1.
President pro tempore of the United States Senate
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The president pro tempore of the United States Senate, also president pro tem, is the second-highest-ranking official of the United States Senate. Unlike the vice president, the president pro tempore is a member of the Senate. Selected by the Senate at large, the president pro tempore has enjoyed many privileges, during the vice presidents absence, the president pro tempore is empowered to preside over Senate sessions. Since 1890, the most senior senator in the majority party has generally chosen to be president pro tempore. This tradition has been observed without interruption since 1949, the current President pro tempore of the Senate is Utah Republican Orrin Hatch. Elected on January 6,2015, he is the 90th person to serve in this office, although the position is in some ways analogous to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the powers of the president pro tempore are far more limited. The president pro tempore is third in the line of succession, following the vice president. Additional duties include appointment of various officers, certain commissions, advisory boards. The officeholder is an ex member of various boards and commissions. With the secretary and sergeant at arms, the president pro tempore maintains order in Senate portions of the Capitol, the office of president pro tempore was established by the Constitution of the United States in 1789. The first president pro tempore, John Langdon, was elected on April 6 the same year, originally, the president pro tempore was appointed on an intermittent basis when the vice president was not present to preside over the Senate. Until the 1960s, it was practice for the vice president to preside over daily Senate sessions. Until 1891, the president pro tempore only served until the return of the president to the chair or the adjournment of a session of Congress. Between 1792 and 1886, the president pro tempore was second in the line of succession following the vice president. When President Andrew Johnson, who had no president, was impeached and tried in 1868. Wades radicalism is thought by historians to be a major reason why the Senate. The President pro tempore and the Speaker of the House were removed from the line of succession in 1886. Both were restored to it in 1947, though this time with the president pro tempore following the speaker, William P. Frye served as President pro tempore from 1896 to 1911 (54th–62nd Congress, a tenure longer than anyone else
2.
Robert Byrd
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Robert Carlyle Bob Byrd was a United States Senator from West Virginia. A member of the Democratic Party, Byrd served as a U. S, Representative from 1953 until 1959 and as a U. S. He was the longest-serving Senator in United States history, in addition, he was, at the time of his death, the longest-serving member in the history of the United States Congress, a record later surpassed by Representative John Dingell of Michigan. Byrd was the last remaining member of the U. S. Senate to have served during the presidency of Dwight Eisenhower, Byrd is also the only West Virginian to have served in both houses of the state legislature and both houses of Congress. Byrd served in the West Virginia House of Delegates from 1947 to 1950, initially elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1952, Byrd served there for six years before being elected to the Senate in 1958. As President pro tempore—a position he held four times in his career—he was third in the line of succession, after the Vice President. Serving three different tenures as Chairman of the United States Senate Committee on Appropriations enabled Byrd to steer a great deal of money toward projects in West Virginia. Critics derided his efforts as pork barrel spending, while Byrd argued that the federal projects he worked to bring to West Virginia represented progress for the people of his state. He filibustered against the 1964 Civil Rights Act and supported the Vietnam War, but later renounced racism and segregation, renowned for his knowledge of Senate precedent and parliamentary procedure, Byrd wrote a four-volume history of the Senate in later life. Near the end of his life, Byrd was in declining health and was hospitalized several times and he died on June 28,2010, and was buried at Columbia Gardens Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia. Robert Byrd was born on November 20,1917 as Cornelius Calvin Sale, Jr. in North Wilkesboro, North Carolina, to Cornelius Calvin Sale Sr. when he was ten months old, his mother died in the 1918 flu pandemic. In accordance with his mothers wishes, his father dispersed their children among relatives, Calvin Jr. was adopted by his aunt and uncle, Titus and Vlurma Byrd, who changed his name to Robert Carlyle Byrd and raised him in the coal-mining region of southern West Virginia. Byrd was valedictorian of his 1934 graduating class at Mark Twain High School in Tams, on May 29,1936, Byrd married Erma Ora James who was born to a coal mining family in Floyd County, Virginia. Her family moved to Raleigh County, West Virginia, where she met Byrd when they attended the high school. In the early 1940s, Byrd recruited 150 of his friends and associates to create a new chapter of the Ku Klux Klan in Sophia, according to Byrd, a Klan official told him, You have a talent for leadership, Bob. The country needs young men like you in the leadership of the nation, Byrd later recalled, Suddenly lights flashed in my mind. Someone important had recognized my abilities, I was only 23 or 24 years old, and the thought of a political career had never really hit me. But strike me that night, it did, Byrd became a recruiter and leader of his chapter
3.
Patrick Leahy
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Patrick Joseph Pat Leahy /ˈleɪˌhiː/ is an American politician and the senior United States Senator from Vermont. He has been in office since 1975, a member of the Democratic Party, Leahy served as the President pro tempore of the United States Senate from December 17,2012, to January 6,2015. As President pro tempore, he was third in the line of succession. He is the most senior senator and took office at a younger age than any other current senator, Leahy received the title of President pro tempore emeritus upon the commencement of the 114th Congress. He is the last remaining member of the Senate to have served during the presidency of Gerald Ford, Leahy is currently the longest-serving Democratic Senator as well as the longest-serving U. S. Senator in the history of Vermont, and the current dean of his states congressional delegation, having been there since 1975, he is also the longest serving incumbent Senator following the death of Hawaiis Daniel Inouye, who had served from 1962 until his death in 2012. He is the chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee. The Senate Judiciary Committee worked extensively on prison reform with the introduction on a number of bills aimed at reforming the overcrowded prisons, the bills include, the Justice Safety Valve Act of 2013, The Smarter Sentencing Act of 2013, and the Public Safety Enhancement Act. Leahy was born in Montpelier, Vermont, the son of Alba and Howard Francis Leahy and his maternal grandparents were Italian, and his father was of Irish ancestry, some of his ancestors came to Vermont during the 19th century to work at quarries. He graduated from Saint Michaels College in 1961 with a bachelor of degree in political science. He was an associate at the firm headed by Philip H. Hoff, in May 1966 Hoff appointed him to fill a vacancy as States Attorney of Chittenden County. Leahy was elected to a term in 1966 and re-elected in 1970. Leahy married Marcelle Pomerleau in 1962, she is bilingual with French Canadian heritage from Quebec immigrants to Vermont and they reside in a farmhouse in Middlesex, Vermont, that they moved to from Burlington, and have three children. In 2012 the Leahys celebrated their anniversary, with Leahy saying ‘‘We hate it when we’re apart from one another. ’’ Leahy is legally blind in his left eye. He won a race against Vermonts lone congressman, Richard Mallary. At 34 years old, he was the youngest Senator in Vermont history, as of 2015, Leahy and Minnesota Congressman Rick Nolan are the only two remaining Watergate Babies in Congress, though Nolans service ended in 1981 and started again in 2013. Leahy was nearly defeated in 1980 by Republican Stewart Ledbetter, winning by only 2,700 votes amid Ronald Reagans landslide victory. In 1986, he faced what was on paper an even stronger challenger in former governor Richard Snelling, in 1992, Vermont Secretary of State Jim Douglas held him to 54 percent of the vote
4.
United States Senate Committee on Appropriations
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The United States Senate Committee on Appropriations is a standing committee of the United States Senate. It has jurisdiction over all discretionary spending legislation in the Senate, the Senate Appropriations Committee is the largest committee in the U. S. Senate, with 30 members in the 114th Congress. The committee was first organized on March 6,1867, when power over appropriations was taken out of the hands of the Finance Committee. The chairman of the Appropriations Committee has enormous power to bring home special projects for his or her state as well as having the final say on other senators appropriation requests. For example, in fiscal year 2005 per capita spending in Alaska. Alaska has 11,772 special earmarked projects for a combined cost of $15,780,623,000 and this represents about four percent of the overall spending in the $388 billion Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2005 passed by Congress. The federal budget is divided into two categories, discretionary spending and mandatory spending. The committee also reviews supplemental spending bills, each appropriations bill must be passed by both houses of Congress and signed by the president prior to the start of the federal fiscal year, October 1. These functions were handled by two separate Senate subcommittees. Archived from the original on October 13,2005, ^ Creation of the Senate Committee on Appropriations. Archived from the original on September 27,2005, call it Pork or Necessity, but Alaska Comes Out Far Above the Rest in Spending. ^ Senate, House Appropriations Set Subcommittee Plans for New Congress, archived from the original on January 31,2007. ^ Senate Appropriations Subcommittee Rosters Set, archived from the original on September 29,2007. Appropriations in Riddicks Senate Procedure, 150–213, the Cardinals of Capitol Hill, The Men and Women Who Control Government Spending. United States Senate Committee on Appropriations, United States Senate, 1867–2008, the Congressional Appropriations Process, An Introduction
5.
