eastern seaboard of what became the United States, the four distinct British regions were, New England, the Middle Colonies, the Chesapeake Bay Colonies, and the Lower South. Some historians add a fifth region of the Frontier which was never separately organized, see timeline of Colonial America for list of historical events. Colonizers came from European kingdoms that had highly developed military, naval, governmental and these efforts were managed respectively by the Casa de Contratación and the Casa da Índia. England, France, and the Netherlands had also started colonies in both the West Indies and North America and they had the ability to build ocean-worthy ships but did not have as strong a history of colonization in foreign lands as did Portugal and Spain. However, English entrepreneurs gave their colonies a foundation of merchant-based investment that seemed to need much less government support, initially, matters concerning the colonies were dealt with primarily by the Privy Council and its committees. The Commission of Trade was set up in 1625 as the first special body convened to advise on colonial questions, mercantilism was the basic policy imposed by Britain on its colonies from the 1660s. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses, so that gold, the government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on a superb Royal Navy which protected the British colonies, thus, the British Navy captured New Amsterdam in 1664. The colonies were captive markets for British industry, and the goal was to enrich the mother country, the prospect of religious persecution by authorities of the crown and the Church of England prompted a significant number of colonization efforts. People fleeing persecution by King Charles I were responsible for settling most of New England, anonymous Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to map the future eastern seaboard of the U. S. from New York to Florida, as documented in the Cantino planisphere of 1502
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
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Childe Hassam
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Frederick Childe Hassam was an American Impressionist painter, noted for his urban and coastal scenes. Along with Mary Cassatt and John Henry Twachtman, Hassam was instrumental in promulgating Impressionism to American collectors, dealers, and museums. He produced over 3,000 paintings, oils, watercolors, etchings, and lithographs over the course of his career, Hassam was born in his family home on Olney Street in Dorchester, Boston, in 1859. His father Frederick was a moderately successful cutlery businessman with a collection of art. He descended from a line of New Englanders. His mother, Rosa, a native of Maine, shared an ancestor with American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne and his father claimed descent from a seventeenth-century English immigrant whose name, Horsham, had been corrupted over time to Hassam. With his dark complexion and heavily lidded eyes, many took Childe Hassam to be of Middle Eastern descent - speculation which he enjoyed stoking, Hassam demonstrated an interest in art early. He had his first lessons in drawing and watercolor while attending The Mather School, as a child, Hassam excelled at boxing and swimming at Dorchester High School. A disastrous fire in November 1872 wiped out much of Bostons commercial district, Hassam left high school after two years despite his uncles offer to pay for a Harvard education. Hassam preferred to support his family by working. His father arranged a job in the department of publisher Little. During that time, Hassam studied the art of engraving and found employment with George Johnson. He quickly proved an adept draftsman and he produced designs for commercial engravings such as letterheads, around 1879, Hassam began creating his earliest oil paintings, but his preferred medium was watercolor, mostly outdoor studies. In 1882, Hassam became an illustrator, and established his first studio. He specialized in illustrating childrens stories for such as Harpers Weekly, Scribners Monthly. He continued to develop his technique while attending drawing classes at the Lowell Institute and at the Boston Art Club, by 1883, Hassam was exhibiting publicly and had his first solo exhibition, of watercolors, at the Williams and Everett Gallery in Boston. The following year, his friend Celia Thaxter convinced him to drop his first name and he also began to add a crescent symbol in front of his signature, the meaning of which remains unknown. Having had relatively little formal art training, Hassam was advised by his friend Edmund H. Garrett to take a study trip with Garrett to Europe during the summer of 1883
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Edward Hopper
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Edward Hopper was a prominent American realist painter and printmaker. While he was most popularly known for his oil paintings, he was proficient as a watercolorist. Both in his urban and rural scenes, his spare and finely calculated renderings reflected his vision of modern American life. Hopper was born in Upper Nyack, New York, a center on the Hudson River north of New York City. He was one of two children of a comfortably well-to-do family and his parents, of mostly Dutch ancestry, were Elizabeth Griffiths Smith and Garret Henry Hopper, a dry-goods merchant. Although not so successful as his forebears, Garrett provided well for his two children with help from his wifes inheritance. Edward and his only sister Marion attended both private and public schools and they were raised in a strict Baptist home. His father had a nature, and the household was dominated by women, Hoppers mother, grandmother, sister. His birthplace and boyhood home