1.
Sir Frederick Shaw, 3rd Baronet
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Sir Frederick Shaw, 3rd Baronet was an Irish Conservative MP in the United Kingdom Parliament. He was the son of Colonel Sir Robert Shaw, Bt of Bushy Park. He became a member of the Privy Council of Ireland on 15 January 1835, Shaw became the 3rd Baronet on 19 February 1869. He attended Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently Brasenose College and he became a member of Kings Inns, Dublin and was called to the Irish Bar in 1822. He held the offices of Recorder, of Dublin and Dundalk. He married on 16 March 1819, Thomasine Emily, the daughter of Hon. George Jocelyn, MP, of Newport, tipperary, Member of Parliament for Dundalk. He was MP for Dublin City in 1830-1831 and 1832 and he resigned his seat by becoming Steward of the Chiltern Hundreds. Whitehall Road, was known by the Profession of the Baron as Recorders Road, or Bothair an Racadair and he was a distant relative of the writer George Bernard Shaw, whose father was a cousin of Frederick Shaw. He is buried in Saint Marys Church Crumlin Dublin, on his death his eldest son Robert Shaw succeeded to his baronetcy. Whos Who of British Members of Parliament, Vol, I 1832-1885, edited by Michael Stenton Leigh Rayments list of baronets Leigh Rayments Historical List of MPs Hansard 1803–2005, contributions in Parliament by George Alexander Hamilton
2.
George Alexander Hamilton
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George Alexander Hamilton was a minor British Conservative Party politician and later a prominent civil servant. Hamilton was seated as a member of parliament for Dublin City on 13 April 1835 and he represented this constituency until he was defeated in the general election of 1837. Hamilton was subsequently elected one of the MPs for Dublin University at a by-election on 10 February 1843 and he occupied the political post of Financial Secretary to the Treasury in the first and the second governments of the Earl of Derby. Hamilton was appointed Assistant Secretary to the Treasury in 1859 and Permanent Secretary to the Treasury in 1867 and these were the most senior civil service posts in the Treasury at that time, and Hamilton continued to serve until 1870. He was made a member of the Privy Council on 7 August 1869, Hamilton was born at Tyrellas, Downpatrick, County Down, on 29 August 1802. He was elder son of the Rev. George Hamilton of Hampton Hall, Balbriggan, County Dublin and his grandfather, George Hamilton, who was a baron of the exchequer from 1777 to 1793, was a nephew of Hugh Hamilton, bishop of Ossory. He was sent to Rugby School in 1814, and matriculated from Trinity College, Oxford,15 December 1818, took his B. A. degree in 1821, and was created D. C. L. Soon after leaving the university he settled on his paternal estate, at the general election in 1826 he became a candidate for the representation of that city, but after a severe and expensive contest lasting fourteen days was defeated by a small majority. In 1830 and 1832 he again contested the seat for Dublin. At the close of another election for Dublin in January 1835 the numbers were, OConnell 2,678, Ruthven 2,630, Hamilton 2,461, West 2,455. A petition was, however, presented, the commissioners sat from 3 May 1835 to 6 January 1836, and from 29 Feb to 26 May, throughout his career he took the side of the Orangemen, and was a prominent figure in the Protestant demonstrations. On 10 February 1843, on the occurrence of a vacancy, he was returned by the university of Dublin. To him was due the formation of the Conservative Society for Ireland. On 2 June 1845 he spoke on the subject of the godless college bill, another speech of 21 August 1848 was printed with the title of Education in Ireland. Report of Speech in the House of Commons on Mr. Hamiltons motion on above subject,1848, on 21 June 1849 his proposal for an alteration in education in Ireland so as to make it acceptable to the Protestant clergy was lost by 162 to 102 votes. At this latter date he was appointed permanent secretary of the treasury and he was sworn a member of the privy council 7 August 1869, and in the following year was named one of the commissioners of the church temporalities in Ireland. He was a magistrate and deputy-lieutenant for the county of Dublin, and he was chairman of the company that built the Great Northern Railway from Dublin to Belfast. During the Irish famine he chaired the Relief Committee in the Balrothery Union of parishes which provided soup, bread and he died in Kingstown, Ireland,17 September 1871 and was buried in St Georges church, Balbriggan
3.
Dublin
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Dublin is the capital and largest city of Ireland. Dublin is in the province of Leinster on Irelands east coast, the city has an urban area population of 1,345,402. The population of the Greater Dublin Area, as of 2016, was 1,904,806 people, founded as a Viking settlement, the Kingdom of Dublin became Irelands principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century and was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire before the Acts of Union in 1800, following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later renamed Ireland. Dublin is administered by a City Council, the city is listed by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network as a global city, with a ranking of Alpha-, which places it amongst the top thirty cities in the world. It is a historical and contemporary centre for education, the arts, administration, economy, the name Dublin comes from the Irish word Dubhlinn, early Classical Irish Dubhlind/Duibhlind, dubh /d̪uβ/, alt. /d̪uw/, alt /d̪u, / meaning black, dark, and lind /lʲiɲ pool and this tidal pool was located where the River Poddle entered the Liffey, on the site of the castle gardens at the rear of Dublin Castle. In Modern Irish the name is Duibhlinn, and Irish rhymes from Dublin County show that in Dublin Leinster Irish it was pronounced Duílinn /d̪ˠi, other localities in Ireland also bear the name Duibhlinn, variously anglicized as Devlin, Divlin and Difflin. Historically, scribes using the Gaelic script wrote bh with a dot over the b and those without knowledge of Irish omitted the dot, spelling the name as Dublin. Variations on the name are found in traditionally Irish-speaking areas of Scotland, such as An Linne Dhubh. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. Baile Átha Cliath, meaning town of the ford, is the common name for the city in modern Irish. Áth Cliath is a name referring to a fording point of the River Liffey near Father Mathew Bridge. Baile Átha Cliath was an early Christian monastery, believed to have been in the area of Aungier Street, there are other towns of the same name, such as Àth Cliath in East Ayrshire, Scotland, which is Anglicised as Hurlford. Although the area of Dublin Bay has been inhabited by humans since prehistoric times and he called the settlement Eblana polis. It is now thought that the Viking settlement was preceded by a Christian ecclesiastical settlement known as Duibhlinn, beginning in the 9th and 10th century, there were two settlements where the modern city stands. The subsequent Scandinavian settlement centred on the River Poddle, a tributary of the Liffey in an area now known as Wood Quay, the Dubhlinn was a small lake used to moor ships, the Poddle connected the lake with the Liffey. This lake was covered during the early 18th century as the city grew, the Dubhlinn lay where the Castle Garden is now located, opposite the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin Castle
4.
Cahersiveen
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Cahersiveen —alternate spellings Cahirsiveen, Cahirciveen or Caherciveen— is a town in County Kerry, Ireland. It is located on the River Fertha and is the town of the Iveragh Peninsula. Cahersiveen is near Valentia Island and is connected to the Irish road network by the N70 road and it has a population of 1,168. The Catholic church in the town is the one in Ireland named after a lay person. It is situated on the slopes of Beentee and it also contains a decommissioned Royal Irish Constabulary barracks, now a heritage centre, which according to legend, was built from the plans for a British barracks in India that got mixed up. Cahersiveen was where the first shots of the Fenian Rising were fired in 1867, the towns primary school Scoil Saidbhín was opened in September 2015. This school is an amalgamation of Scoil Mhuire, the primary school and St. Josephs convent. There are 4 primary schools in total in the parish of Cahersiveen, including schools on the outskirts of the town, Aghatubrid National school, Coars National School, the Aghatubrid school was established in 1964 and has approximately 88 students. Colaiste Na Sceilge is the secondary school located in Cahersiveen. Over 530 pupils attend Coláiste Na Sceilge, pupils from all around Iveragh attend the secondary school. For students interested in speaking their language there is An t-Aonad Lán-Ghaeilge. It is an all Irish-speaking class for 1st to 3rd year students, in 2012/2013 there were 26 students who enrolled into An t-Aonad Lán-Ghaeilge. The schools website is http, //colaistenasceilge. ie/ You can find a list of the primary schools, bernard OConnor, footballer Ada English, psychiatrist and revolutionary activist and politician List of towns and villages in Ireland Market Houses in Ireland Cahirciveen railway station
5.