Barbara Mikulski
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Barbara Ann Mikulski is an American politician who served as a United States Senator from Maryland from 1987 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, she served in the United States House of Representatives from 1977 to 1987. She is the woman in the history of the United States Congress and is the longest-serving senator in Maryland history. Raised in the Highlandtown neighborhood of East Baltimore, Mikulski attended Mount Saint Agnes College, originally a social worker and community organizer, she was elected to the Baltimore City Council in 1971 after delivering a highly publicized address on the ethnic movement in America. She was elected to the federal House of Representatives in 1976, from the death of Senator Daniel Inouye in December 2012 until 2015, Mikulski chaired the Senate Appropriations Committee, the first woman and first Marylander to hold the position. At her retirement, she was the ranking minority member and she also served on the Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee and the Select Committee on Intelligence. After five terms in the Senate, on March 2,2015, Mikulski was born and raised in the Highlandtown neighborhood of East Baltimore, the eldest of the three daughters of Christine Eleanor and William Mikulski. Her parents were both of Polish descent, her immigrant great-grandparents had owned a bakery in Baltimore, during her high school years at the Institute of Notre Dame, she worked in her parents grocery store, delivering groceries to elderly neighbors who were unable to leave their homes. She worked as a worker for Catholic charities and Baltimores Department of Social Services, helping at-risk children. Mikulski became an activist social worker when she heard about plans to build Interstate 70 through Baltimores Fells Point and she helped organize communities on both sides of the city and successfully fought to stop the construction of the road. Mikulski first received attention in 1970, because of her remarks at a conference at The Catholic University of America regarding “Ethnic Americans”. Her message became one of the documents of the “ethnic movement”. Mikulskis activism led to a seat on the Baltimore City Council in 1971 and she was instrumental in solidifying democratizing reforms to the national delegate selection process. She then ran for the U. S. Senate in 1974, although well-known to residents in her city, Mikulski had limited name recognition in the rest of the state. As an advocate for campaign finance reform, Mathias refused to accept any contribution over $100 to avoid the curse of big money that has led to so much trouble in the last year. However, he managed to raise over $250,000. Ideologically, Mikulski and Mathias agreed on issues, such as closing tax loopholes. On two issues, however, Mathias argued to reform Congress and the U. S. tax system to address inflation and corporate price fixing, contrary to Mikulski
6.
Ted Stevens
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Theodore Fulton Ted Stevens Sr. was a United States Senator from Alaska, whose tenure extended from December 24,1968, until January 3,2009. He was thus the longest serving Republican senator in history at the time he left office, his record was surpassed in January 2017 by Orrin Hatch of Utah. He was President pro tempore in the 108th and 109th Congresses from January 3,2003, to January 3,2007, Stevens served for six decades in the American public sector, beginning with his service in World War II. In 1952, his law career took him to Fairbanks, Alaska, in 1956, he returned to Washington D. C. to work in the Eisenhower Interior Department, where he played an important role in bringing about statehood for Alaska. He was elected to the Alaska House of Representatives in 1964, in 1968, Stevens ran unsuccessfully for the Republican nomination for U. S. Senate, but was appointed to Alaskas other Senate seat when it became vacant later that year. He was also known for his sponsorship of the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, in 2008, Stevens was embroiled in a federal corruption trial as he ran for re-election to the Senate. He was found guilty, and eight days later was defeated at the polls. Stevens is the most senior U. S, Senator to have ever lost a reelection bid. However, prior to sentencing, the indictment was dismissed—effectively vacating the conviction—when a Justice Department probe found evidence of prosecutorial misconduct. Many have argued the prosecution was unfair and politically motivated, Stevens died on August 9,2010, when a de Havilland Canada DHC-3 Otter he and several others were flying in crashed en route to a private fishing lodge. The family later lived in Chicago, where George Stevens was an accountant before losing his job during the Great Depression, the only adult in the household with a job was Stevenss grandfather. Stevens helped to support the family by working as a newsboy, and would later remember selling many newspapers on March 1,1932, in 1934 Stevenss grandfather punctured a lung in a fall down a tall flight of stairs, contracted pneumonia, and died. Stevenss father, George, died in 1957 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, Stevens and his cousin Patricia moved to Manhattan Beach, California, to live with Patricias mother, Gladys Swindells. After graduating from school in 1942, Stevens enrolled at Oregon State University to study engineering, attending for a semester. With World War II in progress, Stevens attempted to join the Navy and serve in Naval Aviation and he corrected his vision through a course of prescribed eye exercises, and in 1943 he was accepted into an Army Air Force Air Cadet program at Montana State College. After scoring near the top of an aptitude test for training, Stevens was transferred to preflight training in Santa Ana, California. Stevens served in the China-Burma-India theater with the Fourteenth Air Force Transport Section and he and other pilots in the transport section flew C-46 and C-47 transport planes, often without escort, mostly in support of Chinese units fighting the Japanese. Stevens received the Distinguished Flying Cross for flying behind enemy lines, the Air Medal, and he was discharged from the Army Air Forces in March 1946
7.
Jay Rockefeller
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John Davison Jay Rockefeller IV served as a United States Senator from West Virginia from 1985 to 2015. He was first elected to the Senate in 1984, while in office as Governor of West Virginia, a position he held from 1977 to 1985. Rockefeller moved to Emmons, West Virginia to serve as a VISTA worker in 1964, Rockefeller was later elected West Virginia Secretary of State in 1968 and was president of West Virginia Wesleyan College from 1973 to 1975. He became the senior senator when the long serving Sen. Robert Byrd died in June 2010. As a great-grandson of oil tycoon John D. Rockefeller did not seek reelection in 2014, Jay graduated from Phillips Exeter Academy in 1955. After his junior year at Harvard College, he spent three years studying Japanese at the International Christian University in Tokyo and he graduated from Harvard in 1961 with an A. B. in Far Eastern Languages and History. He attended Yale University and did work in Oriental studies and studied the Chinese language. He served as the Operations Director for the Corps largest overseas program and he worked for a brief time in the United States Department of Far Eastern Affairs. He continued his service in 1964–1965 in the Volunteers in Service to America. Johnson, during which time he moved to Emmons, West Virginia, Rockefeller, along with his son Charles, is a Trustee of New Yorks Asia Society, which was established by his father in 1956. He is also a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, as a Senator, he voted against the 1993 North American Free Trade Agreement, which was heavily backed by David Rockefeller. She is a daughter of Senator Charles Harting Percy and Jeanne Valerie Dickerson. Before John VIs birth, they had two daughters, Laura Chandler Rockefeller and Sophia Percy Rockefeller, the Rockefellers reside in Northwest Washington, D. C. and maintain permanent residence in Charleston, West Virginia. They have a ranch in the Grand Teton National Park in Jackson Hole, President Bill Clinton, a friend of Rockefellers, and the Clinton family vacationed at the ranch in August 1995. John Davison Rockefeller, Jr. and Abbys youngest son was banker David Rockefeller, Davids brother Winthrop Aldrich Rockefeller served as Governor of Arkansas from 1967 to 1971. Winthrop and Davids brother Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller served as Governor of New York from 1959 to 1973, Jay is also a first cousin of Arkansas Lt. He was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates in 1966, Rockefeller was elected Governor of West Virginia in 1976 and re-elected in 1980. He served as governor when manufacturing plants and coal mines were closing as the recession of the early 1980s hit West Virginia particularly hard
8.
Ben Nighthorse Campbell
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Ben Nighthorse Campbell is an American politician. Senator from Colorado from 1993 until 2005, representative from 1987 to 1993, when he was sworn into office as a Senator following his election on November 3,1992. Campbell also serves as one of members of the Council of Chiefs of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Tribe. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, Campbell switched to the Republican Party on March 3,1995, reelected in 1998, Campbell announced in March 2004 that he would not run for reelection to a third term in November of that year. He expressed interest in running for Governor of Colorado in 2006, however, on January 4,2006, he announced that he would not enter the race. His Senate seat was won by Democrat Ken Salazar in the November 2004 election and he later became a lobbyist for the law and lobbying firm Holland & Knight, and afterward co-founded his own lobbying firm, Ben Nighthorse Consultants. Campbell was born Benny Campbell in Auburn, California, when Mary Vierra contracted tuberculosis in her youth, she was forced to convalesce at a nearby hospital, often for months at a time during treatment. It was there that she met an American Indian patient Albert Campbell, the couple married in 1929, and Campbell was born in 1933. During Campbells childhood, his continued to have problems with alcoholism, often leaving the family for weeks. These problems led to Ben and his older sister Alberta spending much of their lives in nearby Catholic orphanages. As a young man, Campbell was introduced to the Japanese martial art of judo by Japanese immigrant families he met working in local agricultural fields. Campbell attended Placer High School, dropping out in 1951 to join the U. S. Air Force. He was stationed in Korea during the Korean War as an air policeman, he left the Air Force in 1953 with the rank of Airman Second Class, as well as the Korean Service Medal and the Air Medal. While in the Air Force, Campbell obtained his GED and, following his discharge, bill to attend San Jose State University, where he graduated in 1957 with a Bachelor of Arts in Physical Education and Fine Arts. While in college, Campbell was a member of the San Jose State judo team, while training for the Olympic Games, Campbell attended Meiji University in Tokyo, Japan as a special research student from 1960-1964. In 1964, Campbell competed in judo at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and he suffered an injury and did not win a medal. He and his wife also raised quarterhorses, including a Supreme Champion and AQHA Champion and they bought a ranch near Ignacio, Colorado on the Southern Ute reservation in 1978. In the book Ben Nighthorse Campbell, An American Warrior, by Herman Viola, Campbell tells of learning to make jewelry from his father, Campbell has works on display with the Art of the Olympians organization
9.
