1.
Governor of Louisiana
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This is a list of the Governors of Louisiana, from acquisition by the United States in 1803 to the present day, for earlier governors of Louisiana see List of colonial governors of Louisiana. In 1803, Europe was about to become involved in a continental war, the French Empire, led by Napoleon, had begun an aggressive expansionist policy which challenged the interests of United Kingdom. When the Haitian Revolution, with British support, overthrew the French colonial rule on that island, to finance this, Napoleon sold the colony of Louisiana to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. From 1804 to 1812, the area which would eventually become the modern state was known as the Territory of Orleans. The vast area to the north was called the Louisiana Territory, notes † Murdered/Died in office This is a table of congressional, other governorships, and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Louisiana except where noted, * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take. As of January 2017, there are five former U. S. governors of Louisiana who are living at this time. The most recent governor, and also the most recently serving governor, Louisiana Secretary of State website Cemetery Memorials by La-Cemeteries
2.
Edwin Edwards
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Edwin Washington Edwards is an American politician and member of the Democratic Party who served as the U. S. Representative for Louisianas 7th congressional district from 1965 to 1972 and as the 50th Governor of Louisiana for four terms and he served a total of sixteen years in office, the sixth-longest serving gubernatorial tenure in post-Constitutional U. S. history at 5,784 days. A colorful, powerful and legendary figure in Louisiana politics, Edwards, in 2001, he was found guilty of racketeering charges and sentenced to ten years in Federal prison. Edwards began serving his sentence in October 2002 in Fort Worth, Texas, Edwards was released from federal prison in January 2011, after serving eight years. He entered into home confinement at his daughters Denham Springs, Louisiana home through the supervision of a halfway house, following that, Edwards was placed on parole. In February 2013, Edwards was granted release from parole. His wife Trina made the announcement on her Facebook page, without a pardon, Edwards remains ineligible to seek the governorship until 15 years have passed from the end of his sentence. In 2013, Edwards co-starred, alongside his third wife Trina, in an A&E reality show, in 2014, Edwards ran in the 2014 election to represent Louisianas 6th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. He placed first in the primary, but was defeated by nearly 25 points in the runoff election. Edwin Washington Edwards was born in rural Avoyelles Parish, near Marksville and his father, Clarence Edwards, was a half-French Creole Presbyterian sharecropper, while his mother, the former Agnès Brouillette, was a French-speaking Catholic. Edwards ancestors were among early Louisiana colonists from France who eventually settled in Avoyelles Parish, Edwards, like many 20th century politicians from Avoyelles, assumed that he had Cajun ancestry, when in fact he may have had none. His father was descended from a family in Kentucky, who came to Louisiana during the American Civil War and his great-great-grandfather, William Edwards, was killed in Marksville at the beginning of the American Civil War because of his pro-Union sentiment. The young Edwards had planned on a career as a preacher, as a young man, he did some preaching for the Marksville Church of the Nazarene. He served briefly in the U. S. Navy Air Corps near the end of World War II. After his return from the military, he graduated at the age of twenty-one from Louisiana State University Law Center and began practicing law in Crowley, the seat of Acadia Parish. He relocated there in 1949 after his sister, Audrey E. Isbell, Edwards career was thus helped by his being bilingual and articulate in both English and Cajun French. He learned to cultivate the goodwill of the media, working reporters, one of his favorites was Adras LaBorde, longtime managing editor of the Alexandria Daily Town Talk in Alexandria. LaBorde even influenced Edwards in regard to environmental policy, in 1949, Edwards married Elaine Schwartzenburg, whom he had met at Marksville High School
3.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
4.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
5.
Louisiana's 3rd congressional district
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Louisianas 3rd congressional district is a congressional district in the U. S. state of Louisiana. The district covers the south central tier of the state west to the Texas border, Louisiana gained its 2nd and 3rd Congressional Districts in 1823 as part of the 18th United States Congress. Since at least the 1870s, the district has borne the heavy influence of southern Louisianas Acadian culture, martin represented the district as a Bull Moose Progressive from 1915 to 1919, when he switched to the Democrats. Martin remained in office as a Democrat until his death in 1929, the district became more competitive for the Republicans later in the 20th century. In 1966, Hall Lyons of Lafayette, polled 40 percent of the vote as a Republican candidate against veteran Democratic incumbent Edwin E. Willis, in 1972, the district elected David C. Treen as the first Republican U. S. representative from Louisiana since 1891, redistricting in the 1980s pushed the district out of the fast-growing suburbs of Metairie and the city of Kenner, to help keep the seat in the hands of Treens Democratic successor, Billy Tauzin. As a Republican, Tauzin continued to serve until retiring from Congress in 2005, Democrat Charlie Melançon won the seat in 2004, was reelected in 2006, and was unopposed in 2008. For most of the time from 1823 to 2013, the district contained large portions of southeastern and south central Louisiana, including River Parishes, in its final configuration, it contained the cities of Chalmette, Gonzales, Houma, Thibodaux, Morgan City, and New Iberia. However, when Louisiana lost a district after the 2010 census, the new 3rd included most of southwestern Louisiana, including Lafayette and Lake Charles. Most of this territory had been the 7th district before the 2010 census, the old 3rds last congressman, freshman Republican Jeff Landry, had his home in New Iberia drawn into the new 3rd and opted to run there against 7th District Congressman Charles Boustany. However, Landry could not overcome the fact that some 60 percent of the district was new to him, the new 3rd, like the old 3rd, has a rich Cajun culture. Louisianas congressional districts List of United States congressional districts Martis, Kenneth C, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present, bioguide. congress. gov, accessed November 18,2016. Rep. Clay Higginss official House of Representatives website
6.