County Kerry
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County Kerry is a county in Ireland. It is located in the South-West Region and is part of the province of Munster. It is named after the Ciarraige who lived in part of the present county, Kerry County Council is the local authority for the county and Tralee serves as the county town. The population of the county was 147,554 in 2016, Kerry is the fifth-largest of the 32 counties of Ireland by area and the 15th-largest by population. It is the second-largest of Munsters six counties by area, uniquely, it is bordered by only two other counties, County Limerick to the east and County Cork to the south-east. The diocesan see is Killarney, which is one of Irelands most famous tourist destinations, the Lakes of Killarney, an area of outstanding natural beauty are located in Killarney National Park. The tip of the Dingle Peninsula is the most westerly point of Ireland, there are nine historic baronies in the county. While baronies continue to be officially defined units, they are no longer used for administrative purposes. Their official status is illustrated by Placenames Orders made since 2003, the county is bounded on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and on the north by the River Shannon. Just off the coast are a number of islands, including the Blasket Islands, Valentia Island, skellig Michael is a World Heritage Site, famous for the medieval monastery clinging to the islands cliffs. The county contains the extreme west point of Ireland, Dunmore Head on the Dingle Peninsula, or including islands, Tearaght Island, the most westerly inhabited area of Ireland is Dún Chaoin, on the Dingle Peninsula. The River Feale, the River Laune and the Roughty River flow through Kerry, the North Atlantic Current, part of the Gulf Stream, flows north past Kerry and the west coast of Ireland, resulting in milder temperatures than would otherwise be expected at the 52 North latitude. This means that plants such as the strawberry tree and tree ferns, not normally found in northern Europe. Because of the area and the prevailing southwesterly winds, Kerry is among the regions with the highest rainfall in Ireland. Owing to its location, there has been a reporting station on Valentia for many centuries. The Irish record for rainfall in one day is 243.5 mm, in 1986 the remnants of Hurricane Charley crossed over Kerry as an extratropical storm causing extensive rainfall, flooding and damage. Kerry means the people of Ciar which was the name of the tribe who lived in part of the present county. The legendary founder of the tribe was Ciar, son of Fergus mac Róich, in Old Irish Ciar meant black or dark brown, and the word continues in use in modern Irish as an adjective describing a dark complexion
6.
Kingdom of Ireland
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The Kingdom of Ireland was a client state of the Kingdom of England that existed on Ireland from 1542 until 1800. It came into being when the Parliament of Ireland passed the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, the territory of the Kingdom had previously had the status of a lordship of the Crown. The Parliament of Ireland passed the Acts of Union 1800 by which it abolished itself, the act was also passed by the Parliament of Great Britain. The act also had the effect of establishing the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on the first day of 1801 by uniting the Crowns of Ireland, in its early years, the Kingdom of Ireland had limited recognition. While some Protestant powers in Europe recognised Henry and his heir Edward as monarch of Ireland, Henrys daughter, Queen Mary I of England, was recognised as Queen of Ireland by Pope Paul IV in 1555. The papal bull Laudabiliter of Pope Adrian IV was issued in 1155 and it granted the Angevin King Henry II of England the title Dominus Hibernae. Laudabiliter authorised the king to invade Ireland, to bring the country into the European sphere, in return, Henry was required to remit a penny per hearth of the tax roll to the Pope. This was reconfirmed by Adrians successor Pope Alexander III in 1172, when Pope Clement VII excommunicated the king of England, Henry VIII, in 1533, the constitutional position of the lordship in Ireland became uncertain. Henry had broken away from the Holy See and declared himself the head of the Church in England and he had petitioned Rome to procure an annulment of his marriage to Queen Catherine. The Treason Act 1537 was passed to counteract this, following the failed revolt of Silken Thomas in 1534–35, Grey, the lord deputy, had some military successes against several clans in the late 1530s, and took their submissions. By 1540 most of Ireland seemed at peace and under the control of the kings Dublin administration, Henry was proclaimed King of Ireland by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542, an Act of the Irish Parliament. The new kingdom was not recognised by the Catholic monarchies in Europe, after the death of King Edward VI, Henrys son, the papal bull of 1555 recognised the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I as Queen of Ireland. The link of personal union of the Crown of Ireland to the Crown of England became enshrined in Catholic canon law, in this fashion, the Kingdom of Ireland was ruled by the reigning King of England. This placed the new Kingdom of Ireland in personal union with the Kingdom of England, in line with its expanded role and self-image, the administration established the Kings Inns for barristers in 1541, and the Ulster King of Arms to regulate heraldry in 1552. Proposals to establish a university in Dublin were delayed until 1592, in 1603 James VI King of Scots became James I of England, uniting the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland in a personal union. The political order of the kingdom was interrupted by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms starting in 1639, during the subsequent interregnum period, England, Scotland and Ireland were ruled as a republic until 1660. This period saw the rise of the loyalist Irish Catholic Confederation within the kingdom and, from 1653, the kingdoms order was restored 1660 with the restoration of Charles II. Without any public dissent, Charless reign was backdated to his fathers execution in 1649, Poynings Law was repealed in 1782 in what came to be known as the Constitution of 1782, granting Ireland legislative independence
7.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
8.
Kingdom of Sardinia
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The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the state of todays Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, however, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia and its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages. Beginning in 1324, James and his successors conquered the island of Sardinia, in 1420 the last competing claim to the island was bought out. After the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sardinia became a part of the burgeoning Spanish Empire, in 1720 it was ceded by the Habsburg and Bourbon claimants to the Spanish throne to Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy. While in theory the traditional capital of the island of Sardinia and seat of its viceroys was Cagliari, the Congress of Vienna, which restructured Europe after Napoleons defeat, returned to Savoy its mainland possessions and augmented them with Liguria, taken from the Republic of Genoa. In 1847–48, in a fusion, the various Savoyard states were unified under one legal system, with the capital in Turin, and granted a constitution. There followed the annexation of Lombardy, the central Italian states and the Two Sicilies, Venetia, in 238 BC Sardinia became, along with Corsica, a province of the Roman Empire. The Romans ruled the island until the middle of the 5th century, when it was occupied by the Vandals, in 534 AD it was reconquered by the Romans, but now from the Eastern Roman Empire, Byzantium. It remained a Byzantine province until the Arab conquest of Sicily in the 9th century, after that, communications with Constantinople became very difficult, and powerful families of the island assumed control of the land. Starting from 705–706, Saracens from north Africa harassed the population of the coastal cities, information about the Sardinian political situation in the following centuries is scarce. There is a record of another massive Saracen sea attack in 1015–16 from the Balearics, the Saracen attempt to invade the island was stopped by the Judicatus with the support of the fleets of the maritime republics of Pisa and Genoa, free cities of the Holy Roman Empire. Pope Benedict VIII also requested aid from the republics of Pisa. Even the title of Judices was a Byzantine reminder of the Greek church and state, of these sovereigns only two names are known, Turcoturiu and Salusiu, who probably ruled in the 10th century. The Archons still wrote in Greek or Latin, but one of the first documents of the Judex of Cagliari, their successor, was written in romance Sardinian language. The realm was divided into four kingdoms, the Judicati, perfectly organized as was the previous realm, but was now under the influence of the Pope. That was the cause of leading to a long war between the Judices, who regarded themselves as kings fighting against rebellious nobles
9.