Mark Andrews (politician)
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Mark Andrews is an American politician from the state of North Dakota. He is a member of the United States Republican Party, Andrews was born in Cass County, North Dakota, where he attended public school. In 1944 at the age of 18, Andrews was admitted to the United States Military Academy and he quit in 1946 after receiving a disability discharge. He then attended North Dakota State University at Fargo, North Dakota, where he became a member of the Gamma Tau Chapter of the Sigma Chi Fraternity, during the 1950s he began to enter politics, serving on farmers organizations and Republican committees. In 1962, Andrews ran for Governor of North Dakota, losing to incumbent William L. Guy by just 2,000 votes out of over 228,500 cast. He was reelected to a term in 1964 and served in the House until 1981. In 1980 Andrews decided not to run for re-election to the House, Andrews won the election with 70% of the vote and served in the Senate for one term, from 1981 to 1987. He was chairman of the committee on Indian affairs from 1983 to 1987. He had a voting record for most of his career. Andrews was defeated for re-election in 1986 by Democratic-NPL Tax Commissioner Kent Conrad by a mere 2,120 votes in what is considered an upset. He started a firm in Washington, D. C. but currently lives in Mapleton. Grand Forks International Airport in Grand Forks, North Dakota has sometimes been called Mark Andrews International Airport after him, but usage of the name has dropped out of popularity. He was the last Republican to serve in Congress from North Dakota from the end of his term in 1987 until the election of Rick Berg to the House and John Hoeven to the Senate in 2010. North Dakota United States Senate election,1980 North Dakota United States Senate election,1986 Richard F. Fenno, when Incumbency fails, the Senate Career of Mark Andrews, Congressional Quarterly Press,1992. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
10.
John McCain
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John Sidney McCain III is an American politician who currently serves as the senior United States Senator from Arizona. He was the Republican nominee for the 2008 U. S. presidential election, McCain followed his father and grandfather, both four-star admirals, into the United States Navy, graduating from the U. S. Naval Academy in 1958. He became an aviator, flying ground-attack aircraft from aircraft carriers. During the Vietnam War, he was almost killed in the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, in October 1967, while on a bombing mission over Hanoi, he was shot down, seriously injured, and captured by the North Vietnamese. He was a prisoner of war until 1973, McCain experienced episodes of torture, and refused an out-of-sequence early repatriation offer. His war wounds have left him with physical limitations. He retired from the Navy as a captain in 1981 and moved to Arizona, elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1982, McCain served two terms. He was first elected to the U. S. Senate in 1986, winning re-election easily five times, while generally adhering to conservative principles, McCain at times has had a media reputation as a maverick for his willingness to disagree with his party on certain issues. He is also known for his work in the 1990s to restore relations with Vietnam. McCain ran for the Republican nomination in 2000 but lost a primary season contest to George W. Bush of Texas. He subsequently adopted more orthodox conservative stances and attitudes and largely opposed actions of the Obama administration, by 2013, however, he had become a key figure in the Senate for negotiating deals on certain issues in an otherwise partisan environment. In 2015, McCain became chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, John McCain was born on August 29,1936, at Coco Solo Naval Air Station in the Panama Canal Zone, to naval officer John S. McCain Jr. and Roberta McCain. He has a brother named Joe and an elder sister named Sandy. At that time, the Panama Canal was under U. S. control, McCains family tree includes Scots-Irish and English ancestors. Both his father and his grandfather, John S. McCain Sr. became four-star United States Navy admirals. The McCain family followed his father to various postings in the United States. Altogether, he attended about 20 schools, in 1951, the family settled in Northern Virginia, and McCain attended Episcopal High School, a private preparatory boarding school in Alexandria. He excelled at wrestling and graduated in 1954, following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather, McCain entered the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis
11.
Mike Mansfield
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Michael Joseph Mike Mansfield was an American politician and diplomat. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a U. S and he was the longest-serving Senate Majority Leader, serving from 1961 to 1977. During his tenure, he shepherded Great Society programs through the Senate, after retiring from the Senate, Mansfield served as U. S. Mansfield is the longest-serving American ambassador to Japan in history. After his ambassadorship, Mansfield served for a time as an adviser on East Asian affairs to Goldman Sachs. Mansfield was born in the Brooklyn borough of New York City, the son of Patrick J. Mansfield and Josephine Mansfield, who were both Irish Catholic immigrants. His mother died from pneumonia in 1906, and his father subsequently sent Michael and he attended local public schools, and worked in his relatives grocery store. He turned into a runaway, even living at a state orphanage in Twin Bridges for half a year. At 14, Mansfield dropped out of school and lied about his age in order to enlist in the U. S. Navy during World War I. He went on several overseas convoys on the USS Minneapolis, but was discharged by the Navy after his age was discovered. After his Navy discharge, he enlisted in the U. S. Army, Mansfield was a Private First Class in the U. S. Marine Corps from 1920 to 1922. He served in the Western Recruiting Division at San Francisco until January 1921, the following month, he was detached to the Guard Company, Marine Barracks, Navy Yard, Mare Island, California. In April, he boarded the USAT Sherman, bound for the Philippines, after a brief stopover at the Marine Barracks at Cavite, he arrived at his duty station on May 5,1921, the Marine Barracks, Naval Station, Olongapo, Philippine Islands. One year later, Mansfield was assigned to Company A, Marine Battery, a short tour of duty with the Asiatic Fleet took him along the coast of China, before he returned to Olongapo in late May 1922. His service with the Marines established a lifelong interest in Asia and that August, Mansfield returned to Cavite in preparation for his return to the United States and eventual discharge. On November 9,1922, Marine Private Michael J. Mansfield was released on the completion of his enlistment and he was awarded the Good Conduct Medal, his character being described as “excellent” during his two years as a Marine. Following his return to Montana in 1922, Mansfield worked as a mucker, shoveling ore and other waste, having never attended high school, he took entrance examinations to attend the Montana School of Mines, studying to become a mining engineer. He later met a schoolteacher and his future wife, Maureen Hayes. With her financial support, Mansfield studied at the University of Montana in Missoula and he was also a member of Alpha Tau Omega fraternity
12.
Frank Moss (politician)
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Frank Edward Ted Moss was an American lawyer and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a United States Senator from Utah from 1959 to 1977, Frank Moss was born in Holladay, a suburb of Salt Lake City, Utah, as the youngest of seven children of James Edward and Maude Moss. His father, a secondary school educator, was known as the father of high school athletics in Utah. In 1929, he graduated from Granite High School, where he had been class president, editor of the school newspaper, two-time state debate champion. Moss then attended the University of Utah, where he was a major in speech. During college, he was class president and coach of the varsity debate team. He graduated magna cum laude in 1933, the following year, he married Phyllis Hart, to whom he remained married until his death in 2003, the couple had one daughter and three sons. Moss studied at the George Washington University Law School in Washington, while studying in Washington, he worked at the National Recovery Administration, the Resettlement Administration, and the Farm Credit Administration. He received Juris Doctor degree cum laude in 1937, after his admission to the bar, Moss was a member of the legal staff of the U. S. Securities and Exchange Commission from 1937 to 1939. He then returned to Utah, where he opened a practice in Salt Lake City. In his first run for office, he was elected a judge of Salt Lake Citys Municipal Court in 1940. During World War II, he served with the U. S. Army Air Corps in judge advocate generals department in the European Theater. Following his military service, Moss returned to Salt Lake City and was re-elected as city judge and he served as county attorney for Salt Lake County from 1950 to 1959. During those years, he practiced law in the firms of Moss & Hyde, in 1956, he was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination for Governor of Utah, losing to City Commissioner L. C. Moss was a sponsor of laws to create Medicaid, a program to cover health care for low income people. Moss was elected to a term in 1964, defeating Brigham Young University President Ernest L. Wilkinson. He was elected to a term in 1970 defeating four-term Congressman Laurence J. Burton. He gained national prominence with regard to environmental, consumer, Moss became an expert on water issues and wrote The Water Crisis in 1967
13.