was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2000 and it serves as a nonprofit community cultural center featuring exhibitions, workshops, lectures, performances, and special events. Hopper was a student in grade school and showed talent in drawing at age five. He readily absorbed his fathers intellectual tendencies and love of French and he also demonstrated his mothers artistic heritage. Hoppers parents encouraged his art and kept him supplied with materials, instructional magazines. By his teens, he was working in pen-and-ink, charcoal, watercolor, in 1895, he created his first signed oil painting, Rowboat in Rocky Cove. It shows his early interest in nautical subjects, in his early self-portraits, Hopper tended to represent himself as skinny, ungraceful, and homely. Though a tall and quiet teenager, his sense of humor found outlet in his art. Later in life, he mostly depicted women as the figures in his paintings, in high school, he dreamed of being a naval architect, but after graduation he declared his intention to follow an art career. Hoppers parents insisted that he study commercial art to have a means of income. In developing his self-image and individualistic philosophy of life, Hopper was influenced by the writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson and he later said, I admire him greatly. I read him over and over again
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Andrew Wyeth
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Andrew Newell Wyeth was a visual artist, primarily a realist painter, working predominantly in a regionalist style. He was one of the best-known U. S. artists of the middle 20th century, in his art, Wyeths favorite subjects were the land and people around him, both in his hometown of Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, and at his summer home in Cushing, Maine. Wyeth often noted, I paint my life, one of the best-known images in 20th-century American art is his painting Christinas World, currently in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City. This tempera was painted in 1948, when Wyeth was 31 years old, Andrew was the youngest of the five children of illustrator and artist N. C. Wyeth and his wife, Carolyn Bockius Wyeth and he was born July 12,1917, on Henry David Thoreaus 100th birthday. Due to N. C. s fond appreciation of Henry David Thoreau, N. C. was an attentive father, fostering each of the childrens interests and talents. The family was close, spending time reading together, taking walks, fostering a closeness with nature, Andrew was home-tutored because of his frail health. Like his father, the young Wyeth read and appreciated the poetry of Robert Frost, music and movies also heightened his artistic sensitivity. One major influence, discussed at length by Wyeth himself, was King Vidors The Big Parade and he claimed to have seen the film, which depicted family dynamics similar to his own, a hundred-and-eighty-times and believed it had the greatest influence on his work. Wyeths father was the teacher that he had. Due to being schooled at home, he led both a life and one that was obsessively focused. Wyeth recalled of that time, Pa kept me almost in a jail, just kept me to himself in my own world, I was almost made to stay in Robin Hoods Sherwood Forest with Maid Marion and the rebels. In the 1920s, Wyeths father had become a celebrity, the home bustled with creative activity and competition. N. C. and Carolyns five children were all talented, henriette Wyeth Hurd, the eldest, became a well-known painter of portraits and still lifes. Carolyn, the child, was also a painter. Nathaniel Wyeth, the child, was a successful inventor. Ann was a musician at an age and became a composer as an adult. Wyeth started drawing at a young age and he was a draftsman before he could read
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Georgia O'Keeffe
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Georgia Totto OKeeffe was an American artist. She was best known for her paintings of enlarged flowers, New York skyscrapers, OKeeffe has been recognized as the Mother of American modernism. In 1908, unable to further education, she worked for two years as a commercial illustrator, and then spent seven years between 1911 and 1918 teaching in Virginia, Texas, and South Carolina. Alfred Stieglitz, an art dealer and photographer, held an exhibit of her works in 1916, over the next couple of years, she taught and continued her studies at the Teachers College, Columbia University. She moved to New York in 1918 at Stieglitzs request and began working seriously as an artist and they developed a professional relationship, he promoted and exhibited her works, and a personal relationship that led to their marriage in 1924. The reputation of the portrayal of sexuality was also fueled by explicit and sensuous photographs that Stieglitz had taken. After Stieglitz’s death, she lived permanently in New Mexico at Georgia OKeeffe Home and Studio in Abiquiú, in 2014, OKeeffes 1932 painting Jimson Weed sold for $44,405,000, more than three times the previous world auction record for any female artist. The Georgia OKeeffe Museum was established after her death in Santa Fe, Georgia OKeeffe was born on November 15,1887, in a farmhouse located at 2405 Hwy T in the town of Sun Prairie, Wisconsin. Her parents, Francis Calyxtus OKeeffe and Ida OKeeffe, were dairy farmers and her father was of Irish descent. Her maternal grandfather George Victor Totto, for whom OKeeffe was named, was a Hungarian count who came to the United States in 1848, OKeeffe was the second of seven children. She attended Town Hall School in Sun Prairie, by age ten she had decided to become an artist, and she and her sister received art instruction from local watercolorist Sara Mann. OKeeffe attended high school at Sacred Heart