Glasnevin Cemetery
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Glasnevin Cemetery is a large cemetery in Glasnevin, Dublin, Ireland which opened in 1832. OConnell pushed for the opening of a ground in which both Irish Catholics and Protestants could give their dead dignified burial. Glasnevin Cemetery was consecrated and opened to the public for the first time on 21 February 1832, the first burial, that of eleven-year-old Michael Carey from Francis Street in Dublin, took place on the following day in a section of the cemetery known as Currans Square. The cemetery was known as Prospect Cemetery, a name chosen from the townland of Prospect. Originally covering nine acres of ground, the area of the cemetery has now grown to approximately 124 acres and this includes its expansion on the southern side of the Finglas Road with the section called St. Pauls. The option of cremation has been provided since March 1982, Glasnevin Cemetery remains under the care of the Dublin Cemeteries Committee. The development of the cemetery is a task with major expansion. The Catholic Mass is celebrated by members of the parish clergy every Sunday at 9.45 a. m, the annual blessing of the graves takes place each summer as it has done since the foundation of the cemetery in 1832. The cemetery is located in Glasnevin, Dublin, in two parts, the Glasnevin Trust Museum was designed by A&D Wejchert & Partners Architects. The cemetery contains historically notable monuments and the graves of many of Irelands most prominent national figures. The Sisters from the Convent arranged to have the remains cremated and reburied in a grave at Glasnevin Cemetery. The high wall with watch-towers surrounding the part of the cemetery was built to deter bodysnatchers. The watchmen also had a pack of blood-hounds who roamed the cemetery at night and these names are inscribed on two memorials, rededicated and relocated in 2011 to near the main entrance. A Cross of Sacrifice was erected in the cemetery, in a joint Irish-British commemoration ceremony, as of March 2017, there are 214 service personnel of the Commonwealth of both wars identified as buried here. Glasnevin is one of the few cemeteries that allowed babies to be buried in consecrated ground. In 1982, a crematorium was constructed within the grounds by Glasnevin Trust. Since then, the service has used for people of various religious denominations who wished to be cremated. Boyzone singer Stephen Gately was cremated at Glasnevin Crematorium within the grounds in October 2009
10.
Radicals (UK)
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The Radical movement arose in the late 18th century to support parliamentary reform, with additional aims including lower taxes and the abolition of sinecures. The term “Radical” itself, however, as opposed to “reformer” or “radical reformer”, only emerged in 1819, Radicals inside and outside Parliament were divided over the merits of the Whig Reform Act 1832. We have a church, an aristocratic bar, an aristocratic game-code. But in fact the Radicals failed either to take over a party, or to create a new. The first was the strength of Whig electoral power in the half-century following the 1832 Act. Whigs were also able to profit in two-member constituencies from electoral pacts made with a more reforming candidate, but thirdly, the Radicals were always more a body of opinion than a structured force. They lacked any party organisation, formal leadership, or unified ideology, following the First Reform Act, popular demand for wider suffrage was taken up by the mainly working-class movement, Chartism. Further Radical pressure led to the ballot and the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act of 1885. Joss Sheldon is an author from London who has written against war, the education system. Felix Holt, the Radical a social novel written by George Eliot, offered a view of an idealistic. Anthony Trollope offered a more shaded view in his outline for The Way We Live Now, has glimmerings of Radical policy for the good of the people”. The Difference Engine, an alternative history novel, which includes the fictional Industrial Radical Party, the History of the Radical Party in Parliament. London, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co. D. Worrall, Radical Culture Getting the vote
11.
Repeal Association
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The Repeal Association was an Irish mass membership political movement set up by Daniel OConnell in 1830 to campaign for a repeal of the Act of Union of 1800 between Great Britain and Ireland. On its failure by the late 1840s the Young Ireland movement developed, repealer candidates contested the United Kingdom general election,1832 in Ireland. Between 1835 and 1841, they formed a pact with the Liberals, repealer candidates, unaffiliated with the Liberal Party, contested the 1841 and 1847 general elections. The seats figure in brackets is the position after election petitions and by-elections consequent upon election petitions, had been decided, there were 103 Irish MPs in the period. Votes in 1835 and 1837 are included in the Liberal totals in Rallings, sources, Walker and Rallings & Thrasher. M
12.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
13.
Lincoln's Inn
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The Honourable Society of Lincolns Inn is one of the four Inns of Court in London to which barristers of England and Wales belong and where they are called to the Bar. It is recognised to be one of the worlds most prestigious professional bodies of judges and it is the largest Inn and it covers 11 acres. The other three are Middle Temple, Inner Temple and Grays Inn, the Inn is believed to be named after Henry de Lacy, 3rd Earl of Lincoln. The Inn is also known for its large garden and library. The nearest tube station is Holborn tube station or Chancery Lane, Lincolns Inn does not declare a specific foundation date, as there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court regards itself to be any older than the others. The Inn was home to influential people, including Prime Ministers, Chief Judges. During the 12th and 13th century, the law was taught in the City of London primarily by the clergy, as a result, the system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, as with the other Inns of Court, the precise date of founding of Lincolns Inn is unknown. The third Earl of Lincoln had encouraged lawyers to move to Holborn and it is felt that Lincolns Inn became a formally organised Inn of Court soon after the Earls death in 1310. At some point before 1422, the part of Lincolns Inn, as they had become known, after the Earl, moved to the estate of Ralph Neville. They retained Thavies and Furnivals Inn, using them as training houses for young lawyers, in 1537, the land Lincolns Inn sat on was sold by Bishop Richard Sampson to a Bencher named William Suliard, and his son sold the land to Lincolns Inn in 1580. The Inn became formally organised as a place of legal education thanks to a decree in 1464, during the 15th century, the Inn was not a particularly prosperous one, and the Benchers, particularly John Fortescue, are credited with fixing this situation. Lincolns Inn had no constitution or fundamental form of governance, admissions were recorded in the black books and divided into two categories, Clerks who were admitted to Clerks Commons, and Fellows Socii who were admitted to Fellows Commons. By 1466, the Fellows were divided into Benchers, those at the Bar, by 1502, the extra barram Fellows were being referred to as inner barristers, in contrast to the utter or outer barristers. A Bencher, Benchsitter or Master of the Bench is a member of the Council, the term originally referred to one who sat on the benches in the main hall of the Inn, which were used for dining and during moots, and the term originally had no significance. In Lincolns Inn, the idea of a Bencher was believed to have far earlier than elsewhere, there are records of four Benchers being sworn in 1440. William Holdsworth and the editor of the Black Books both concluded that Benchers were, from the earliest times, the governors of the Inn, the Governors were elected to serve a year-long term, with between four and six sitting at any one time. By the late 15th century, the group were the Governors with assistance and advice from the other masters of the Bench
14.