David Pryor
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David Hampton Pryor is a former Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives and United States Senator from the State of Arkansas. Pryor also served as 39th Governor of Arkansas from 1975 to 1979 and was a member of the Arkansas House of Representatives from 1960 to 1966 and he served as the interim chairman of the Arkansas Democratic Party, following Bill Gwatneys assassination. Pryor was born in Camden, the seat of Ouachita County in southern Arkansas, to William Edgar Pryor and he attended public schools in Camden, attended Henderson State Teachers College in Arkadelphia, and graduated from the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville in 1957. Pryor was founder and publisher of the Ouachita Citizen from 1957 to 1960 and he graduated from law school at the University of Arkansas in 1964 and was admitted to the bar that same year. His state House service preceded his tenure in the U. S. House. He was elected to Congress in an election to fill the unexpired term in the 89th Congress of fellow Democrat Oren Harris. At the same time, Pryor was elected to the 90th Congress for a full term, in the primary, Pryor defeated the Texarkana lawyer Richard S. Arnold, whom he later described as a very, very close friend. Pryor thereafter defeated the Republican candidate, A. Lynn Lowe of Texarkana, Lowe would subsequently become chairman of the fledgling Arkansas GOP. Pryor was reelected to the House twice and served from November 8,1966 to January 3,1973 and he was not a candidate for reelection in 1972. Instead he failed in a campaign to wrest the Democratic U. S. Senate nomination from the popular conservative John L. McClellan, from Sheridan. Pryors next success came in the 1974 gubernatorial race and he was elected to succeed Dale Bumpers, who won the Senate seat long held by J. William Fulbright in the same year. Pryor first defeated former Governor Orval Faubus in the primary and then crushed the Republican nominee, Ken Coon, who would also later chair the Arkansas GOP. He was reelected in 1976 by a margin over the Republican Leon Griffith, a plumber from Pine Bluff, the seat of Jefferson County. Pryors gubernatorial tenure extended from 1975 to January 3,1979, Pryor finally won McClellans Senate seat in 1978. McClellan died in 1977, and Governor Pryor appointed a caretaker successor Kaneaster Hodges, Pryor won the Democratic senatorial nomination over then U. S. His closest contest was his 1984 reelection against the Republican U. S, despite the presence of Ronald Reagan on the Republican ticket, Pryor still defeated Bethune,502,3431 to 373,615. Pryor was unopposed in 1990, and he did not seek a fourth term in 1996, the seat instead went Republican for one term with the election of U. S. Pryor hence retired from elected office in 1997, Pryor served as chairman of the Committee on Aging
14.
Frank Church
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Frank Forrester Church III was an American lawyer and politician. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a United States Senator from Idaho from 1957 to 1981, Church was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic nomination in the 1976 presidential election, losing to Jimmy Carter. He is known for heading the Church Committee, which investigated abuses in the U. S. intelligence agencies, born and raised in Boise, Idaho, Church was the younger of the two sons of Frank and Laura Bilderback Church. His father co-owned a sporting goods store and took the sons on fishing, hunting, the family was Catholic and conservative, and Frank III attended St. Josephs School as a youngster, where he went by the nickname Frosty. His older brother Richard became an officer in the U. S. Marines Corps, and retired as a colonel, in his youth, Church admired William E. Borah, who represented Idaho in the U. S. Senate from 1907 to 1940. Church graduated from Boise High School in 1942, where he served as student body president, as a junior in 1941, he won the American Legion National Oratorical Contest. The prize was sufficient to provide for four years at the college of the winners choice, Church enrolled at Stanford University in California in 1942 and joined Theta Xi fraternity. Church enlisted in the U. S. Army in 1942, was called up the following year and he was commissioned a second lieutenant on his 20th birthday in 1944 and served as a military intelligence officer in the China-Burma-India theater. Following his discharge in 1946, he returned to Stanford to complete his education, receiving his bachelors degree in history in 1947, in June 1947 he married Bethine Clark, daughter of Chase Clark, a former Democratic governor of Idaho and the federal judge for the state. The wedding took place at the secluded Robinson Bar Ranch, the Clark familys ranch in the mountains east of Stanley, the pain did not go away and the problem was soon diagnosed as testicular cancer. After one of his testicles and glands in his lower abdomen were removed, however, he rebounded from the illness after another doctor started X-ray treatments. This second chance led him to reflect that life itself is such a chancy proposition that the only way to live is by taking great chances. In 1950, Church graduated from Stanford Law School and returned to Boise to practice law, Frank and Bethine had two sons, Frank Forrester Church IV, who died in 2009, and Chase Clark Church, who lives in Boise. Both boys were named for their grandfathers, Church became an active Democrat in Idaho and after an unsuccessful try for the state legislature in 1952, he ran for the U. S. Senate in 1956. After a closely contested election against former Senator Glen H. Taylor. At the age of 32, Church became the fifth youngest member ever to sit in the U. S. Senate, Church was reelected three times, the only Democrat ever to win reelection to the U. S. Senate from Idaho. Church found solace from Republican Minority Leader, William Knowland, however, Church managed to find his way into Johnsons good graces by providing key assistance in getting the Civil Rights Act of 1957 passed
15.
Birch Bayh
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Birch Evans Bayh Jr. is a former U. S. Senator from Indiana who served from 1963 to 1981 and he is the only non-Founding Father to author two amendments to the United States Constitution and was a candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in 1976. He is the father of former Indiana Governor and former U. S, Senator Evan Bayh and Christopher Bayh, a lawyer in Indianapolis, Indiana. Bayh was born in Terre Haute, Indiana, the son of Leah Ward, a teacher and his ancestry includes German, English, Northern Irish, and Scottish. Bayh spent summers on his farm in Shirkieville, Indiana. As a student at New Goshen High School, young Birch took part in speaking contests, played baseball and basketball, from 1946 to 1948, Bayh served as an MP with the United States Army in occupied Germany following World War II. He excelled in sports, competing as a Golden Gloves boxer in college, Bayh graduated from the Purdue University School of Agriculture in 1951, where he was a member of the Alpha Tau Omega social fraternity and senior class president. In 1951, he won Alpha Tau Omegas highest individual collegiate award and he married Marvella Hern in August 1952, and took courses at Indiana State University in Terre Haute for two years while also running the family farm. Bayhs political career began at age 26 with his election to the Indiana House of Representatives in 1954, at the time, Bayh was the youngest Speaker in Indiana state history. While he served in the legislature, Bayh studied law at Indiana Universitys School of Law, received his JD in 1960, at age 34, Bayh was elected to the United States Senate in the 1962 midterm elections, defeating 18-year incumbent Homer E. Capehart. Capehart was outspoken on the threat of Soviet nuclear missiles being placed in Cuba, Bayhs disadvantage was dramatized in the opening scene of the 2000 film Thirteen Days, as President John F. Kennedy rattles a newspaper and asks an aide, You see this goddamn Capehart stuff. And the aide responds, Bayhs going to lose and his first name is Birch, His last name is Bayh. For more than four decades—throughout his entire career in politics—Bayh continued to manage the growing of corn, as a freshman senator, Bayh was assigned to the Judiciary Committee and the Public Works Committee. While his service on the Public Works Committee allowed him to assist Hoosiers with various problems, Bayh was serving on the Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments in August 1963 when its chairman Estes Kefauver died of a heart attack. Judiciary Committee Chairman James Eastland planned to terminate the subcommittee to save money, thus, Bayh assumed the Constitutional Amendments Subcommittee chairmanship less than a year into his first term. As chairman, Bayh was the architect of two constitutional amendments. The 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy brought a new urgency to the matter, Bayh introduced an amendment on December 12,1963, which was studied and then re-introduced and passed in 1965 with Emanuel Celler, chairman of the House Judiciary Committee. It has since been invoked six times, most notably in the 1973 vice presidential and 1974 presidential succession of Gerald Ford, as a state legislator in the 1950s, Bayh unsuccessfully worked to lower the voting age in Indiana
16.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
17.
Hawaii
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Hawaii is the 50th and most recent state to have joined the United States of America, having received statehood on August 21,1959. Hawaii is the only U. S. state located in Oceania and it is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is the only U. S. state not located in the Americas, the state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian archipelago, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles. At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight main islands are—in order from northwest to southeast, Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and the Island of Hawaiʻi. The last is the largest island in the group, it is called the Big Island or Hawaiʻi Island to avoid confusion with the state or archipelago. The archipelago is physiographically and ethnologically part of the Polynesian subregion of Oceania, Hawaii has over a million permanent residents, along with many visitors and U. S. military personnel. Its capital is Honolulu on the island of Oʻahu, Hawaii is the 8th-smallest and the 11th-least populous, but the 13th-most densely populated of the fifty U. S. states. It is the state with an Asian plurality. The states coastline is about 750 miles long, the fourth longest in the U. S. after the coastlines of Alaska, Florida, the state of Hawaii derives its name from the name of its largest island, Hawaiʻi. A common Hawaiian explanation of the name of Hawaiʻi is that was named for Hawaiʻiloa and he is said to have discovered the islands when they were first settled. The Hawaiian language word Hawaiʻi is very similar to Proto-Polynesian *Sawaiki, cognates of Hawaiʻi are found in other Polynesian languages, including Māori, Rarotongan and Samoan. According to linguists Pukui and Elbert, lsewhere in Polynesia, Hawaiʻi or a cognate is the name of the underworld or of the home, but in Hawaii. A somewhat divisive political issue arose in 1978 when the Constitution of the State of Hawaii added Hawaiian as an official state language. The title of the constitution is The Constitution of the State of Hawaii. Article XV, Section 1 of the Constitution uses The State of Hawaii, diacritics were not used because the document, drafted in 1949, predates the use of the okina and the kahakō in modern Hawaiian orthography. The exact spelling of the name in the Hawaiian language is Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaii Admission Act that granted Hawaiian statehood, the government recognized Hawaii as the official state name. Official government publications, department and office titles, and the Seal of Hawaii use the spelling with no symbols for glottal stops or vowel length
18.