Patrick T. Caffery
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Patrick Thomson Caffery, Sr. was born in St. Mary Parish in South Louisiana. His great-great-great-grandfather, Colonel John Donelson, was the co-founder of the City of Nashville and his great-great-great-great uncle, Andrew Jackson, served as the President of the United States. His grandfather, Donelson Caffery, served as a United States Senator, pat Caffery was born at Haifleigh Plantation in St. Mary Parish and reared in the parish seat of Franklin. He was the eleventh of twelve children of Ralph Earl Caffery and the former Letitia Decuir. An Eagle Scout, he was selected in 1950 in a competition by the Boy Scouts of America to present a State of the Nation report in the White House to then U. S. President Harry S. Truman. He graduated in 1955 from Southwestern Louisiana Institute, having awarded a music scholarship. He was a trumpet player and was named as coronet soloist with the SLI Stage Band. In 1956, he received a law degree from the Paul M. Hebert Law Center at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge and he was the managing editor of the Louisiana Law Review. In 1957, he became a member of the New Iberia law firm of Helm, Simon, Caffery and Duhe. He later practiced for years with later federal judges John Malcolm Duhé, Jr. and W. Eugene Davis in the law firm of Caffery, Duhé. From 1958 to 1962, he was an assistant district attorney for the 16th Judicial District Court in Iberia Parish, Caffery defeated fellow Democrat Edwin E. Willis, a 20-year incumbent, and a committee chairman, in the primary election held in August 1968. Two years earlier, Willis had survived the challenge waged by the Republican oilman Hall Lyons of Lafayette, Caffery ran without opposition in the general election in both 1968 and 1970. Representative Caffery was once called upon to join U. S, Senator Walter Mondale of Minnesota to answer President Richard M. Nixons State of the Union message. In 1970 he was selected by NBC News as the freshman congressman of the 91st Congress. As he left office he was awarded the Distinguished Service Award by the Americans for Constitutional Action and his seat then went Republican with the victory of future Governor David C. Treen, who had lost three House elections in the 1960s in Louisianas 2nd congressional district, in 1954, Caffery married Anne Leontine Bercegeay of Charenton in St. Mary Parish. There are three Caffery sons, Patrick, Jr. Kevin, and Michael, Caffery died in New Iberia at the age of eighty-one a week before Christmas,2013. He is interred at Beau Pre Cemetery in Jeanerette in Iberia Parish, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
7.
Billy Tauzin
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Wilbert Joseph Billy Tauzin II is an American lobbyist and politician. He was President and CEO of PhRMA, a pharmaceutical company lobby group and he was also a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1980 to 2005, representing Louisianas 3rd congressional district. While attending law school, he served as an aide in the Louisiana state Senate. He is married to Cecile Tauzin and has five children by a previous marriage, Tauzin began his elective career in 1972, when he was elected to the Louisiana House of Representatives and served four full terms as a Democrat. In his first term, he served alongside fellow Democrats Dick Guidry, Treen, U. S. Treen resigned his House seat on March 10,1980. Tauzin won an election for the seat on May 17 and was sworn into office on May 22. He won the race by seven points. Tauzin defeated Democratic State Senator Anthony Guarisco, Jr. of Morgan City and another Democrat-turned-Republican, Tauzin then won a full term in November 1980, with 85 percent of the vote against minimal opposition. For fifteen years, Tauzin was one of the more conservative Democrats in the United States House of Representatives. Even though he rose to become an assistant majority whip. When the Democrats lost control of the House after the 1994 elections, Tauzin was one of the cofounders of the House Blue Dog Coalition, others in the race were Republican Representative Bob Livingston of the New Orleans suburbs and two other Democrats, former U. S. Representative Speedy Long, and Louisiana Secretary of State James H. Jim Brown, however, on August 8,1995, Tauzin himself became a Republican and claimed that conservatives were no longer welcome in the Democratic Party. He soon became a Deputy majority whip, becoming the first Congressman to have part of the leadership of both parties in the House. Regardless of party, Tauzin remained popular at home, after 1980, he was reelected twelve more times without major-party opposition, the first nine of those completely unopposed. Tauzin served as chairman of the Energy and Commerce Committee from 2001 until February 4,2004 when he announced he wouldnt run for a 13th full term, in spite of his fathers support, the younger Tauzin was defeated by 569 votes by Democrat Charlie Melancon. During his tenure, he left his mark on issues ranging from gas, airline, trucking and electricity deregulation to the Clean Air Act, Superfund. In addition, he was an author of the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act. In 2003, he was inducted into the Louisiana Political Museum, in January 2005, the day after his term in Congress ended he began work as the head of the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, or PhRMA
8.