King's Inns
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The Honorable Society of Kings Inns is the institution which controls the entry of barristers-at-law into the justice system of Ireland. The full title retains the spelling variant honorable in preference to the contemporary Hiberno-English spelling of honourable. The society was created in 1541,51 years before Trinity College, Dublin was founded, the founders named their society in honour of King Henry VIII of England and his newly established Kingdom of Ireland. The society secured a lease of lands at Inns Quay on the bank of the River Liffey in Dublin. The society was reconstituted in 1607, having been inactive for some time, the building was completed by his pupil Henry Aaron Baker. Only from the middle of the century onwards were courses of legal education provided at Kings Inns. Candidates who have a law degree may apply for the Degree of Barrister-at-Law. Alternatively, candidates without a law degree may undertake the societys Diploma in Legal Studies before presenting for the societys degree. Those who are presented with the degree are entitled to be called to, in 2006, the society had an enrolment of approximately 300 students, whilst there are approximately 2,000 practising barristers. The library collection dates from the end of the 18th century, and was based on part of that of Christopher Robinson, senior judge of the Court of Kings Bench. Books were sold at auction at Sothebys, London, and a stock of them were sold to clients outside Ireland. This was seen at the time as a major cultural outflow, in addition, the societys library had received an annual grant since 1945 for the upkeep of the books from the Irish Exchequer. A Kings Inns team or individual has often won the prestigious Irish Times National Debating Championship, in 2006 the Inns hurling team competed in and won the Fergal Maher Cup in their inaugural year and have subsequently reached the final and semi-final. After crossing Bolton Street, Henrietta Street runs into Kings Inns Street, the latter was renamed due to its proximity to the Kings Inns. In 1756, this appears as Turn Again Lane on Rocques map of Dublin. Henrietta Street is thought to have been named by Luke Gardiner in honour of Henrietta Somerset and her portrait by Enoch Seeman survives
15.
Barrister
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A barrister is a type of lawyer in common law jurisdictions. Barristers mostly specialise in courtroom advocacy and litigation and their tasks include taking cases in superior courts and tribunals, drafting legal pleadings, researching the philosophy, hypothesis and history of law, and giving expert legal opinions. Often, barristers are also recognised as legal scholars, Barristers are distinguished from solicitors, who have more direct access to clients, and may do transactional-type legal work. It is mainly barristers who are appointed as judges, and they are hired by clients directly. In England and Wales, barristers may seek authorisation from the Bar Standards Board to conduct litigation and this allows a barrister to practise in a dual capacity, fulfilling the role of both barrister and solicitor. A barrister, who can be considered as a jurist, is a lawyer who represents a litigant as advocate before a court of appropriate jurisdiction, a barrister speaks in court and presents the case before a judge or jury. In some jurisdictions, a barrister receives additional training in law, ethics. In contrast, a solicitor generally meets with clients, does preparatory and administrative work, in this role, he or she may draft and review legal documents, interact with the client as necessary, prepare evidence, and generally manage the day-to-day administration of a lawsuit. Barristers usually have particular knowledge of law, precedent. When a solicitor in general practice is confronted with a point of law. In most countries, barristers operate as sole practitioners, and are prohibited from forming partnerships or from working as a barrister as part of a corporation, however, barristers normally band together into chambers to share clerks and operating expenses. Some chambers grow to be large and sophisticated, and have a corporate feel. In some jurisdictions, they may be employed by firms of solicitors, banks, in contrast, solicitors and attorneys work directly with the clients and are responsible for engaging a barrister with the appropriate expertise for the case. Barristers generally have little or no contact with their lay clients. All correspondence, inquiries, invoices, and so on, will be addressed to the solicitor, in court, barristers are often visibly distinguished from solicitors by their apparel. For example, in Ireland, England, and Wales, a barrister usually wears a wig, stiff collar, bands. Since January 2008, solicitor advocates have also been entitled to wear wigs, in many countries the traditional divisions between barristers and solicitors are breaking down. Barristers once enjoyed a monopoly on appearances before the courts, but in Great Britain this has now been abolished
16.
Yeomanry
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Yeomanry is a designation used by a number of units or sub-units of the British Army Reserve, descended from volunteer cavalry regiments. Today, Yeomanry units serve in a variety of different military roles, in the 1790s, the threat of invasion of the Kingdom of Great Britain was high, after the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. To improve the defences, volunteer regiments were raised in many counties from yeomen. These regiments became known collectively as the Yeomanry, members of the yeomanry were not obliged to serve overseas without their individual consent. In 1827 it was decided for reasons to reduce the number of yeomanry regiments. A number of independent troops were also dissolved, following these reductions the yeomanry establishment was fixed at 22 corps receiving allowances and a further 16 serving without pay. During the 1830s the number of yeomanry units fluctuated, reflecting the level of civil unrest in any region at any particular time. The Irish Yeomanry, which had played a role in suppressing the rebellion of 1798, was completely disbanded in 1838. For the next thirty years the Yeomanry Force was retained as a line of support for the regular cavalry within Britain. Recruiting difficulties led to serious consideration being given to the disbandment of the force in 1870. These included requirements that individual yeomanry troopers attend a number of drills per year in return for a permanent duty allowance. While these reforms improved the professionalism of the Yeomanry Force, numbers remained low, in 1876 the role of the Yeomanry Force was fixed as that of light cavalry. These supernumerary units were now abolished, during the Second Boer War companies of Imperial Yeomanry were formed to serve overseas from volunteers from the Yeomanry. In 1901 all yeomanry regiments were redesignated as Imperial Yeomanry, in 1908 the Imperial Yeomanry was merged with the Volunteer Force to form the Territorial Force, of which it became the cavalry arm. The Imperial title was dropped at the same time, on the eve of World War I in 1914 there were 55 Yeomanry regiments, each of four squadrons instead of the three of the regular cavalry. Upon embodiment these regiments were brought together to form mounted brigades or allocated as divisional cavalry. For purposes of recruitment and administration the Yeomanry were linked to counties or regions. Some of the still in existence in 1914 dated back to those created in the 1790s while others had been created during a period of expansion following on the Boer War
17.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
18.
Catholic emancipation
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Requirements to abjure the temporal and spiritual authority of the Pope and transubstantiation placed major burdens on Roman Catholics. The penal laws started to be dismantled from 1766, the most significant measure was the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829, which removed the most substantial restrictions on Roman Catholicism in the United Kingdom. In Canada, British since 1763, the Quebec Act of 1774 ended some restrictions on Roman Catholics, reaction against this led to riots in Scotland in 1779 and then the Gordon Riots in London on June 2,1780. Further relief was given by an Act of 1782 allowing the establishment of Roman Catholic schools, the British Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791 was adopted by the Irish Parliament in 1792–93. Since the electoral franchise at the time was determined by property. Non-conformists also suffered discrimination at this time, but it was expected to be a consequence given the proportionately small number of Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom as a whole. William Pitt the Younger, the Prime Minister, had promised emancipation to accompany the Act, no further steps were taken at that stage, however, in part because of the belief of King George III that it would violate his Coronation Oath. Pitt resigned when the Kings opposition became known, as he was unable to fulfill his pledge, Catholic emancipation then became a debating point rather than a major political issue. The increasing number of Irish Catholics serving in the British army led to the army giving freedom of worship to Catholic soldiers in 1811 and their contribution in the Napoleonic wars may have contributed to the support of Wellington for emancipation. In 1823, Daniel OConnell started a campaign for emancipation by establishing the Catholic Association, in 1828 he stood for election in County Clare in Ireland and was elected even though he could not take his seat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. He repeated this feat in 1829, oConnells manoeuvres were important, but the decisive turning point came with the change in public opinion in Britain in favour of emancipation. Politicians understood the importance of public opinion. They were influenced as well by the support for the measure by the Whigs in the House of Lords. The balance of opinion in the House of Lords shifted abruptly in 1828–29 in response to public opinion, in 1828 the Sacramental Test Act removed the barrier that required certain public officials to be members of the Established Church. Finally, the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel changed positions and this removed many of the remaining substantial restrictions on Roman Catholics throughout the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The major beneficiaries were the Roman Catholic middle classes, who could now enter careers in the civil service. The year 1829 is therefore regarded as marking the chief moment of Emancipation in Britain. The obligation, however, to pay tithes to the established Anglican church in Ireland remained, resulting in the Tithe War of the 1830s, a series of further reforms were introduced over time
19.