Oren E. Long
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Oren Ethelbirt Long, was the tenth Territorial Governor of Hawaii and served from 1951 to 1953. A member of the Democratic Party of Hawaii, Long was appointed to the office after the term of Ingram Stainback, after statehood was achieved he served in the United States Senate, one of the first two, along with Hiram Fong, to represent Hawaii in that body. Long was the only non-Asian American U. S, Senator from Hawaii until the appointment of Brian Schatz to the position in 2012. Long was born in Altoona, Kansas and attended Johnson Bible College in Knoxville, Tennessee, the University of Michigan and he first came to Hawaii in 1917 as a social worker in Hilo. He then held various positions in the public school system. He was appointed Governor of the Territory of Hawaii by President of the United States Harry Truman in 1951, Long served in the Hawaii Territorial Senate from 1956-1959. On July 28,1959 he was elected to one of the two Senate seats from the newly formed State of Hawaii, and took office on August 21,1959, the other Senator elected was Republican Hiram Fong. Long chose not to run for a full term in 1962. For his entire tenure Long was Hawaiis Senior Senator, as he took office the day with fellow Senator from new state. After three rounds of questioning, the panel successfully guessed him to be the senator from Hawaii and he died in 1965 after suffering an attack of asthmatic bronchitis in Honolulu, Hawaii and was buried in Oahu Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
19.
Brian Schatz
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Brian Emanuel Schatz is an American politician who is the senior United States Senator for Hawaii. Schatz was appointed by Governor Neil Abercrombie to replace Senator Daniel Inouye after his death in 2012, Schatz served in the Hawaii House of Representatives from 1998 to 2006, where he represented the 25th Legislative District and was chairman of the Democratic Party of Hawaii from 2008 to 2010. He served as lieutenant governor until December 26,2012, when Abercrombie appointed Schatz to serve out Daniel Inouyes U. S. Senate term until the 2014 special election, upon his swearing-in, Schatz was the youngest U. S. Schatz won the 2014 special election to complete the remainder of Inouyes Senate term, Schatz was born to a Jewish family in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He is the son of Barbara Jane and Irwin Jacob Schatz, Schatzs father was notable as the first to publicly identify the injustice of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment in 1964, and remained an influential critic of the study through his life. When Brian was two old, his family moved to Hawaii, where he graduated from Punahou School. Schatz enrolled at Pomona College in Claremont, California, he spent a term studying in Kenya as part of the International Training Program. After graduating with a B. A. in philosophy, he returned to Hawaii and he became active in the community through his involvement in Youth for Environmental Services in the 1980s. He served as CEO of Helping Hands Hawaii and director of the Makiki Community Library, in March 2010, Schatz stepped down from Helping Hands to run for lieutenant governor. In 1998, Schatz, a Democrat, challenged the incumbent State Representative of the 24th District of the Hawaii House of Representatives, Republican Sam Aiona, in the 2000 rematch, he was re-elected, 57%–43%. In 2002, he ran in the newly redrawn 25th House district, in 2004, he defeated Republican Tracy Okubo 64%–36%. The 25th district includes Makiki and Tantalus on Oahu, Schatz ran for Hawaiis 2nd congressional district, vacated by Ed Case, who had decided to run for the U. S. Senate. The Democratic primary featured 10 candidates, seven of whom served in the Hawaii Legislature, mazie Hirono, the Lieutenant Governor, was the only one who had held statewide office and thus enjoyed the most name recognition. She also raised more money than any candidate in the race, mostly because of the endorsement of EMILYs List. Still, she won with just 22% of the vote, just 845 votes ahead of State Senator Colleen Hanabusa, State Representative Schatz ranked sixth with 7% of the vote, behind Hirono and four state senators. Schatz, one of the earliest supporters of Barack Obama for president and he wants to govern the United States by hope. In 2008, Schatz worked as spokesman for Obamas campaign in Hawaii, in April 2008, he began running for the position of chairman of the Democratic Party of Hawaii, and won the job at the state convention the following month. During his tenure, the Democrats increased the number of party members
20.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
21.
Hawaii's at-large congressional district
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Before achieving statehood in 1959, the Territory of Hawaii was represented by a non-voting territorial delegate. From statehood until 1963, Hawaii had one Representative, from 1963 to the creation of the two districts in 1971, Hawaii was represented in the United States House of Representatives with two Representatives elected at-large statewide. A second seat was added in 1963, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
22.
John A. Burns
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John Anthony Burns was an American politician. Burns was born in Montana and soon became a resident of Hawaii in 1923 and he served as the second Governor of Hawaii from 1962 to 1974. John Burns was born in Fort Assinniboine, Montana on March 30,1909 and he was the eldest son of Anne and Harry Burns. Christened Harry John Burns, as a teenager he changed his name to John Anthony Burns, burns’ father was in the Army and was ordered to Fort Shafter, so in 1913 he and his family moved to Hawaii, and eventually to Kalihi. Harry Burns became overwhelmed with responsibility for four children and left the family in 1919, Burns mother became a launderer for Tripler Army Medical Center. Burns took care of his siblings and attended Saint Louis School and she joined the Postal Service, and with the help of her brother, became postmaster for Fort Shafter and a clerk at the Honolulu Post office. In 1925 Anne sent John to live with her brother in Kansas, in Kansas he attended Immaculata High School in Leavenworth, then transferred to St. Benedict High School in Atchison. In 1927 Burns dropped out of school and joined the Army. He was honorably discharged after one year, Burns returned to Hawaii, waiting a semester to attend Saint Louis School and eventually graduate in 1930. His work as a police officer, building close ties with working class folks from numerous ethnic groups, notably Japanese. While a police officer in Honolulu, his first political efforts arose from his work with the Police Benevolent Society. From 1948 he led the Hawaii Democratic Revolution of 1954, through leadership positions in the territorial Democratic Party. In 1956, he was elected a party delegate from Hawaii, as a delegate, Burns played a key role in lobbying for Hawaii statehood, a goal that was achieved on March 12,1959, when the statehood bill was signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He sought to become the first governor of the formed state. Three years later in 1962, Burns won the election to become governor, Governor Burns played a leading role in stimulating the state economy and attracting foreign tourism and investment. Burns supported the construction of an expanded Honolulu International Airport with a new reef-runaway, both the Commission on the Year 2000 and Hawaiis Quality Growth Policy were intended to supplement Hawaiis State Land-Use Plan. He was re-elected in 1966 and 1970, each time with a different lieutenant governor as his running mate, Burns became ill from cancer to the point of incapacity in October 1973. Burns third elected lieutenant governor, George Ariyoshi, became acting governor through the end of Burns third term, Ariyoshi was elected in his own right as governor for the term beginning in 1974
23.