Baton Rouge, Louisiana
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Baton Rouge is the capital of the U. S. state of Louisiana and its second-largest city. It forms the seat of East Baton Rouge Parish and is located on the eastern bank of the Mississippi River. As the Capital City, Baton Rouge is the hub for Louisiana. The metropolitan area surrounding the city, known as Greater Baton Rouge, is also the second-largest in Louisiana, the urban area has around 594,309 inhabitants. Baton Rouge is an industrial, petrochemical, medical, research, motion picture. The Port of Greater Baton Rouge is the tenth largest in the United States in terms of tonnage shipped, the Baton Rouge area owes its historical importance to its strategic site upon the Istrouma Bluff, the first natural bluff upriver from the Mississippi River Delta. This allowed development of a business quarter safe from seasonal flooding, in addition, the city built a levee system stretching from the bluff southward to protect the riverfront and low-lying agricultural areas. The city is a rich center, with settlement by immigrants from numerous European nations. It was ruled by seven different governments, French, British, and Spanish in the era, West Floridian, United States territory and state, Confederate. Human habitation in the Baton Rouge area has been dated to 12000 –6500 BC based on evidence found along the Mississippi, Comite, earthwork mounds were built by hunter-gatherer societies in the Middle Archaic period, from roughly the 4th millennium BC. Eastern Muskogean began to diversify internally in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, at the time, the region appeared to be occupied by a collection of moderately-sized native chiefdoms interspersed with autonomous villages and tribal groups. French explorer Sieur dIberville led a party up the Mississippi River in 1699. The explorers saw a red pole marking the boundary between the Houma and Bayogoula tribal hunting grounds, see also Red Sticks for the ceremonial use of red sticks among the Muscogee. The location of the red pole was presumably at Scotts Bluff and it was reportedly a 30-foot-high painted pole adorned with fish bones. The settlement of Baton Rouge by Europeans began in 1721 when a military post was established by French colonists. Since European settlement, Baton Rouge has been governed by France, Britain, Spain, Louisiana, the Republic of West Florida, the Confederate States, and the United States. In 1755, when French-speaking settlers of Acadia in Canadas Maritime provinces were driven into exile by British forces, popularly known as Cajuns, the descendants of the Acadians maintained a separate culture. During the first half of the 19th century, the city grew steadily as the result of steamboat trade, Baton Rouge was incorporated in 1817
9.
Metairie, Louisiana
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Metairie is a census-designated place in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, United States and is a major part of the New Orleans Metropolitan Area. Metairie is the largest community in Jefferson Parish and the fifth-largest CDP in the United States and it is an unincorporated area that would be Louisianas fourth-largest city if it were incorporated. The zip codes that serve the community are 70001-70006, métairie is the French term for a small tenant farm which paid the landlord with a share of the produce, also known as sharecropping. In the 1760s, many of the original French farmers were tenants, after the US Civil War, the Acolapissa Native Americans used this ridge as a road, and it is the oldest road in the New Orleans area. Paved in the 1920s, it is called Metairie Road, an electric streetcar was installed running along Metairie Road in the late 1910s, opening the area to greater development. Upscale housing tracts were constructed off the road in the 1920s and it is today the most prestigious area of Metairie. The areas to the north and northwest of Metairie Road were not developed until after World War II, the land between Metairie Ridge and Lake Pontchartrain, which was cypress swamps and marshlands, was drained with the Wood Pump. With development of new land for residences, Metairies population grew in the 1940s as a result of cheaper land, lower taxes. In 1990, Metairie made history when one of its districts elected white supremacist David Duke to the Louisiana state legislature for a single term. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused a new migration from Orleans Parish and it has been a racially neutral migration, with equal numbers of black and white residents moving to Jefferson Parish. The 2010 Census showed that Metairie has increasingly become more diverse, Veterans Boulevard was laid out alongside a drainage canal, and became a commercial center of the region. The Central Business District of Metairie is located on Causeway Blvd near Lake Pontchartrain, Metairie also has one of the handful of major malls located in the New Orleans metro area. Lakeside Shopping Center is the mall in the New Orleans metropolitan area. In the 1970s and early 1980s, an area of bars, Fat City is now the most racially diverse area in the New Orleans Metropolitan Area and is home to a vibrant restaurant scene. Several New Orleans radio and television stations have transmitter facilities in Metairie and Jefferson Parish, Metairie has a large Mardi Gras season that touts itself as more family-friendly than the New Orleans Mardi Gras. The 1947 Fort Lauderdale Hurricane with winds of 125 mph directly hit Metairie, much of the community was under six feet of water. Hurricane Betsy, a category three storm, hit the area in 1965, causing wind damage and moderate flooding. On August 29,2005, Metairie was hit hard by the effects of Hurricane Katrina, including widespread wind damage
10.
United Methodist Church
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The United Methodist Church is a mainline Protestant denomination, and a major part of Methodism. In the 19th century, its main predecessor—the Methodist Church—was a leader in Evangelicalism and it was founded in 1968 in Dallas, Texas, United States, by union of the Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church. The UMC traces its roots back to the movement of John. As such, the theological orientation is decidedly Wesleyan. It embraces both liturgical and evangelical elements and it has a connectional polity, a typical feature of a number of Methodist denominations. The United Methodist Church, with at least 12 million members as of 2014, is the largest denomination within the wider Methodist movement of approximately 80 million people across the world. In the United States, the UMC ranks as the largest mainline Protestant denomination, the largest Protestant church after the Southern Baptist Convention, and the third largest Christian denomination. In 2014, its membership was distributed as follows,7.2 million in the United States. It is a member of the World Council of Churches, the World Methodist Council, the movement which would become The United Methodist Church began in the mid-18th century within the Church of England. A small group of students, including John Wesley, Charles Wesley and George Whitefield and they focused on Bible study, methodical study of scripture and living a holy life. Other students mocked them, saying they were the Holy Club, eventually, the so-called Methodists started individual societies or classes for members of the Church of England who wanted to live a more religious life. In 1735, John and Charles Wesley went to America, hoping to teach the gospel to the American Indians in the colony of Georgia, instead, John became vicar of the church in Savannah. His preaching was very legalistic and full of rules. After two years in America, he returned to England dejected and confused, Peter believed a person is saved solely through the grace of God and not by works, and John had many conversations with Peter about this topic. On May 25,1738, after listening to a reading of Martin Luthers preface to Romans, John finally understood that his works could not save him. For the first time in his life, he felt complete peace, in less than two years, the Holy Club disbanded. John Wesley met with a group of clergy, the ministers retained their membership in the Church of England. Though not always emphasized or appreciated in the Anglican churches of their day, their teaching emphasized salvation by Gods grace, three teachings they saw as the foundation of Christian faith were, People are all by nature dead in sin and consequently, children of wrath
11.