Parliament of the United Kingdom
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It alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. Its head is the Sovereign of the United Kingdom and its seat is the Palace of Westminster in the City of Westminster, one of the boroughs of the British capital, the parliament is bicameral, consisting of an upper house and a lower house. The Sovereign forms the third component of the legislature, prior to the opening of the Supreme Court in October 2009, the House of Lords also performed a judicial role through the Law Lords. The House of Commons is an elected chamber with elections held at least every five years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster in London, most cabinet ministers are from the Commons, whilst junior ministers can be from either House. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by Acts of Union passed by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The UK parliament and its institutions have set the pattern for many throughout the world. However, John Bright – who coined the epithet – used it with reference to a rather than a parliament. In theory, the UKs supreme legislative power is vested in the Crown-in-Parliament. However, the Crown normally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801, by the merger of the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland under the Acts of Union. The principle of responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century—the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an electoral system. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, many small constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, were controlled by members of the House of Lords, who could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. During the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, No longer dependent on the Lords for their seats, MPs grew more assertive. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century, in 1909, the Commons passed the so-called Peoples Budget, which made numerous changes to the taxation system which were detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, on the basis of the Budgets popularity and the Lords consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament Bill, in the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. However, regardless of the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949, the Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster
20.
Acts of Union 1800
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The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland to create the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with effect from 1 January 1801. Both Acts, though amended, still remain in force in the United Kingdom. Since the 12th century, the King of England had been technical overlord of the Lordship of Ireland, both the Kingdoms of Ireland and England later came into personal union with that of Scotland upon the Union of the Crowns in 1603. In 1707, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were united into a single kingdom, each Act had to be passed in both the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland. The Parliament of Ireland had recently gained a measure of legislative independence under the Constitution of 1782. Many members of the Irish Parliament jealously guarded this autonomy and a motion for union was rejected in 1799. Only Anglicans were permitted to become members of the Parliament of Ireland, though the majority of the Irish population were Roman Catholic. In 1793 Roman Catholics regained the right to vote if they owned or rented property worth £2 p. a. The Catholic hierarchy was strongly in favour of union, hoping for rapid emancipation, also the Irish and British parliaments, when creating a regency during King George IIIs madness, gave the Prince Regent different powers. These considerations led Great Britain to decide to attempt merger of the two kingdoms and their parliaments, whereas the first attempt had been defeated in the Irish House of Commons by 109 votes against to 104 for, the second vote in 1800 produced a result of 158 to 115. The Acts of Union were two complementary Acts, namely, The Union with Ireland Act 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain, and The Act of Union 1800, an Act of the Parliament of Ireland. They were passed on 2 July 1800 and 1 August 1800 respectively and they ratified eight articles which had been previously agreed by the British and Irish Parliaments, Articles I–IV dealt with the political aspects of the Union. The other 84 Irish parliamentary boroughs were disfranchised, all were pocket boroughs, article VI created a customs union, with the exception that customs duties on certain British and Irish goods passing between the two countries would remain for 10 years. Article VII stated that Ireland would have to contribute two-seventeenths towards the expenditure of the United Kingdom, the figure was a ratio of Irish to British foreign trade. Article VIII formalised the legal and judicial aspects of the Union, part of the attraction of the Union for many Irish Catholics was the promise of Catholic Emancipation, allowing Roman Catholic MPs, who had not been allowed in the Irish Parliament. This was however blocked by King George III who argued that emancipating Roman Catholics would breach his Coronation Oath, in the first Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the members of the House of Commons were not elected afresh. The flag, created as a consequence of the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1800, called the Union Flag, it combined the flags of St Georges Cross and the St Andrews Saltire of Scotland with the St Patricks Saltire to represent Ireland. The Irish Constitutional Tradition, Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782–1992, gill & Macmillan, Dublin, Ireland,2003
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United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
22.
Catholic Association
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It was one of the first mass-membership political movements in Europe. The Catholic Association was founded in 1823 by Daniel OConnell and it was the latest in a series of similar associations formed over the previous ten years or so, none of these had prospered. In 1824, the Catholic Association began to use the money that it had raised in order to campaign for Catholic emancipation, furthermore, in this year the association created a new category of associate member at the cost of a penny a month, the so-called Catholic Rent. The reasoning behind the creation of new membership category was to stimulate a swelling in association numbers. This new cheaper category ensured Catholics from a poorer background could join, the Catholic rent transformed the association. Arguably, it could be interpreted as having transformed the history of Ireland. In terms of the association, the rent catalysed a transformation in a number of ways, firstly, as previously mentioned, it gave the Catholic Association a constant source of money which enabled Daniel OConnell to run a consistent campaign. Secondly, it facilitated easy calculation of total membership numbers so that OConnell could say with confidence that he had the support of so many people. This was important as it could be used to apply pressure against the British government, third, and perhaps most importantly however, it announced the arrival of mass mobilisation politics, it being the first such populist movement in Europe. Daniel OConnell decided to add this additional level, at a reduced price of a penny a month. With the membership subscription set at a cheap price, a large number of the peasant. In effect, it became a universal Catholic organisation, transparent, members of the association were in essence the owners, their subscription fees going directly into the maintenance and running of the association. The fact that each member had contributed financially to the association also ensured that they were deeply involved in pushing the cause of Catholic emancipation. Thus, this ensured a cheap method for OConnell to get the message of Catholic emancipation spread throughout Ireland, the Catholic Associations funds were to be diffused widely in a variety of areas. Some was spent campaigning for Catholic emancipation, defraying the costs of sending petitions to Westminster, following the 1826 election campaign, funds were used to support the members of the organisation who had voted against their landlords. The money was used for those who had evicted from land by the landlords because of their connection to the Catholic organisation. The Catholic Associations funds were used to support these boycotts so that they could continue, the Catholic Association was originally aristocratic in its composition, and some of the gentry held relatively conservative views. However Daniel OConnell held an influence over the society and largely dictated the policies it pursued
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Reformism