Thomas Gill (politician)
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Thomas Ponce Gill, was a Hawaii politician. A member of the Democratic party, he served in the United States Congress from 1963 to 1965 and was the third Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii from 1966 to 1970 and he unsuccessfully ran for governor twice, in 1970 and 1974. Born in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, Gill attended public schools and he was a decorated infantryman in the Pacific Theatre during World War II, earning a Bronze Star and a Purple Heart. After the war, he attended law school at Boalt Hall at UC-Berkeley, Gill served in Hawaiis territorial legislature and, after statehood in 1959, became a member of the first state house delegation. He was elected to one of his states two Congressional seats in 1962 and served one term, in Congress, he was a staunch supporter of liberal causes, including civil rights. He then worked as the director of Hawaiis Office of Economic Opportunity, in 1964, Gill chose not to seek reelection and instead ran unsuccessfully for U. S. Senator, losing to Republican incumbent Hiram Fong. In 1966, he was elected Lieutenant Governor with incumbent Governor John A. Burns, in 1970, Gill challenged Burns in the Democratic primary. Gill ran as a reformer, campaigning against what he described as an entrenched and he narrowly lost, even though Burns significantly outspent him in a savvy campaign that included sophisticated use of expensive image-building television spots. Most in the states large Japanese population remained loyal to Burns, before Neil Abercrombie lost in 2014 this race stood as the closest anyone came to a primary defeat of an incumbent governor of Hawaii. Gill ran in the primary for governor again in 1974, but lost again in the primary to George Ariyoshi, after failing both campaigns, he resumed his career as a lawyer. Gill donated 86 record center boxes of material to the University of Hawaii at Manoa Library in May 2001, the bulk of the papers cover Gill’s two years in Congress and four years in the Hawaii Lt. Governor’s office. There is an amount of material from his pre- and post-Congressional life. The papers are arranged in five series, Political Offices, 1955–1970, Politics, 1952–1972, Personal, 1939–2001, Memorabilia, 1940–2005 and bulk 1958-1980, Audiovisual, 1958-1974. The papers were arranged and described from July 2005 through March 2006 by archivist Ellen Chapman, a Finding Aid, which provides a timeline, series descriptions, and list of specific topics covered in the collection is available at The Thomas P. Gill was the son of Thomas Gill and Lorin Johnston Tarr, Gill married Lois Hanawalt in 1947 and had six children, including two sons who have been involved in Hawaiian politics. His son Gary served on the Honolulu City Council and son Tony is a lawyer who considered seeking the governorship in 2006. Gill died in 2009 in Honolulu, aged 87, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Honolulu Star-Bulletin article on role in 1964 Civil Rights Act
24.
Honolulu
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Honolulu is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Hawaii. It is an part of and the county seat of the City and County of Honolulu on the island of Oahu. The city is the gateway to Hawaii and a major portal into the United States. The city is also a hub for international business, military defense, as well as famously being host to a diverse variety of east-west and Pacific culture, cuisine. Honolulu is the most remote city of its size in the world and is both the westernmost and the southernmost major U. S. city. For statistical purposes, the U. S. Census Bureau recognizes the area commonly referred to as City of Honolulu as a census county division. Honolulu is a financial center of the islands and of the Pacific Ocean. The population of the city of Honolulu was 337,256 as of the 2010 census, while the Honolulu CCD was 390,738, Honolulu means sheltered harbor or calm port. The old name is said to be Kou, a district encompassing the area from Nuuanu Avenue to Alakea Street. The city has been the capital of the Hawaiian Islands since 1845, as of 2015, Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U. S. It is also the most populated Oceanian city outside Australasia and ranks second to Auckland as the most populous city in Polynesia, evidence of the first settlement of Honolulu by the original Polynesian migrants to the archipelago comes from oral histories and artifacts. These indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 11th century, however, after Kamehameha I conquered Oʻahu in the Battle of Nuʻuanu at Nuʻuanu Pali, he moved his royal court from the Island of Hawaiʻi to Waikīkī in 1804. His court relocated in 1809 to what is now downtown Honolulu, the capital was moved back to Kailua-Kona in 1812. In 1794, Captain William Brown of Great Britain was the first foreigner to sail into what is now Honolulu Harbor, more foreign ships followed, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between North America and Asia. In 1845, Kamehameha III moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from Lahaina on Maui to Honolulu and he and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as St. Andrews Cathedral, ʻIolani Palace, and Aliʻiōlani Hale. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the islands, an economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawaiʻi. Modern air travel brings, as of 2007,7.6 million visitors annually to the islands, today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawaiʻi, with thousands of hotel rooms. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 68.4 square miles
25.
Territory of Hawaii
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The Hawaii Admission Act specified that the State of Hawaii would not include Palmyra Atoll, The Midway Islands, Johnston Atoll, Sand Island, or Kingman Reef. The U. S. Congress passed the Newlands Resolution which annexed the Republic of Hawaii to the United States, Hawaiis territorial history includes a period from 1941 to 1944—during World War II—when the islands were placed under martial law. Civilian government was dissolved and a governor was appointed. Thurston actively lobbied Congress while the former monarchy lobbied Democrats to protest, First annexation proceedings began when Democrat Grover Cleveland took office. Cleveland was an anti-imperialist and was strongly against annexation and he withdrew the annexation treaty from consideration, mounted an inquiry, and recommended the restoration of Liliʻuokalani as queen. The provisional government convened a convention to establish the Republic of Hawaii. Thurston was urged to become the nations first president but he was worried his brazen personality would damage the cause of annexation, Dole, former Supreme Court Justice and friend of Queen Liliʻuokalani, was elected as the first and only president of the new regime. Hawaiis strategic location to support the Spanish–American War in the Philippines made it important to American interests. On July 4,1898, the United States Congress passed the Newlands Resolution and it was signed into law by President McKinley on July 7,1898, and came into effect on August 12,1898. Former President Sanford B. Dole was appointed Hawaiis first territorial governor, the Newlands Resolution established a five-member commission to study which laws were needed in the newly organized Territory of Hawaii. The commission included, Territorial Governor Sanford B, Dole, Senators Shelby M. Cullom and John T. Morgan, Representative Robert R. Hitt and former Hawaii Chief Justice and later succeeding Territorial Governor Walter F. Frear. The commissions final report was submitted to Congress for a debate which lasted over a year, the Organic Act established the Office of the Territorial Governor, an office appointed by the sitting American president and was usually from his own political party. The territorial governor served at the pleasure of the President of the United States and nominated by him and confirmed by the Senate, Representative in the U. S. House of Representatives Representation in the U. S. His transports encouraged him to purchase passenger steamships that would carry tourists hoping to vacation in Hawaii from the mainland United States, matsons fleet included the SS Wilhelmina, rivaling the best passenger ships serving traditional Atlantic routes. With the boom in interest of Hawaiian vacations by Americas wealthiest families in the late 1920s, Matson added the SS Mariposa, SS Monterey, Matson Navigation Company operated two resort hotels in Honolulu near royal grounds. The first hotel on Waikīkī was the Moana Hotel which opened in 1901, as the first hotel in Waikīkī, the Moana Hotel was nicknamed the First Lady of Waikīkī. The hotel gained international attention in 1920 when Edward, Prince of Wales and future King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, in 1927, the luxurious Royal Hawaiian Hotel, informally called the Pink Palace of the Pacific, opened for business. It was the preferred Hawaii residence of President Franklin D. Roosevelt when he visited Hawaii during World War II, with annexation, the United States saw Hawaii as its most strategic military asset
26.
Bethesda, Maryland
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Bethesda is a census-designated place in southern Montgomery County, Maryland, United States, located just northwest of the U. S. capital of Washington, D. C. It takes its name from a church, the Bethesda Meeting House. In Aramaic, ܒܝܬ ܚܣܕܐ beth ḥesda means House of Mercy and in Hebrew, the National Institutes of Health main campus and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center are in Bethesda, as are a number of corporate and government headquarters. In 2014 it placed first in Forbes list of Americas most educated small towns, as an unincorporated area, Bethesda has no official boundaries. The United States Census Bureau defines a place named Bethesda whose center is located at 38°59′N 77°7′W. The United States Geological Survey has defined Bethesda as an area whose center is at 38°58′50″N 77°6′2″W, other definitions are used by the Bethesda Urban Planning District, the United States Postal Service, and other organizations. According to estimates released by the U. S. Census Bureau in 2013, Most of Bethesdas residents are in Maryland Legislative District 16. Bethesda is situated along a thoroughfare that was originally the route of an ancient Native American trail. Henry Fleet, an English fur trader, was the first European to travel to the area, Most early settlers in Maryland were tenant farmers who paid their rent in tobacco. A small settlement grew around a store and tollhouse along the turnpike, by 1862, the community was known as Darcys Store after the owner of a local establishment, William E. Darcy. The church burned in 1849 and was rebuilt the same year about 100 yards south at its present site. Throughout most of the 19th century, Bethesda never developed beyond a small village, consisting of a post office, a blacksmith shop, a church and school. It was not until the installation of a line in 1890. Until that time, dependence on proximity to rail lines insulated Bethesda from growth, the arrival of the personal automobile ended this dependency, and Bethesda planners grew the community with the newest transportation revolution in mind. Subdivisions began to appear on old farmland, becoming the neighborhoods of Drummond, Woodmont, Edgemoor, further north, several wealthy men made Rockville Pike famous for its mansions. These included Brainard W. Parker, James Oyster, George E. Hamilton, wilson, Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, and George Freeland Peter. In 1930, Dr Armistead Peters pioneering manor house Winona became the clubhouse of the original Woodmont Country Club, merle Thorpes mansion, Pooks Hill —on the site of the current neighborhood of the same name—became the home-in-exile of the Norwegian Royal Family during World War II. That war, and the expansion of government that it created, both the National Naval Medical Center and the NIH complex were built just to the north of the developing downtown
27.