Mandeville, Louisiana
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Mandeville is a small city in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States. The population was 11,560 at the 2010 census, Mandeville is located on the North Shore of Lake Pontchartrain, south of Interstate 12. It is across the lake from the city of New Orleans and it is part of the New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner metropolitan area. Mandeville is the name of two villages in Normandy, France and it means big farm in medieval Norman French. The area had long been agricultural land when the town of Mandeville was laid out in 1834 by developer Bernard Xavier de Marigny de Mandeville, in 1840 Mandeville was incorporated as a town. It became a summer destination for well-to-do New Orleanians wishing to escape the citys heat. Bunk Johnson, Buddy Petit, Papa Celestin, George Lewis, Kid Ory, Edmond Hall, Chester Zardis, in the late 19th century, Mandeville was home of the Harvey School, a college preparatory institution. Among those educated there was Andrew Querbes, then of New Orleans, two buildings from early jazz history still stand in Mandeville. Rubys Roadhouse has been in operation since the 1920s and is still a popular bar. The Dew Drop Social and Benevolent Hall, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, for years the Hall hosted some of the jazz greats and was reopened in 2000 as the Dew Drop Jazz & Social Hall, a live jazz venue. In 1956, the first span of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway opened to automobile traffic, a second span was added in 1969. The new road spurred the growth of Mandeville and the area as a suburban commuter community for people working in New Orleans. This trend increased in the 1980s and 1990s, further integrating Mandeville into the Greater New Orleans metropolitan area, Mandeville is home to Southeast Louisiana Hospital, a mental health facility. Louisiana governor Earl Long was committed here in 1959 amidst much controversy, in July 2012, the Louisiana State Department of Health announced the closure of the hospital, citing reduced federal money from Medicaid. Mandeville is also home to the largest certified southern live oak tree, Mandeville was affected by Hurricane Katrinas storm surge in August 2005 and received water and wind damage. Parts of the city also experienced less dramatic flooding when Lake Pontchartrain overflowed its banks due to Hurricane Ike in 2008, by 2009, most of the reconstruction from Katrina was completed. Many homes and businesses in areas that experienced flooding have been elevated, Mandeville was named one of the Relocate America Top 100 Places to Live in 2004,2005,2007,2008, and 2009. Mandeville was among the recipients of Googles eCity award in 2013, actress Allison Scagliotti grew up in Mandeville
12.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
13.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
Tulane University
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Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States. It is generally considered the top university and the most selective institution of education in the state of Louisiana. From a nationwide perspective, U. S. News & World Report categorizes Tulane as most selective, the school is known to attract a geographically diverse student body, with 85% of undergraduate students coming from over 300 miles away. The school was founded as a medical college in 1834. The institution was privatized under the endowments of Paul Tulane and Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1884, Tulane is the 9th oldest private university in the Association of American Universities, which consists of major research universities in the United States and Canada. The Tulane University Law School and Tulane University Medical School are considered the 12th oldest and 15th oldest law and medical schools, respectively, members of Congress, heads of Federal agencies, two Surgeon Generals of the United States, U. S. At least two Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the University, the university was founded as the Medical College of Louisiana in 1834 partly as a response to the fears of smallpox, yellow fever, and cholera in the United States. The university became only the medical school in the South. In 1847, the legislature established the school as the University of Louisiana, a public university. Subsequently, in 1851, the university established its first academic department, the first president chosen for the new university was Francis Lister Hawks, an Episcopalian priest and prominent citizen of New Orleans at the time. The university was closed from 1861 to 1865 during the American Civil War, after reopening, it went through a period of financial challenges because of an extended agricultural depression in the South which affected the nations economy. Paul Tulane, owner of a dry goods and clothing business. This donation led to the establishment of a Tulane Educational Fund and this act created the Tulane University of Louisiana. The university was privatized, and is one of only a few American universities to be converted from a public institution to a private one. In 1884, William Preston Johnston became the first president of Tulane and he had succeeded Robert E. Lee as president of Washington and Lee University after Lees death. He had moved to Louisiana and become president of Louisiana State University, in 1885, the university established its graduate division, later becoming the Graduate School. One year later, gifts from Josephine Louise Newcomb totaling over $3.6 million, Newcomb was the first coordinate college for women in the United States and became a model for such institutions as Pembroke College and Barnard College. In 1894 the College of Technology formed, which would become the School of Engineering
16.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
17.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
18.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
19.