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In contrast, reformism posits that a capitalist economy can be gradually transformed into a qualitatively different socialist system through political and economic reform. There are two types of reformism, one has no intention of bringing about socialism or fundamental economic change to society and is used to oppose such structural changes. The debate on the ability for social democratic reformism to lead to a socialist transformation of society is over a century old, according to Rosa Luxemburg, under reformism, is not overthrown, but is on the contrary strengthened by the development of social reforms. The French social theorist Andre Gorz criticized reformism by advocating an alternative to reformism. One of the delegates to the SPD congress, Eduard Bernstein, expanded on the concept, Bernstein was a leading social democrat in Germany. Reformism was quickly targeted by revolutionary socialists, with Rosa Luxemburg condemning Bernsteins Evolutionary Socialism in her 1900 essay Reform or Revolution. In 1959, the Godesberg Program marked the shift of the Social Democratic Party of Germany from a Marxist program espousing an end to capitalism to a reformist one focused on social reform. After Joseph Stalin consolidated power in the Soviet Union, the Comintern launched a campaign against the Reformist movement by denouncing them as social fascists, in modern times, reformists are seen as centre-left. Some social democratic parties, such as the Canadian NDP and the Social Democratic Party of Germany, are considered to be reformist. The term was applied to elements within the British Labour Party in the 1950s and subsequently, anthony Crosland wrote The Future of Socialism as a personal manifesto arguing for a reformulation of the term. Left reformism, the state and the problem of socialist politics today
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Whigs (British political party)
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The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Whigs origin lay in constitutional monarchism and opposition to absolute monarchy. The Whigs played a role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the standing enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715, and remained dominant until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760. The Whig Supremacy was enabled by the Hanoverian succession of George I in 1714, the Whigs thoroughly purged the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession, and local offices. The Partys hold on power was so strong and durable, historians call the period from roughly 1714 to 1783 the age of the Whig Oligarchy. The first great leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government through the period 1721–1742, his protégé was Henry Pelham, who led from 1743 to 1754. Both parties were founded on rich politicians, more than on votes, there were elections to the House of Commons. The Whig Party slowly evolved during the 18th century, later on, the Whigs drew support from the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants, while the Tories drew support from the landed interests and the royal family. The term Whig was originally short for whiggamor, a term meaning cattle driver used to describe western Scots who came to Leith for corn. In the reign of Charles I the term was used during Wars of the Three Kingdoms to refer derisively to a faction of the Scottish Covenanters who called themselves the Kirk Party. It was then applied to Scottish Presbyterian rebels who were against the Kings Episcopalian order in Scotland, Whig was a term of abuse applied to those who wanted to exclude James on the grounds that he was a Roman Catholic. The fervent Tory Samuel Johnson often joked that the first Whig was the Devil, the Whigs, under Lord Shaftesburys leadership, wished to exclude the Duke of York from the throne due to his Catholicism, his favouring of monarchical absolutism and his connections to France. They believed the Duke, if allowed to inherit the throne, would endanger the Protestant religion, liberty, the first Exclusion Bill was supported by a substantial majority on its second reading in May 1679. In response, King Charles prorogued Parliament and then dissolved it and this new parliament did not meet for thirteen months, because Charles wanted to give passions a chance to die down. When it met in October 1680, an Exclusion Bill was introduced and passed in the Commons without major resistance, Charles dissolved Parliament in January 1681, but the Whigs did not suffer serious losses in the ensuing election. The next Parliament first met in March, at Oxford, but Charles dissolved it only after a few days, when he made an appeal to the country against the Whigs, and determined to rule without Parliament. In February, Charles had made a deal with the French King Louis XIV, without Parliament, the Whigs gradually crumbled, mainly due to the Rye House Plot
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Young Ireland
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Young Ireland was a political, cultural and social movement of the mid-19th century. It began as a tendency within Daniel OConnells Repeal Association, associated with The Nation newspaper, Young Ireland led changes in Irish nationalism, including an abortive rebellion known as the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. Many of the leaders were tried for sedition and sentenced to penal transportation to Van Diemens Land. From its beginnings in the late 1830s, Young Ireland grew in influence, some of the junior members of the movement went on to found the Irish Republican Brotherhood. The name Young Ireland was originally used in a way to describe the group of young Repeal Association members who were associated with The Nation newspaper. At the time, the Repeal Association was campaigning for the repeal of the Act of Union 1800 between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The term was first coined by the English press, and later used by leader Daniel OConnell in an attack at Conciliation Hall. Young Ireland traced its origins to the new College Historical Society, founded on 29 March 1839, among the members of this new society were John Blake Dillon, Thomas MacNevin, William Eliot Hudson and Thomas Davis, who was elected its president in 1840. While still at Trinity College, Davis had addressed the Dublin Historical Society, Davis became president and gave two lectures. (Available from the National Library of Ireland, the lectures clearly show that Davis had become a convinced Irish nationalist by this period, on 15 April 1840, Daniel O’Connell held the first meeting of his new Repeal Association, in the Corn Exchange, Dublin. The group was received with sneers, and O’Connell’s sincerity was questioned, in the General Election in 1832, O’Connell had made the same appeal for repeal. Although half the representatives chosen for Ireland were pledged Repealers, O’Connell dropped the demand, several new members accepted appointments under the system they had pledged to overthrow. Since that time, O’Connell had become an ally of the Whigs. As they were expected to fall from power in 1840, activists renewing the agitation for Repeal was suspected as a devise to embarrass the new administration, not one man of status, outside the members of the defunct Association, joined the ranks of the new one. O’Connell welcomed them and made members of the General Committee. The two men began their work in earnest, Davis first became Chairman of a sub-committee in charge of the registers of the Association, which contained the names of all the Members. Davis thus could communicate with all the politicians of the Party. As editors they featured articles on topics as Protestant nationality, historical parallels from classic and mediaeval history
26.
O'Connell family
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The OConnell family, principally of Derrynane, are a Gaelic Irish noble family of County Kerry in Munster. The principal seat of the line of the family was Derrynane House. According to tradition, they descend from the ancient Uí Fidgenti of County Limerick, being descendants of Dáire Cerbba and it has been suggested that the OConnells are a sept of the Corcu Duibne, the Ua Congaile, a kingdom native to County Kerry. But through marriage they are related to the various ancient royal families of Munster. The province of Munster was itself divided into several exclusive provinces, John OConnell Maurice OConnell Baron Moritz OConnell Daniel OConnell Morgan OConnell Daniel OConnell, The Liberator Maurice OConnell Morgan OConnell John OConnell Daniel OConnell, Jr
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Daniel Charles O'Connell
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Daniel Charles, Count OConnell was the uncle of Daniel OConnell the Liberator. Then he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel and transferred back to the Royal Swedish Regiment, with which he saw action at the siege of Port Mahon, at Gibraltar he was on board one of the famous floating batteries and was severely wounded. He was later appointed Colonel Commander of the Salm-Salm Regiment, and was created a Chevalier of the Order of Saint Louis and he also was appointed to a military committee charged with revising French infantry tactics. Daniel Charles OConnell was created Count OConnell by Louis XVI in 1785 and he became an officer in the French kings Irish Brigade. He was a friend of, among others, Benoît de Boigne, OConnell left France for England after the French Revolution. He died at Blois, France, at the chateau of his stepdaughter, in July 1833, holding the ranks of General in the French, OConnell of Derrynane Irish nobility Uí Fidgenti
28.