National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific
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The National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific is a national cemetery located at Punchbowl Crater in Honolulu, Hawaii. It serves as a memorial to honor men and women who served in the United States Armed Forces. It is administered by the National Cemetery Administration of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, millions of visitors visit the cemetery each year, and it is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Hawaii. In February 1948, Congress approved funding and construction began on the national cemetery, since the cemetery was dedicated on September 2,1949, approximately 53,000 World War I, World War II, Korean War, and Vietnam War veterans and their dependents have been interred. The first interment was made January 4,1949, the cemetery opened to the public on July 19,1949, with services for five war dead, an unknown serviceman, two Marines, an Army lieutenant and one noted civilian war correspondent Ernie Pyle. Eventually, over 13,000 soldiers and sailors who died during World War II would be laid to rest in the Punchbowl. Despite the Armys extensive efforts to inform the public that the star- and cross-shaped grave markers were only temporary, the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific was the first such cemetery to install Bicentennial Medal of Honor headstones, the medal insignia being defined in gold leaf. On May 11,1976, a total of 23 of these were placed on the graves of medal recipients, all but one of whom were killed in action. In addition, new information that identified grave locations of 175 men whose graves were marked as Unknown resulted in the installation of new markers in October 2002. The National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific contains a Memorial Walk that is lined with a variety of memorial markers from various organizations, as of 2012, there were 60 memorial boulders along the pathway. Additional memorials can be throughout the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific—most commemorating soldiers of 20th-century wars. After their retreat in 1950, dead Soldiers and Marines were buried at a military cemetery near Hungnam. During Operation Glory, which occurred from July to November 1954, in addition 546 civilians who died in United Nations prisoner of war camps were turned over to the South Korean Government. After Operation Glory 416 Korean War unknowns were buried in the Punchbowl Cemetery, of 239 Korean War unaccounted for,186 not associated with Punchbowl unknowns. Fifty-seven years after the Korean War, remains of two of the Punchbowl unknowns were identified—both from the 1st Marine Division, one was Pfc. Donald Morris Walker of Support Company/1st Service Battalion/1st Marine Division who was KIA December 7,1950 and the other was Pfc. Carl West of Weapons Company/1st Battalion/7th Regiment/1st Marine Division who was KIA December 10,1950, in 2011 remains of an unknown USAF pilot from Operation Glory were identified from the Punchbowl Cemetery, POW remains from Operation Glory were also identified in 2011. From 1990 to 1994, North Korea excavated and turned over 208 sets of remains—possibly containing remains of 200–400 US Servicemen—but few identifiable because of co-mingling of remains, from 1996 to 2006,220 remains were recovered near the Chinese border. In 2008, a total of 63 were identified, according to a report June 24,2008, of 10 Korean War Remains disinterred from the Punchbowl Cemetery six have been identified
28.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
29.
University of Hawaii at Manoa
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The University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa is a public co-educational research university as well as the flagship campus of the University of Hawaiʻi system. The campus occupies the half of the mouth of Mānoa Valley. The John A. Burns School of Medicine, part of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, is located in Kakaako and this university campus also houses the main offices of the entire University of Hawaiʻi system. The University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa was founded in 1907 as a land-grant college of agriculture, a bill by Maui Representative William Coelho introduced into the Territorial Legislature March 1,1907 and signed into law March 23rd by the Governor enabled construction to begin. In 1912 it was renamed the College of Hawaii and moved to its present location, William Kwai Fong Yap petitioned the Hawaii Territorial Legislature six years later for university status which led to another renaming finally to the University of Hawaii in 1920. This is also the year of the College of Arts. In 1931 the Territorial Normal and Training School was absorbed into the University, today, the primary facet of the university consists of the four Colleges of Arts and Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Languages, Literatures and Linguistics, Natural Sciences and Social Sciences. The college of agriculture and mechanical arts is now the College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, UH Mānoa is home to two of the states most prominent professional schools. The William S. Richardson School of Law and the School of Medicine are the only law and it is also home to the Shidler College of Business which has the only AACSB accredited graduate business program in the state. It also has the only Doctor of Architecture program in the country, the Center for Hawaiian Studies provides excellence in the pursuit of knowledge concerning the Native people of Hawaii. Total enrollment in 2012 was 20,429 students,14,402 of which are undergraduates, there are approximately sixteen students per instructor. With extramural grants and contracts of $436 million in 2012, research at UH-Mānoa relates to Hawaiis physical landscape, its people, the geography facilitates advances in marine biology, oceanography, underwater robotic technology, astronomy, geology and geophysics, agriculture, aquaculture and tropical medicine. Extramural funding increased from $368 million in FY2008 to nearly $436 million in FY2012, Research grants increased from $278 million in FY2008 to $317 million in FY2012. Nonresearch awards totaled $119 million in FY2012, overall, extramural funding increased by 18%. The National Science Foundation ranked UH Manoa 45th among 395 public universities for Research and Development expenditures in fiscal year 2014. For the period of July 1,2012 to June 20,2013, local funding comes from Hawaii government agencies, non-profit organizations, health organizations and business and other interests. The $150-million medical complex in Kaka‘ako opened in the spring of 2005, Research is expected of every faculty member at UH Mānoa. Also, according to the Carnegie Foundation, UH Mānoa is an RU/VH level research university, in 2013, UH Mānoa was elected to membership in the Association of Pacific Rim Universities, the leading consortium of research universities for the region
30.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
31.
George Washington University
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The George Washington University is a private research university in Washington, D. C. GW is the largest institution of education in Washington, D. C. In his will, Washington left his 50 shares in the Potomac Company to help endow the university, however, due to the companys financial difficulties, the funding did not materialize. The university was chartered by an act of Congress on February 9,1821 and its name was changed to Columbian University in 1873 and to the George Washington University in 1904, in honor of Washington. GWs Graduate School of Political Management is the school of applied politics in the nations capital. GWs professional schools and the Elliott School of International Affairs are consistently ranked highly in national and international college rankings lists, the Princeton Review consistently ranks GW as one of the Most Politically Active schools. Some of the graduates have gone on to high positions within both the U. S. government and foreign governments. Notable alumni include former Senate Minority Leader Harry Reid, former Secretary of State Colin Powell and he presented numerous letters to Congress and included the subject in his last will and testament. Baptist missionary and leading minister Luther Rice raised funds to purchase a site in Washington, the first commencement in 1824 was considered an important event for the young city of Washington, D. C. In attendance were President Monroe, John C, Calhoun, Henry Clay, Marquis de Lafayette and other dignitaries. During the Civil War, most students left to join the Confederacy, walt Whitman was among many of the volunteers to work on the campus. Following the war, in 1873, Columbian College became the Columbian University and moved to a downtown location centered on 15th and H streets. The university moved its operations to the D. C. neighborhood of Foggy Bottom in 1912. The George Washington University, like much of Washington, D. C. traces many of its origins back to the Freemasons, the Bible that the presidents of the university use to swear an oath on upon inauguration is the Bible of Freemason George Washington. Freemasonry symbols are displayed throughout the campus including the foundation stones of many of the university buildings. Many of the Colleges of the George Washington University stand out for their age, the Law School is the oldest law school in the District of Columbia. The School of Medicine and Health Sciences is the 11th oldest medical school in the nation, the Columbian College was founded in 1821, and is the oldest unit of the university. The Elliott School of International Affairs was formalized in 1898, the majority of the present infrastructure and financial stability at GW is due to the tenures of Presidents Cloyd Heck Marvin, Lloyd Hartman Elliott and Stephen Joel Trachtenberg
32.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
33.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
34.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
35.
442nd Infantry Regiment (United States)
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The 442nd Regimental Combat Team is an infantry regiment of the United States Army, part of the Army Reserve. The regiment was a unit composed almost entirely of American soldiers of Japanese ancestry who fought in World War II. Most of the families of mainland Japanese Americans were confined to internment camps in the United States interior, beginning in 1944, the regiment fought primarily in Europe during World War II, in particular Italy, southern France, and Germany. The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size, the 4,000 men who initially made up the unit in April 1943 had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times. In total, about 14,000 men served, earning 9,486 Purple Hearts, the unit was awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations. Twenty-one of its members were awarded Medals of Honor and its motto was Go for Broke. Most Japanese Americans who fought in World War II were Nisei, shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Japanese-American men were initially categorized as 4C and therefore not subject to the draft. On 19 February 1942, President Franklin D, although the order did not refer specifically to people of Japanese ancestry, it was targeted largely for the internment of people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast. In March 1942, Lieutenant General John L, two thirds were born in the United States. In Hawaii, the imposed martial law, complete with curfews. There, business interests competed with those of Japanese Americans, when the War Department called for the removal of all soldiers of Japanese ancestry from active service in early 1942, General Delos C. Emmons, commander of the U. S. Army in Hawaii, decided to discharge those in the Hawaii Territorial Guard, which was composed mainly of ROTC students from the University of Hawaii. However, he permitted the more than 1,300 Japanese-American soldiers of the 298th and 299th Infantry Regiment regiments of the Hawaii National Guard to remain in service, the discharged members of the Hawaii Territorial Guard petitioned General Emmons to allow them to assist in the war effort. The petition was granted and they formed a group called the Varsity Victory Volunteers, the move was authorized, and on 5 June 1942, the Hawaiian Provisional Battalion set sail for training. They landed at Oakland, California on 10 June 1942 and two later were sent to Camp McCoy, Wisconsin. On 15 June 1942, the battalion was designated the 100th Infantry Battalion —the One Puka Puka and it approved the formation of a Japanese-American combat unit. A few days later, the government required that all internees answer a loyalty questionnaire, question 27 of the questionnaire asked eligible males, Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United States on combat duty, wherever ordered. Nearly a quarter of the Nisei males answered with a no or an answer to both questions in protest, resenting the implication they ever had allegiance to Japan, some left them blank
36.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
37.