Reconstruction Era
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Johnson followed a lenient policy toward ex-Confederates. Lincolns last speeches show that he was leaning toward supporting the enfranchisement of all freedmen, whereas Johnson was opposed to this. A Republican coalition came to power in all the southern states and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor economy, using the U. S. Army. The Bureau protected the rights of freedmen, negotiated labor contracts. Thousands of Northerners came South as missionaries, teachers, businessmen, rebuilding the rundown railroad system was a major strategy, but it collapsed when a nationwide depression struck the economy. The Radicals in the House of Representatives, frustrated by Johnsons opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges, in early 1866, Congress passed the Freedmens Bureau and Civil Rights Bills and sent them to Johnson for his signature. Meanwhile, self-styled Conservatives strongly opposed reconstruction and they alleged widespread corruption by the Carpetbaggers, excessive state spending and ruinous taxes. Southern democrats and conservatives violently counterattacked and had regained power in each redeemed Southern state by 1877, meanwhile, public support for Reconstruction policies, requiring continued supervision of the South, faded in the North, as voters decided that the Civil War and years of conflict should stop. Reconstruction was a significant chapter in the history of civil rights in the United States, in the different states Reconstruction began and ended at different times, federal Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877. In recent decades most historians follow Foner in dating the Reconstruction of the south as starting in 1863 rather than 1865, Reconstruction policies were debated in the North when the war began, and commenced in earnest after Lincolns Emancipation Proclamation, issued on January 1,1863. As Confederate states came back under control of the US Army, President Abraham Lincoln set up reconstructed governments in Tennessee, Arkansas and he experimented by giving land to blacks in South Carolina. By fall 1865, the new President Andrew Johnson declared the war goals of national unity, Republicans in Congress, refusing to accept Johnsons lenient terms, rejected new members of Congress, some of whom had been high-ranking Confederate officials a few months before. Johnson broke with the Republicans after vetoing two key bills that supported the Freedmens Bureau and provided federal civil rights to the freedmen and that same year, Congress removed civilian governments in the South, and placed the former Confederacy under the rule of the U. S. Army. In ten states, coalitions of freedmen, recent black and white arrivals from the North, Conservative opponents called the Republican regimes corrupt and instigated violence toward freedmen and whites who supported Reconstruction. Most of the violence was carried out by members of the Ku Klux Klan, Klan members attacked and intimidated blacks seeking to exercise their new civil rights, as well as Republican politicians in the south favoring those civil rights. One such politician murdered by the Klan on the eve of the 1868 presidential election was Republican Congressman James M. Hinds of Arkansas, widespread violence in the south led to federal intervention by President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871, which suppressed the Klan. Nevertheless, white Democrats, calling themselves Redeemers, regained control of the state by state, sometimes using fraud. The end of Reconstruction was a process, and the period of Republican control ended at different times in different states
20.
Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era
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These measures were enacted by former Confederate states at the turn of the 20th century, and by Oklahoma upon statehood, although not by the border slave states. Their actions defied the intent of the Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1870, after regaining control of the state legislatures, Democrats were alarmed by a late 19th-century alliance between Republicans and Populists that cost them some elections. In North Carolinas Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, white Democrats conducted a coup detat of the city government and they overturned a duly elected biracial government headed by a white mayor, and widely attacked the black community, destroying lives and property. Many blacks left the city permanently and they succeeded in disenfranchising most of the black citizens, as well as many poor whites in the South, and voter rolls dropped dramatically in each state. The Republican Party was nearly eliminated in the region for decades, from the mid to the late 20th century, a wholesale party realignment took place, with white conservatives joining the Republican Party. Until then Southern Democrats controlled the politics of southern states and established white supremacy, as Congressional apportionment of seats was based on the total population, the Southern white Democrats, the Southern bloc, had tremendous legislative power for decades. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment could have used to reduce Congressional representation for states that denied suffrage on racial grounds. Opponents of the Southern bloc could not overcome their political power, in 1912, the Republican Party was split when Roosevelt ran against the regular Taft. In the South by this time, the Republican Party had been hollowed out by the disenfranchisement of African Americans, democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected as the first southern President since 1856. He was re-elected in 1916, in a much closer presidential contest, during World War I, American military forces were segregated, with black soldiers poorly trained and equipped. Disenfranchisement had far-reaching effects in Congress, where the Democratic Solid South enjoyed about 25 extra seats in Congress for each decade between 1903 and 1953, also, the Democratic dominance in the South meant that southern Senators and Representatives became entrenched in Congress. In addition, because black Southerners were not listed on local voter rolls, juries were all white across the South. Racial segregation in the U. S. military was ended in 1948 by Executive Order of President Harry S. Truman after World War II, legal racial segregation in the South did not end until after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The American Civil War ended in 1865, marking the start of the Reconstruction era in the eleven former Confederate states, Congress passed the Reconstruction Acts, starting in 1867, establishing military districts to oversee the affairs of these states pending reconstruction. Southern whites, fearing black domination, resisted the freedmens exercise of political power, in 1867, black men voted for the first time. By the 1868 presidential election, Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia had still not been re-admitted to the Union, General Ulysses S. Grant was elected as president thanks in part to 700,000 black voters. In February 1870, the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified, it was designed to protect blacks right to vote from infringement by the states, the insurgent Ku Klux Klan was formed in 1865 in Tennessee and quickly became a powerful secret vigilante group, with chapters across the South. The Klan initiated a campaign of intimidation directed against blacks and sympathetic whites and their violence included vandalism and destruction of property, physical attacks and assassinations, and lynchings
21.