Academy in Madison, Wisconsin as a boarder between 1901 and 1902, in late 1902 the OKeeffes moved from Wisconsin to the close-knit neighborhood of Peacock Hill in Williamsburg, Virginia. OKeeffe stayed in Wisconsin with her aunt and attended Madison High School and she completed high school as a boarder at Chatham Episcopal Institute in Virginia and graduated in 1905. She was a member of the Kappa Delta sorority, when she taught and headed the art department at West Texas State Normal College, her youngest sibling, Claudia, lived with her at her mothers request to watch over her as she studied at the school. In 1917 she visited her brother, Alexis, at a camp in Texas before he shipped out for Europe during World War I. While there she created the painting, The Flag, which expressed her anxiety, OKeeffe studied and ranked at the top of her class at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago from 1905 to 1906, studying with John Vanderpoel. Due to typhoid fever, she had to take a year off from her education, in 1907, she attended the Art Students League in New York City, where she studied under William Merritt Chase, Kenyon Cox and F. In 1908, she won the Leagues William Merritt Chase still-life prize for her oil painting Dead Rabbit with Copper Pot and her prize was a scholarship to attend the Leagues outdoor summer school in Lake George, New York
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Lamar Hunt
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Lamar Hunt was an American sportsman and promoter of American football, soccer, basketball, tennis and ice hockey in the United States. He was the founder of the American Football League and Major League Soccer, as well as MLSs predecessor, the North American Soccer League. He was also the founder and owner of the Kansas City Chiefs of the National Football League, the Kansas City Wizards of MLS, in Kansas City, Hunt also helped establish the Worlds of Fun and Oceans of Fun theme parks. The oldest ongoing soccer tournament in the United States, the U. S. Open Cup. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1972, into the National Soccer Hall of Fame in 1982, the National Soccer Hall of Fame bestowed upon Hunt their Medal of Honor in 1999, an award given to only three recipients in history thus far. He was married for 42 years to his second wife Norma, and had four children, Sharron, Lamar Jr. Daniel, and Clark Hunt. Hunt was born in El Dorado, Arkansas, the son of oil tycoon H. L. Hunt and younger brother of tycoons Nelson Bunker Hunt, Lamar was raised in Dallas, Texas. He attended Culver Military Academy and graduated from The Hill School in Pennsylvania in 1951 and Southern Methodist University in Dallas in 1956, Hunt was a college football player who rode the bench but was still an avid sports enthusiast during his time in college and throughout his entire childhood. While attending SMU in 1952, Hunt joined the Kappa Sigma fraternity, in 1972 he was selected as Kappa Sigmas Man of the Year. On the strength of his great inherited oil wealth, Hunt applied for a National Football League expansion franchise but was turned down, Hunt also attempted to purchase the NFLs Chicago Cardinals franchise in 1959 with the intent to move them to Dallas, but was again turned down. The group of the eight founders of the AFL teams was referred to as the Foolish Club, Hunts goal was to bring professional football to Texas and to acquire an NFL team for the Hunt family. Hunt became owner of the Dallas Texans and hired future hall-of-famer Hank Stram as the teams first head coach. As a response to the newly formed league and the presence of an AFL franchise in Dallas, the NFL quickly placed a new franchise of their own in Dallas, in 1963 Hunt began to consider moving the team. Kansas City became one of the cities for the franchise. In order to convince Hunt to move the team to Kansas City, Hunt finally agreed to move the team to Kansas City and in 1963 the Dallas Texans became the Kansas City Chiefs. In 1966, the NFL and AFL agreed to merge, with a game between the two leagues to be played after that season. In a July 25,1966, letter to NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, Hunt wrote, I have kiddingly called it the Super Bowl, Hunt would later say the name was likely in his head because his children had been playing with a Super Ball toy. In the Chiefs first two seasons attendance did not match the levels Mayor Bartle had promised, but in 1966 average home attendance at Chiefs games increased and reached 37,000, by 1969 Chiefs average home attendance had reached 51,000
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Robert Jenkins Onderdonk
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Robert Jenkins Onderdonk was an American painter and art teacher, born in Catonsville, Maryland. Robert came from a distinguished and cultured Dutch family and his great uncles were bishops of the Episcopal Church. Robert Jenkins Onderdonk studied art at the National Academy of Design, among his teachers were William Merritt Chase and James Carroll Beckwith. R. J. Onderdonk went to Texas in 1878 William Robert Negley, Robert married Emily Gould in 1881 and they had three children. He hoped to execute portraits for rich Texas citizens and make money to travel to Europe. He eventually stayed in Texas for thirty-eight years, where he painted, in San Antonio, he founded an art association for women painters, the Van Dyck club, which later became the San Antonio Arts League, his daughter Eleanor was an important member and organizer. In 1893 in Dallas, he co-founded the Art Students League of Dallas, pupils of which displayed their paintings each year at the State Fair of Texas, in Dallas. Onderdonks masterpiece, the 1903 painting Fall of the Alamo, was displayed at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, and is now held in the Texas State Archives. According to Fisks A History of Texas Artists, he would have been ranked one of Americas finest artists if he had spent more time painting rather than teaching. Two of R. J. Onderdonks three children made their mark in Texas art, Eleanor was a respected miniaturist. Julian attended the West Texas Military Academy founded in 1893 and, like his father Robert, diana Church, Guide to Dallas Artists, 1890-1917 Esse Forrester-OBrien, Art and Artists of Texas Cecilia Steinfieldt, The Onderdonks