French Army
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The French Army, officially the Land Army is the land-based and largest component of the French Armed Forces. Along with the French Air Force, the French Navy and the National Gendarmerie, the current Chief of Staff of the French Army is General Jean-Pierre Bosser, a direct subordinate of the Chief of the Defence Staff. All soldiers are considered professionals following the suspension of conscription, voted in parliament in 1997, as of 2014, the French Army employed 111,628 personnel. In addition, the element of the French Army consisted of 15,453 personnel of the Operational Reserve. The Kings of France needed reliable troops during and after the Hundred Years War and these units of troops were raised by issuing ordonnances to govern their length of service, composition and payment. These Compagnies dordonnance formed the core of the Gendarme Cavalry into the sixteenth century, stationed throughout France and summoned into larger armies as needed. There was also made for Francs-archers units of bowmen and foot soldiers raised from the non-noble classes. The bulk of the infantry for warfare was still provided by urban or provincial militias, raised from an area or city to fight locally and named for their recruiting grounds. Gradually these units became more permanent, and in 1480s Swiss instructors were recruited and these men would be paid and contracted and receive training. Henry II further regularised the French army by forming standing Infantry regiments to replace the Militia structure, the first of these the Régiments de Picardie, Piémont, Navarre and Champagne were called the Les Vieux Corps. It was normal policy to disband regiments after a war was over as a cost saving measure with the Vieux Corps and the Kings own Household Troops the Maison du Roi being the only survivors. Regiments could be raised directly by the King and so called after the region in which they were raised, or by the nobility and so called after the noble or his appointed colonel. In 1684 there was a reorganisation of the French infantry and again in 1701 to fit in with Louis XIVs plans. This reshuffle created many of the regiments of the French Army and standardised their equipment. The army of the Sun King tended to wear coats with coloured linings. There were exceptions and the troops, recruited from outside France. In addition to these regiments of the line the Maison du Roi provided several elite units, the Swiss Guards, French Guards, the revolution split the army with the main mass losing most of its officers to aristocratic flight or guillotine and becoming demoralised and ineffective. The French Guard joined the revolt and the Swiss Guards were massacred during the storming of the Tuileries palace, under Napoleon I, the French Army conquered most of Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
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Douai
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Douai is a commune in the Nord département in northern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department, located on the river Scarpe some 40 kilometres from Lille and 25 km from Arras, Douai is home to one of the regions most impressive belfries. The population of the area, including Lens, was 552,682 in 1999. The main industries in the town are in the chemical and metal engineering sectors, Renault has a large vehicle assembly plant near the town, which has produced many well known Renault vehicles, such as the R14, R11, R19, and the Megane and Scenic of today. The Gare de Douai railway station is served by trains towards Lille, Arras, Lens, Amiens, Saint-Quentin. It is also connected to the TGV network, with high speed trains to Paris, Lyon, Nantes and its site probably corresponds to that of a 4th-century Roman fortress known as Duacum. From 10th century the town was a fiefdom of the counts of Flanders. The town became a textile market centre during the Middle Ages. In 1384, the county of Flanders passed into the domains of the Dukes of Burgundy, in 1667, Douai was taken by the troops of Louis XIV of France, and by the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the town was ceded to France. During successive sieges from 1710 to 1712, Douai was almost completely destroyed by the British Army, by 1713, the town was fully integrated into France. Douai became the seat of the Parliament of Flanders, the town is still a transportation and commercial center for the area, which was known up to the Sixties for its coalfield, the richest in northern France. Douais ornate Gothic style belfry was begun in 1380, on the site of an earlier tower, the 80 m high structure includes an impressive carillon, consisting of 62 bells spanning 5 octaves. The originals, some dating from 1391 were removed in 1917 during World War I by the occupying German forces and they were reinstalled after repairs in 1924, but 47 of them were replaced in 1954 to obtain a better sound. An additional larger bell in the summit, a La called Joyeuse, dates from 1471, the chimes are rung by a mechanism every quarter-hour, but are also played via a keyboard on Saturday mornings and at certain other times. The substantial Porte de Valenciennes town gate, a reminder of the towns past military importance, was built in 1453, one face is built in Gothic style, while the other is of Classical design. The University of Douai was founded under the patronage of Phillip II and it was prominent, from the 1560s until the French Revolution, as a centre for the education of English Catholics escaping the persecution in England. Connected with the University were not only the English College, Douai, founded by William Allen, but also the Irish and Scottish colleges and the Benedictine, Franciscan and Jesuit houses. However, the community was expelled at the time of the French Revolution in 1793 and, after years of wandering, finally settled at Downside Abbey, Somerset
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Derrynane House
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Derrynane House was the home of Irish politician and statesman, Daniel OConnell. It is now an Irish National Monument and part of a 320-acre National Park, Derrynane House is the ancestral home of Daniel OConnell, lawyer, politician and statesman. Situated on 120 hectares of parklands on the scenic Kerry coast, access for visitors with disabilities to ground floor. The house is located on the Iveragh peninsula on the Ring of Kerry near the village of Derrynane in County Kerry, guided tours of the house are available on request, along with a visual presentation. The oldest part of the house, built in 1702, was demolished in 1967 for safety reasons during the restoration work, Daniel OConnell built the two-story south wing facing the sea and the library wing to the east in 1825, the oldest surviving part of the house. The chapel was added in 1844 and was modeled on the monastery chapel of Ahamore Abbey on nearby Abbey Island. Restoration work was completed in 1967, when the house was opened to the public as a museum by President De Valera. OConnell of Derrynane Derrynane Abbey Buildings of Ireland Heritage Ireland Derrynane House & National Park via Derrynane. com
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Wolfe Tone
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He was captured at Letterkenny port on 3 November 1798. Theobald Wolfe Tone was born on 20 June 1763, the Tones were descended from a French Protestant family who fled to England from Gascony in the 16th century to escape religious persecution. A branch of the family settled in Dublin in the 17th century, theobalds father Peter Tone was a Church of Ireland coach-maker who had a farm near Sallins, County Kildare. His mother came from a Catholic merchant family who converted to Protestantism after Theobald was born and his maternal grandfather was captain of a vessel in the West India trade. He was baptised as Theobald Wolfe Tone in honour of his godfather, Theobald Wolfe of Blackhall, County Kildare, however, it was widely believed that Tone was the son of Theobald Wolfe, which if true made him a half-brother of the poet Charles Wolfe. In 1783, Tone found work as a tutor to Anthony and Robert, younger half-brothers of Richard Martin MP of Galway, Tone fell in love with Martins wife, but later wrote that it came to nothing. During this period he considered a career in the theatre as an actor. He studied law at Trinity College, Dublin, where he became active in the College Historical Society debating club and he graduated BA in February 1786. He qualified as a barrister in Kings Inns at the age of 26, as a student, he eloped with Martha Witherington, daughter of William and Catherine Witherington of Dublin. She would go on to change her name to Matilda, on Wolfe Tones request, in September 1791 Tone published An Argument on behalf of the Catholics of Ireland, signed A Northern Whig. In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell, Napper Tandy and others, the Society of the United Irishmen. Until 1794, this society aimed at no more than the formation of a union between Catholics and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of parliamentary reform. In 1792 he was appointed assistant secretary of the Catholic Committee, the Catholics involved were not united regarding the steps they were taking, and in December 1791, sixty-eight members withdrew, led by Lord Kenmare, with the support of the higher clergy. A petition was made to King George III early in 1793, and they could not, however, enter parliament or be made state officials above grand jurors. The Convention voted to Tone a sum of £1,500 with a gold medal, in 1794 the Society of United Irishmen became a sworn association, using oaths that clearly aimed at the overthrow of the state. Tone drew up a memorandum for Jackson on the state of Ireland, an attorney named Cockayne, to whom Jackson had imprudently disclosed his mission, betrayed the memorandum to the government, and in April 1794 Jackson was arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United Irishmen, including Archibald Hamilton Rowan, fled the country, the papers of the United Irishmen were seized, and for a time the organisation was broken up. Tone, who had not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained in Ireland until after the trial of Jackson, the United Irishmen reformed in 1796
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Bantry Bay