State school
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State schools generally refer to primary or secondary schools mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded in whole or in part by taxation. The term may refer to public institutions of post-secondary education. State education is inclusive, both in its treatment of students and in that enfranchisement for the government of public education is as broad as for government generally and it is often organized and operated to be a deliberate model of the civil community in which it functions. Although typically provided to groups of students in classrooms in a school, it may be provided in-home, employing visiting teachers. It can also be provided in non-school, non-home settings, such as shopping mall space, State education is generally available to all. In most countries, it is compulsory for children to school up to a certain age. In the case of private schooling, schools operate independently of the state, the funding for state schools, on the other hand, is provided by tax revenues, so that even individuals who do not attend school help to ensure that society is educated. In poverty stricken societies, authorities are often lax on compulsory school attendance because child labour is exploited and it is these same children whose income-securing labor cannot be forfeited to allow for school attendance. The term public education when applied to schools is not synonymous with the term publicly funded education. Government may make a policy decision that it wants to have some financial resources distributed in support of, and it may want to have some control over. Grants-in-aid of private schools and vouchers systems provide examples of publicly funded private education, conversely, a state school may rely heavily on private funding such as high fees or private donations and still be considered state by virtue of governmental ownership and control. In some countries, private associations or churches can operate schools according to their own principles, when these specific requirements are met, especially in the area of the school curriculum, the schools will qualify to receive state funding. Proponents of state education assert it to be necessary because of the need in society for people who are capable of reading, writing. In most industrialized countries, these views are distinctly in the minority, Government schools are free to attend for Australian citizens and permanent residents, whereas independent schools usually charge attendance fees. They can be divided into two categories, open and selective schools, the open schools accept all students from their government-defined catchment areas. Government schools educate approximately 65% of Australian students, with approximately 34% in Catholic, regardless of whether a school is part of the Government or independent systems, they are required to adhere to the same curriculum frameworks of their state or territory. The curriculum framework however provides for flexibility in the syllabus. Public or Government funded schools are found throughout Bangladesh and these schools mostly teach students from Year 1 to 10, with examinations for students in years 5,8, and 10
22.
Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
23.
Kappa Sigma
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Kappa Sigma, commonly nicknamed Kappa Sig or K-Sig, is an American collegiate social fraternity founded at the University of Virginia in 1869. Kappa Sigma is one of the five largest international fraternites with currently 318 active chapters and its endowment fund, founded in 1919, is the oldest college fraternity foundation and has donated more than $5 million to undergrads since 1948. In 2012 alone, the Fraternitys endowment fund raised over $1 million in donations, on December 10,1869, five students at the University of Virginia met in 46 East Lawn and founded the Kappa Sigma Fraternity in America. These five founders became collectively known as the Five Friends and Brothers, in 1872, Kappa Sigma initiated Stephen Alonzo Jackson, who would go on to transform a struggling local fraternity into a strong international Brotherhood. In 1873, Kappa Sigma expanded to Trinity College, the University of Maryland, the fraternity attributes this growth to the initiation of Stephen Alonzo Jackson in 1872. During his membership, Jackson expanded and revised the ritual of Kappa Sigma and he created the Supreme Executive Committee, which now serves as the governing body of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity on an international level. In 1912, Wilbur F. Denious struck upon the idea to establish an endowment for Kappa Sigma. As a result of the work of him and many others. In 2003, the Kappa Sigma Fraternity ushered in an era of growth for the fraternity. In the Spring of 2005, Kappa Sigma Fraternity began fundraising for and this $6 million project had its grand opening on June 2,2007. At the 66th Conclave, the Kappa Sigma Endowment Fund was declared to be the official educational foundation of the fraternity and is also housed at the new headquarters. A man of honor and courage, a man of zeal, yet humble. One who tempers action with wisdom and, above all else and they also follow the four pillars of the Fraternity, Fellowship, Leadership, Scholarship, and Service. The Star and Crescent is also used as part of the guidelines behind Kappa Sigmas strict no-tolerance anti-hazing policy, the Fraternity takes all allegations of hazing very seriously and routinely revokes charters from guilty chapters which can be as old as 130 years. To be eligible for membership a prospective member must profess a belief in God, in at least one situation, Kappa Sigma has revoked a chapters charter for omitting the fraternitys religious requirements from its initiation. The Kappa Sigma Fraternity consists of over 300 chapters and colonies, each chapter is led by a five-member Executive Committee, each referred to as an officer. These officers consist of the Grand Master, Grand Procurator, Grand Master of Ceremonies, Grand Scribe, each chapter and colony also has a number of committee chairs that are assigned to specific areas. Over 1,500 alumni volunteer as advisors for Kappa Sigma, at the international level, the Supreme Executive Council sets policy for the fraternity, disciplines chapters, and approves the formation of colonies and chapter
24.
Fraternity
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A fraternity, fraternal order or fraternal organisation is an organisation, a society or a club of men associated together for various religious or secular aims. Fraternity in the Western concept developed in the Christian context, notably with the orders in the Catholic Church during the Middle Ages. Members are occasionally referred to as a brother or - usually in religious context - Frater or Friar, additionally, in modern times, it sometimes connotes a secret society, especially regarding freemasonry, odd fellows and various academic and student societies. There are mixed male and female fraternities and fraternal orders, as well as female religious orders and societies. Notable modern fraternities or fraternal orders that with time have evolved to more or less permit female members, include some grand lodges operating among freemasons, there are known fraternal organizations which existed as far back as ancient Greece and in the Mithraic Mysteries of ancient Rome. Analogous institutions developed in the medieval period called confraternities, which were lay organizations allied to the Catholic Church. The development of fraternal orders was especially dynamic in the United States. There have been hundreds of organizations in the United States. This led to the period being referred to as the Golden age of fraternalism, in 1944 Arthur M. Schlesinger coined the phrase a nation of joiners to refer to the phenomenon. Alexis de Tocqueville also referred to the American reliance on private organization in the 1830s in Democracy in America, there are many attributes that fraternities may or may not have, depending on their structure and purpose. On college campuses, fraternities may be divided into groups, social, service, professional, trade unions also grew out of fraternities such as the Knights of Labor. The ability to organize freely, apart from the institutions of government, the development of fraternities in England can be traced from guilds that emerged as the forerunners of trade unions and friendly societies. These guilds were set up to protect and care for their members at a time there was no welfare state. Various secret signs and handshakes were created to serve as proof of their membership allowing them to visit guilds in distant places that are associated with the guild they belong. When Henry VIII broke from the Roman Catholic Church, he viewed the guilds as supporters of the Pope, later, Elizabeth I appropriated apprenticeships away from guilds, and by the end of her reign most guilds had been suppressed. The suppression of trade guilds removed an important form of social and financial support from ordinary men and women. In London and other cities, some Guilds survived by adapting their roles to a social support function. Eventually, these groups evolved in the early 18th century into more philosophical organizations focused on brotherly love, among guilds that became prosperous are the Freemasons, Odd Fellows and Foresters
25.