Medal of Honor
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The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U. S. Congress. There are three versions of the medal, one for the Army, one for the Navy, personnel of the Marine Corps and Coast Guard receive the Navy version. U. S. awards including the Medal of Honor do not have titles and while there is no official abbreviation. The Medal of Honor is the oldest continuously issued combat decoration of the United States armed forces, because the medal is presented in the name of Congress, it is often referred to as the Congressional Medal of Honor. However, the name is Medal of Honor, which began with the U. S. Armys version. Within United States Code the medal is referred to as the Medal of Honor, in 1990, Congress designated March 25 annually as National Medal of Honor Day. The capture saved the fort of West Point from the British Army, although the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse after the American Revolutionary War, the concept of a military award for individual gallantry by members of the U. S. 539 Certificates were approved for this period and this medal was later replaced by the Army Distinguished Service Medal which was established on January 2,1918. Those Army members who held the Distinguished Service Medal in place of the Certificate of Merit could apply for the Army Distinguished Service Cross effective March 5,1934. There were no awards or medals at the beginning of the Civil War except for the Certificate of Merit which was awarded for the Mexican-American War. Scott however, was strictly against medals being awarded which was the European tradition, after Scott retired in October 1861, the Secretary of the Navy, Gideon Welles, adopted the idea of a decoration to recognize and honor distinguished naval service. Senator James W. Secretary Wells directed the Philadelphia Mint to design the new military decoration, on May 15,1862, the United States Navy Department ordered 175 medals with the words Personal Valor on the back from the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia. Senator Henry Wilson, the chairman of the Senate Committee on Military Affairs, the resolution was approved by Congress and signed into law on July 12,1862. During the war, Townsend would have some medals delivered to recipients with a letter requesting acknowledgement of the Medal of Honor. By mid-November the War Department contracted with Philadelphia silversmith William Wilson and Son, the Army version had The Congress to written on the back of the medal. Both versions were made of copper and coated with bronze, which gave them a reddish tint,1863, Congress made the Medal of Honor a permanent decoration. On March 3, Medals of Honor were authorized for officers of the Army, the Secretary of War first presented the Medal of Honor to six Union Army volunteers on March 25,1863 in his office. 1890, On April 23, the Medal of Honor Legion is established in Washington,1896, The ribbon of the Army version Medal of Honor was redesigned with all stripes being vertical
38.
Bronze Star Medal
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Civilians serving with U. S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with V Device during the Vietnam War for rescuing a wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of la Drang. The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419,4 February 1944, the acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious. The Bronze Star Medal is awarded only to members in combat zones who are receiving imminent danger pay. For this purpose, the US Armys Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders, effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater. The Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund of the jewelry firm Bailey, the medal is a bronze star 1 1⁄2 inches in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a 3⁄16 inch diameter superimposed bronze star, the reverse bears the inscription HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a metal loop with rounded corners. The Bronze Star Medal with the V device to denote heroism is the fourth highest military decoration for valor, 5/16 Inch Star – In the Navy and Marine Corps and Coast Guard, the 5/16 inch star is worn to denote additional awards. V Device – In the Army, the V is worn solely to denote participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy, in the Air Force, the V is worn to denote heroism in combat. Red Reeder conceived the idea of the Bronze Star Medal in 1943, Reeder felt another medal was needed as a ground equivalent of the Air Medal, and suggested calling the proposed new award the Ground Medal. The idea eventually rose through the bureaucracy and gained supporters. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D, the Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmens morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944 and this authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in a conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to any person
39.
Purple Heart
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The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after April 5,1917, with the U. S. military. The National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located in New Windsor, the Badge of Military Merit was only awarded to three Revolutionary War soldiers by Gen. George Washington himself. General Washington authorized his subordinate officers to issue Badges of Merit as appropriate, from then on, as its legend grew, so did its appearance. Although never abolished, the award of the badge was not proposed again officially until after World War I, on October 10,1927, Army Chief of Staff General Charles Pelot Summerall directed that a draft bill be sent to Congress to revive the Badge of Military Merit. The bill was withdrawn and action on the case ceased January 3,1928, a number of private interests sought to have the medal re-instituted in the Army, this included the board of directors of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum in Ticonderoga, New York. On January 7,1931, Summerall’s successor, General Douglas MacArthur, confidentially reopened work on a new design, involving the Washington Commission of Fine Arts. Elizabeth Will, an Army heraldic specialist in the Office of the Quartermaster General, was named to redesign the newly revived medal, using general specifications provided to her, Will created the design sketch for the present medal of the Purple Heart. The new design, which exhibits a bust and profile of George Washington, was issued on the bicentennial of Washingtons birth, wills obituary, in the edition of February 8,1975 of The Washington Post newspaper, reflects her many contributions to military heraldry. The Commission of Fine Arts solicited plaster models from three leading sculptors for the medal, selecting that of John R. Sinnock of the Philadelphia Mint in May 1931, the first Purple Heart was awarded to MacArthur. During the early period of American involvement in World War II, with the establishment of the Legion of Merit, by an Act of Congress, the practice of awarding the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued. By Executive Order 9277, dated December 3,1942, the decoration was applied to all services and this executive order also authorized the award only for wounds received. Subject to approval of the Secretary of Defense, Executive Order 10409, dated February 12,1952, dated April 25,1962, Executive Order 11016, included provisions for posthumous award of the Purple Heart. Dated February 23,1984, Executive Order 12464, authorized award of the Purple Heart as a result of terrorist attacks, or while serving as part of a peacekeeping force, public Law 99-145 authorized the award for wounds received as a result of friendly fire. Public Law 104-106 expanded the eligibility date, authorizing award of the Purple Heart to a prisoner of war who was wounded after April 25,1962. This change was effective May 18,1998, during World War II, nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals were manufactured in anticipation of the estimated casualties resulting from the planned Allied invasion of Japan. To the present date, total combined American military casualties of the seventy years following the end of World War II—including the Korean, in 2003, there remained 120,000 Purple Heart medals in stock. The existing surplus allowed combat units in Iraq and Afghanistan to keep Purple Hearts on-hand for immediate award to soldiers wounded in the field, the History section of the November 2009 edition of National Geographic estimated the number of Purple Hearts given. Above the estimates, the reads, Any tally of Purple Hearts is an estimate
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World War II Victory Medal (United States)
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The World War II Victory Medal was first issued as a service ribbon referred to as the “Victory Ribbon. ”By 1946, a full medal had been established which was referred to as the World War II Victory Medal. The corresponding medal from the World War I is the World War I Victory Medal, on 8 August 1946, the separate Merchant Marine World War II Victory Medal was established for members of the United States Merchant Marine who served during World War II. The medal is awarded for service between 7 December 1941 and 31 December 1946, both dates inclusive, the National Personnel Records Center has reported some cases of service members receiving the award for simply a few days of service. As the Second World War ended on 2 September 1945, there may be cases of members who had enlisted, entered officer candidate school. Military Academy, the U. S. Naval Academy or the U. S. Coast Guard Academy in 1946, the reason for this late date is that President Harry S. Truman did not declare an official end of hostilities until the last day of 1946. The bronze medal is 1 3⁄8 inches in width, the rainbow on each side of the ribbon is a miniature of the pattern used in the World War I Victory Medal. Although the World War I Victory Medal included clasps, the World War II Victory Medal did not and this was because campaign medals were frequently awarded instead. Awards and decorations of the United States military Merchant Marine World War II Victory Medal United States Statutes at Large, washington, DC, Office of the Federal Register. Washington, DC, Office of the Federal Register, navPers 15,790, Navy and Marine Corps Awards Manual. Washington, DC, Department of the Navy, mIL-DTL-3943/237A, Detail Specification Sheet — Medal, World War II Victory. MIL-DTL-11589/149E, Detail Specification Sheet — Ribbon, World War II Victory Medal, fort Belvoir, Virginia, The Institute of Heraldry, U. S. Army. Archived from the original on September 9,2009
United States
United States Army
Captain
Medal of Honor
Bronze Star
Purple Heart
European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal
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Presidential Medal of Freedom
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