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Bantry Bay is a bay located in County Cork, Ireland. The bay runs approximately 35 km from northeast to southwest into the Atlantic Ocean and it is approximately 3-to-4 km wide at the head and 10 km wide at the entrance. Bantry Inshore Search & Rescue Association provides a lifeboat service to the Bantry Harbour community. Equipped with a high speed rescue RIB BISRA is a resource of the Irish Coastguard. The bay is a deep and large bay, with one of the longest inlets in southwest Ireland, bordered on the north by Beara Peninsula. The southern boundary is Sheeps Head Peninsula, separating Bantry Bay from Dunmanus Bay, the main islands in the bay are Bere Island and Whiddy Island. Bere Island is located near the entrance to the bay on the side of the island is Berehaven Harbour. The town of Rerrin is the largest settlement on the island, the village of Ballynakilla is also located there. Whiddy Island is at the head of the bay near the south shore and it is the main petroleum terminus for Ireland, the harbour ideally suited for large oceangoing tankers. ConocoPhillips now maintains a Single Point Mooring at the Whiddy Island oil terminal, main routes that follow parts of the bay include the R572 and the N71. The Bantry Bay Golf Club is at the head of the bay, the OSullivan Beara Castle Dunboy is just across from Bere Island in Berehaven Harbour. Copper John Puxleys Manor is in Dunboy, the French fleet consisting of 43 ships carrying 15,000 troops had divided mid-Atlantic into smaller groups to avoid interception by the Royal Navy with orders to reform at Bantry Bay. The bulk of the fleet arrived successfully, but several ships, while awaiting their arrival, bad weather intervened and the lack of leadership, together with uneasiness at the prospect of being trapped, forced the decision to return to France. Tone wrote of the expedition in his diary, saying that We were close enough to toss a biscuit ashore in Ahabeg in Berehaven Harbour, the square in Bantry is today named after Wolfe Tone. A longboat used in a French scouting landed in Bere Island and it moved from Bantry House to Dublin in 1944 and was presented to the National Museum of Ireland. In 1977 it was lent to the Maritime Institute of Ireland who exhibited it in the National Maritime Museum of Ireland, Dún Laoghaire, a scale model is now displayed. It was restored at the Liverpool Museum at a cost of €50,000, the bay has had numerous shipwrecks over the years. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development code, IEBYT Durrus, Bantry. ie – Information about Bantry and Bantry Bay Beara Tourism Port of Bantry Bay Integrated Geophysical Surveys of The French Frigate La Surveillante pdf Byrne Ó Cléirigh Bantry Oil Terminal site
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Jockey Club
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For the North American thoroughbred horse racing industry see, The Jockey Club. For the club that was a fixture of high society in 19th century Paris see, for the horse racing track, known simply as Jockey Club, located in Paraguay see, Jockey Club del Paraguay. The registered charity Racing Welfare is also a limited by guarantee with the Jockey Club being the sole member. Formerly the regulator for the sport, the Jockey Clubs responsibilities were transferred to the Horseracing Regulatory Authority in 2006, the Jockey Club has long been thought to have been founded in 1750 - a year recognised by the club themselves from their own historic records. Some claim it was created earlier, in the 1720s, while others suggest it may have existed in the first decade of the century. It was founded as one of the most exclusive high society clubs in the United Kingdom. It was called The Jockey Club in reference to the medieval word for horsemen, prounced yachey. The clubs first meetings were held at the Star & Garter Pub at Pall Mall, London before later moving to Newmarket and it was historically the dominant organisation in British horseracing, and it remained responsible for its day-to-day regulation until April 2006. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, The Jockey Club had a clubhouse in Pall Mall and this can be compared with the way that crickets Marylebone Cricket Club became the governing body of cricket by default, but later surrendered most of its powers to more representative bodies. Before 2006, it was one of the three bodies which provided management for horse racing in the United Kingdom in conjunction with the British Horseracing Board and these regulatory responsibilities were transferred to a new Horseracing Regulatory Authority from 3 April 2006. The HRA itself ceased to exist on 31 July 2007 as its duties were merged with the governing responsibility of the British Horseracing Board to create the new British Horseracing Authority. Jockey Club Racecourses, operates 15 racecourses in Great Britain, which host a quarter of the racing calendar
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Liberty
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Liberty, in philosophy, involves free will as contrasted with determinism. In politics, liberty consists of the social and political freedoms to all community members are entitled. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of sin, spiritual servitude, as such, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Philosophers from earliest times have considered the question of liberty, according to Thomas Hobbes, a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath the will to do. John Locke rejected that definition of liberty, while not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke, In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule, in political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in the commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it, A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature is to be no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion, the modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was to not have a master and that was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it, This, another is that a man should live as he likes. This, they say, is the privilege of a freeman, since, on the other hand and this applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative, the populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men
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Bar Council of Ireland
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The Bar of Ireland is the regulatory and representative body for barristers practising law in the Republic of Ireland, active since 1897. The General Council of the Bar of Ireland is composed of members, twenty who are elected, four co-opted, and the Attorney-General. Every year ten members are elected for terms, five by senior counsel. The Bar of Ireland funds the Law Library, which has premises in Dublin in the Four Courts, Church Street, and the Criminal Courts of Justice, and also a smaller library in Cork. Membership of the Law Library is in effect compulsory for barristers wishing to practise in the Republic and is used as a metonym for the Irish Bar itself. Prior to the creation of the Bar of Ireland in 1897, of the 13 Taoisigh since the founding of the State, six trained to be barristers, John A Costello, Liam Cosgrave, Jack Lynch, Garret FitzGerald, Charles Haughey and John Bruton. Mary Robinson, Irelands first female president, was also a barrister before pursuing a career in politics. President Mary McAleese was a barrister and law lecturer, seán MacBride, who was the only person to be awarded both the Nobel Peace Prize and the Lenin Peace Prize, was also a barrister. Of the six Irish European Commissioners since 1973, four have been barristers, Richard Burke, Michael OKennedy, Peter Sutherland and David Byrne. Patrick Pearse, the leading Irish revolutionary of the century, had an early interest in the law. He practised at the Bar for a time, but instead of pursuing a career he decided to spend his life challenging the existing authority in the country. Sir Edward Carson, the orator and Unionist politician, began his career as a barrister. The first leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party was Isaac Butt, the most important Irish politician of the early nineteenth century, Daniel OConnell, was one of the most distinguished barristers of his day. Robert Emmet, the Irish revolutionary, studied at the Kings Inns, other famous Irish barristers include John FitzGibbon, 1st Earl of Clare, Wolfe Tone, and Henry Grattan. The Bar of Irelands code of conduct was changed on 13 March 2006 in a report on the barristers profession. In December 2006, the Competition Authority produced a report outlining and highlighting self-regulating procedures created and enforced by The Bar of Ireland. Barristers were allowed to advertise their services for the first time in 2008, the information may be illustrated by a passport-style photograph of the barrister. These regulations define a barrister as a person who has called to the Bar of Ireland
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Society of United Irishmen
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The Society of United Irishmen was founded as a liberal political organisation in 18th century Ireland that initially sought Parliamentary reform. However, it evolved into a revolutionary organisation, inspired by the American Revolution. It launched the Irish Rebellion of 1798 with the objective of ending British monarchical rule over Ireland and founding a sovereign, backing them up was the Irish Volunteers movement, which had widespread Protestant support. Whilst they had limited success such as the establishment of Grattans Parliament, when the parliamentary reform movement collapsed in 1784, it left radicals without a political cause. By the mid-1780s, radicalism in Ireland was taking a new, bolder form, typified by the letters penned by William Drennan which were published in the Belfast Newsletter and in pamphlets. Also in 1789 the Whig party was founded in Ireland and soon it became an alliance of radicals, reform-minded parliamentarians, by 1791 this alliance however was already fracturing, and several rival Whig clubs were set up by people such as Napper Tandy in Dublin and Belfast. Another grouping was an organisation of eleven people headed by Samuel Neilson. A couple of months later the Belfast Volunteer company gathered to celebrate the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille. It was intended that a new society was to be announced during the celebrations which William Drennan. Drennan refused due to the notice of the request and suggested that a Theobald Wolfe Tone be asked. Tones reformist radicalism had advanced beyond that of the Whigs, the first resolution was for the denouncing of the continuing interference of the British establishment in Irish affairs. The second was for the reform of the Irish parliament. The last resolution called for a union of religious faiths in Ireland to abolish the differences that had long divided Irishmen and this last proposal however was quietly dropped by the Belfast Volunteers to ensure unanimity for the proposals amongst the people. That October, Tone was invited to a debate on the creation of a new society by a group of people including Neilson, here he found that his resolutions were now found a few months later to be too tame. A new set of resolutions were drafted and agreed to on 14 October, which the Belfast branch of the Society of United Irishmen adopted on 18 October, and the Dublin branch on 9 November. The main problem they identified for Ireland was the issue of national sovereignty, two were Anglicans and the rest Presbyterian, most of whom were involved in the linen trade in Belfast. After forming, the Society named chandler Samuel McTier as its first President, the popularity of the society continued to grow throughout Ulster especially amongst the Presbyterians. In 1795 the United Irishmen linked up with the Defenders, a Catholic agrarian secret society, the movement quickly developed a strategy of spreading its ideals by means of pamphlets, leaflets, newspapers, ballads, catechisms and travelling emissaries
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "O'Connell, Daniel". Encyclopædia Britannica. 19 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 990–992.
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