Tulane University Law School
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Tulane University Law School is the law school of Tulane University. It is located on Tulanes Uptown campus in New Orleans, Louisiana, established in 1847, it is the 12th oldest law school in the United States. Students are permitted to survey a range of subject areas or to concentrate in one or more. Tulane Law Schools environmental law and sports law programs are considered among the strongest nationwide, for more than 20 years, the school has hosted the Tulane Corporate Law Institute, a preeminent mergers and acquisitions and corporate law forum. The law schools 160, 000-square-foot building, John Giffen Weinmann Hall, was completed in 1995, the law school has been on the Uptown campus since 1906, and has been housed in several buildings since then, until the completion of Weinmann Hall. The law school was located in Jones Hall from 1969 until 1995, next to Weinmann Hall on the 6200 block of Freret Street is the Law Annex, a light gray cobblestone building that houses the Career Development Office. The Law Annex was a faculty residence before being converted for its current use, the Uptown campus is marked by many large live oak trees and historically significant buildings. Architectural styles include Richardsonian Romanesque, Elizabethan, Renaissance, Brutalist, the front-of-campus buildings use white Indiana Limestone or orange brick for exteriors, while the middle-of-campus buildings are mostly adorned in red St. Joe brick. The campus is also a bicycle ride from the Mississippi River. The St. Charles Avenue Streetcar Line makes the campus accessible via public transit, loyola University is directly adjacent to Tulane, on the downriver side. The street has been replaced with a pedestrian walkway. The project was completed in January 2010, coincidentally, in late November 2008 the City of New Orleans announced plans to add bicycle lanes to the St. Charles Avenue corridor that runs in front of Gibson Hall. That work started in August 2009 and should be completed in 2010. The U. S. News & World Report rankings for 2015, released in March 2014, placed Tulane University School of Law as the 46th best law school in the nation, up from a ranking of 48th the previous year. And the schools environmental law program has been ranked 6th in the United States for 2014 and 2015, the Law School 100 for 2009-2010 ranks Tulane as 34th, relying on a qualitative assessment. The Hylton law-school rankings, conducted in 2006, put Tulane at 39th, the 2010 Leiter law-school rankings put Tulane at 38th, based on student quality, using LSAT and GPA data. To complete the Juris Doctor degree program, a student must finish six semesters in residence,88 credit hours, a writing requirement. The first-year curriculum comprises eight required courses, the first-year legal-research-and-writing program is taught by instructors with significant experience as lawyers and writers, each assisted by senior fellows
26.
H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College
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H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College, or Newcomb College, was the coordinate womens college of Tulane University located in New Orleans, in the U. S. state of Louisiana. It was founded by Josephine Louise Newcomb in 1886 in memory of her daughter, Newcomb was the first womens coordinate college within a United States university. This model was used in partnerships such as Pembroke College at Brown University. In 2006, Newcomb College was closed as part of Tulanes Renewal Plan following the major losses, alleged heirs of Mrs. Josephine Louise Newcomb established the college as a memorial to her daughter Sophie, who died in 1870 at the age of 15. Following an initial donation of $100,000, she made gifts totaling $3 million and she wanted to support a liberal academic education for young white women. Newcomb was influenced by Ida Richardson and the college was associated with the Progressive Movement from its earliest years, until its move in 1918 to its Broadway campus, Newcomb College was made up mostly of day students. Its move to its current site on the campus of Tulane was also the occasion of development of dormitories. Students at Newcomb College became increasingly sophisticated and the schools reputation grew, the university had recruited Brandt V. B. Dixon as the first president of Newcomb College. To ensure girls and young women were prepared for college, Dixon established the Newcomb High School. The preparatory school ensured that girls were ready to study at the level, as some parents tried to send girls to Newcomb who were as young as 13 or 14. Dixon worked with faculty and students to continue to raise academic standards, by 1916, Newcomb had achieved a strong regional reputation and become one of seven Southern schools which held a standard college designation within the Southern Association of College Women. Out of its art school, the created the business of what became the renowned Newcomb Pottery. This reflected both a progressive interest in craft and parents desire for their daughters to learn a practical, industrial skill in the difficult postwar years. It was first headed by Mary Given Sheerer, previously associated with the Rookwood Pottery in Cincinnati, while the pottery did not employ that many women, some did find work there. Angela Gregory was artist-in-residence at Newcomb College and it produced more than 70,000 pieces before the pottery program closed in 1939. Newcomb college founder Josephine Louise Newcomb and her family commissioned windows designed by Louis Comfort Tiffany for a chapel at the site of Newcomb College. One of the commissions was for Resurrection, part of a triptych designed in memory of her daughter, Harriet Sophie Newcomb, other Tiffany windows were designed for an area behind the altar of the original chapel in memory of Josephines husband Warren Newcomb and her mother Mary Sophie LeMonnier. Noted art critic, author, and art historian John Canaday taught at Newcomb College, later Canaday headed the art department at Newcomb
27.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
28.