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Julian Onderdonk
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Julian Onderdonk was a Texan Impressionist painter, often called the father of Texas painting. Julian Onderdonk was born in San Antonio, Texas, to Robert Jenkins Onderdonk, a painter and he was raised in South Texas and was an enthusiastic sketcher and painter. As a teenager Onderdonk was influenced and received training from the prominent Texas artist Verner Moore White who also lived in San Antonio at the time. He attended the West Texas Military Academy, graduating in 1900, at 19, with the help of a generous neighbor, Julian left Texas in order to study with the renowned American Impressionist William Merritt Chase. Julians father, Robert, had once studied with Chase. Julian spent the summer of 1901 on Long Island at Chases Shinnecock School of Art and he studied with Chase for a couple of years and then moved to New York City to attempt to make a living as an en plein air artist. While in New York he met and married Gertrude Shipman and they soon had a son, Onderdonk returned to San Antonio in 1909, where he produced his best work. His most popular subjects were bluebonnet landscapes, Onderdonk died on October 27,1922 in San Antonio. President George W. Bush decorated the Oval Office with three of Onderdonks paintings, the Dallas Museum of Art has several rooms dedicated exclusively to Onderdonks work. His art studio currently resides on the grounds of the Witte Museum, Texas Bluebonnet Painters Web Site AskArt auction results for Julian Onderdonk The works of Julian Onderdonk from the perspective of a Texas dealer-Fine Arts of Texas, Inc
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Art of ancient Egypt
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Ancient Egyptian art is the painting, sculpture, architecture and other arts produced by the civilization of ancient Egypt in the lower Nile Valley from about 3000 BC to 30 AD. Ancient Egyptian art reached a level in painting and sculpture. It was famously conservative, and Egyptian styles changed remarkably little over more than three thousand years, much of the surviving art comes from tombs and monuments and thus there is an emphasis on life after death and the preservation of knowledge of the past. Ancient Egyptian art included paintings, sculpture in wood, stone and ceramics, drawings on papyrus, faience, jewelry, ivories and it displays an extraordinarily vivid representation of the ancient Egyptians socioeconomic status and belief systems. This appears as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I, other conventions make statues of males darker than females ones. Egyptian art uses hierarchical proportion, where the size of figures indicates their relative importance, symbolism can be observed throughout Egyptian art and played an important role in establishing a sense of order. The pharaohs regalia, for example, represented his power to maintain order, animals were also highly symbolic figures in Egyptian art. Not all Egyptian reliefs were painted, and less prestigious works in tombs, Stone surfaces were prepared by whitewash, or if rough, a layer of coarse mud plaster, with a smoother gesso layer above, some finer limestones could take paint directly. Pigments were mostly mineral, chosen to withstand sunlight without fading. The binding medium used in painting remains unclear, egg tempera and various gums and it is clear that true fresco, painted into a thin layer of wet plaster, was not used. Instead the paint was applied to dried plaster, in what is called fresco a secco in Italian, small objects including wooden statuettes were often painted using similar techniques. Many ancient Egyptian paintings have survived in tombs, and sometimes temples, the paintings were often made with the intent of making a pleasant afterlife for the deceased. The themes included journey through the afterworld or protective deities introducing the deceased to the gods of the underworld, some tomb paintings show activities that the deceased were involved in when they were alive and wished to carry on doing for eternity. In the New Kingdom and later, the Book of the Dead was buried with the entombed person and it was considered important for an introduction to the afterlife. Egyptian paintings are painted in such a way to show a profile view, for example, the painting to the right shows the head from a profile view and the body from a frontal view. Their main colors were red, blue, green, gold, black, the monumental sculpture of ancient Egypts temples and tombs is world-famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very bright sunlight. The distinctive pose of standing statues facing forward with one foot in front of the other was helpful for the balance and it was adopted very early and remained unchanged until the arrival of the Greeks
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Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
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History of Asian art
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The history of Asian art, or Eastern art, includes a vast range of influences from various cultures and religions. Developments in Asian art historically parallel those in Western art, in general a few centuries earlier, Chinese art, Indian art, Korean art, Japanese art, each had significant influence on Western art, and, vice versa. Near Eastern art also had a significant influence on Western art, excluding prehistoric art, the art of Mesopotamia represents the oldest forms of Asian art. Balinese art is art of Hindu-Javanese origin that grew from the work of artisans of the Majapahit Kingdom, from the 16th until the 20th centuries, the village of Kamasan, Klungkung, was the centre of classical Balinese art. During the first part of the 20th century, new varieties of Balinese art developed, since the late twentieth century, Ubud and its neighboring villages established a reputation as the center of Balinese art. Ubud and Batuan are known for their paintings, Mas for their woodcarvings, Celuk for gold and silver smiths, eiseman correctly pointed out that Balinese art is actually carved, painted, woven, and prepared into objects intended for everyday use rather than as object d art. This groundbreaking period of creativity reached a peak in the late 1930s, a stream of famous visitors, including Charlie Chaplin and the anthropologists Gregory Bateson and Margaret Mead, encouraged the talented locals to create highly original works. During their stay in Bali in the mid-1930s, Bateson and Mead collected over 2000 paintings, predominantly from the village of Batuan, among western artists, Spies and Bonnet are often credited for the modernization of traditional Balinese paintings. From the 1950s onwards Baliese artists incorporated aspects of perspective and anatomy from these artists, more importantly, they acted as agents of change by encouraging experimentation, and promoted departures from tradition. The result was an explosion of expression that increased the rate of change in Balinese art. Buddhist art traveled with believers as the spread, adapted. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, bhutanese art is similar to the art of Tibet. Both are based upon Vajrayana Buddhism, with its pantheon of divine beings, the major orders of Buddhism in Bhutan are Drukpa Kagyu and Nyingma. The former is a branch of the Kagyu School and is known for documenting the lineage of Buddhist masters. The Nyingma order is known for images of Padmasambhava, who is credited with introducing Buddhism into Bhutan in the 7th century, according to legend, Padmasambhava hid sacred treasures for future Buddhist masters, especially Pema Lingpa, to find. The treasure finders are also frequent subjects of Nyingma art, each divine being is assigned special shapes, colors, and/or identifying objects, such as lotus, conch-shell, thunderbolt, and begging bowl. All sacred images are made to specifications that have remained remarkably unchanged for centuries. Wall paintings and sculptures, in regions, are formulated on the principal ageless ideals of Buddhist art forms
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Buddhist art
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Buddhist art is the artistic practices that are influenced by Buddhism. Buddhist art followed believers as the spread, adapted. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art, in India, Buddhist art flourished and co-developed with Hindu and Jain art, with cave temple complexes built together, each likely influencing the other. During the 2nd to 1st century BCE, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha’s life and these took the form of votive tablets or friezes, usually in relation to the decoration of stupas. Although India had a sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form. This period may have been aniconic, artists were reluctant to depict the Buddha anthropomorphically, and developed sophisticated aniconic symbols to avoid doing so. This tendency remained as late as the 2nd century CE in the parts of India. It has been argued that earlier anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha may have made of wood. However, no related archaeological evidence has been found, the earliest works of Buddhist art in India date back to the 1st century B. C. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya became a model for similar structures in Burma, the frescoes at Sigiriya are said to be even older than the Ajanta Caves paintings. Anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha started to emerge from the 1st century CE in Northern India, the two main centers of creation have been identified as Gandhara in today’s North West Frontier Province, in Pakistan, and the region of Mathura, in central northern India. Gandharan Buddhist sculpture displays Greek artistic influence, and it has suggested that the concept of the man-god was essentially inspired by Greek mythological culture. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, the Mathuran school contributed clothes covering the left shoulder of thin muslin, the wheel on the palm, the lotus seat, etc. Mathura and Gandhara also strongly influenced each other, during their artistic florescence, the two regions were even united politically under the Kushans, both being capitals of the empire. This expression of the Buddha as both man and God became the canon for subsequent Buddhist art. It is interesting to note that the Buddha is an extensively used subject in plastic arts such as sculpture, paintings and literature, Buddhist art continued to develop in India for a few more centuries. The pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period to reach a high fineness of execution. The art of the Gupta school was extremely influential almost everywhere in the rest of Asia, at the end of the 12th century A. D. Buddhism in its full glory came to be preserved only in the Himalayan regions in India
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