Green Party of the United States
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The Green Party of the United States is a green and progressive political party in the United States. On the political spectrum the party is seen as left-wing. The GPUS was founded in 2001 as the evolution of the Association of State Green Parties, the ASGP had increasingly distanced itself from the G/GPUSA in the late 1990s. The Greens gained widespread attention during the 2000 presidential election. Nader was vilified by many Democrats and even some Greens, who accused him of spoiling the election for Al Gore, the degree of Naders impact on the 2000 election remains controversial. The GPUS had several members elected in state legislatures, including in California, Maine, a number of Greens around the United States hold positions on the municipal level, including on school boards, city councils and as mayors. The organization conducted grassroots organizing efforts, educational activities, and electoral campaigns and those who saw electoral strategies as a crucial engine of social change. The G/GPUSA was recognized by the FEC as a political party in 1991. The compromise agreement subsequently collapsed and two Green party organizations have co-existed in the United States since, the Green Politics Network was organized in 1990 and The National Association of Statewide Green Parties formed by 1994. Divisions between those pressing to break onto the political stage and those aiming to grow roots at the local level continued to widen during the 1990s. The Association of State Green Parties encouraged and backed Naders presidential runs in 1996 and 2000, by 2001, the push to separate electoral activity from the G/GPUSA issue-based organizing led to the Boston Proposal and subsequent rise of the Green Party of the United States. The G/GPUSA lost most of its affiliates in the following months, in 2016, Mark Salazar set a new record for a Green Party nominee for U. S. Congress. Running in the Arizona 8th district, against incumbent Republican Congressman Trent Franks, the GPUS follows the ideals of green politics, which are based on the Four Pillars of the Green Party, Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Grassroots democracy and Nonviolence. An avocado is Green on the outside and Green on the inside and it goes on to explain that Greens have a vital role in bringing Democracy to the otherwise undemocratic two party system of the U. S. The Green Party does not accept donations from corporations, political committees,527 organizations or soft money. The partys platforms and rhetoric harshly criticize any corporate influence and control over government, media, the state parties also appoint delegates to serve on the various standing committees of the GNC. The National Committee elects a Steering Committee of seven Co-chairs, a Secretary, the National Committee performs most of its business online, but also holds an Annual National Meeting to conduct business in person. Californians have elected 55 of the 226 office-holding Greens nationwide as of June 2007, other states with high numbers of Green elected officials include Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, and Maine
29.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
30.
Brown v. Board of Education
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The decision overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored segregation, insofar as it applied to public education. Handed down on May 17,1954, the Warren Courts unanimous decision stated that educational facilities are inherently unequal. As a result, de jure segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This ruling paved the way for integration and was a victory of the Civil Rights Movement. For much of the sixty years preceding the Brown case, race relations in the United States had been dominated by racial segregation, racial segregation in education varied widely from the 17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 in which it was prohibited. Brown was influenced by UNESCOs 1950 Statement, signed by a variety of internationally renowned scholars. This declaration denounced previous attempts at scientifically justifying racism as well as morally condemning racism, another work that the Supreme Court cited was Gunnar Myrdals An American Dilemma, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. Myrdal had been a signatory of the UNESCO declaration, the research performed by the educational psychologists Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark also influenced the Courts decision. The Clarks doll test studies presented substantial arguments to the Supreme Court about how segregation affected black schoolchildrens mental status, the plaintiffs were thirteen Topeka parents on behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the district to reverse its policy of racial segregation. The plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka NAACP, notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd. The named plaintiff, Oliver L. Brown, was a parent, a welder in the shops of the Santa Fe Railroad, an assistant pastor at his church. He was convinced to join the lawsuit by Scott, a childhood friend, as directed by the NAACP leadership, the parents each attempted to enroll their children in the closest neighborhood school in the fall of 1951. They were each refused enrollment and directed to the segregated schools, linda Brown Thompson later recalled the experience in a 2004 PBS documentary. Like I say, we lived in a neighborhood and I had all of these playmates of different nationalities. And so when I found out that day that I might be able to go to their school, I was just thrilled, you know. And I remember walking over to Sumner school with my dad that day and going up the steps of the school, and I remember going inside and my dad spoke with someone and then he went into the inner office with the principal and they left me out. To sit outside with the secretary, and while he was in the inner office, I could hear voices and hear his voice raised, you know, as the conversation went on
31.
Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon was an American politician who served as the 37th President of the United States from 1969 until 1974, when he became the only U. S. president to resign from office. He had previously served as a U. S, Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 under the presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California, after completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife Pat moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government and he subsequently served on active duty in the U. S. Navy Reserve during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 and his pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president and he waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962. In 1968, he ran for the presidency again and was elected by defeating incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey, Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home, and ended the military draft. His administration generally transferred power from Washington D. C. to the states and he imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing, which signaled the end of the moon race and he was reelected in one of the largest electoral landslides in U. S. history in 1972, when he defeated George McGovern. The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo, gasoline rationing, the scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9,1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was issued a pardon by his successor, in retirement, Nixons work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image. He suffered a stroke on April 18,1994. Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9,1913 in Yorba Linda, California and his parents were Hannah Nixon and Francis A. Nixon. His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith, Nixons upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers, Harold, Donald, Arthur, four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England, Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart. Nixons early life was marked by hardship, and he quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood, We were poor. The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the moved to Whittier
32.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
33.
Electoral College (United States)
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Citizens of the United States vote in each state at a general election to choose a slate of electors pledged to vote for a partys candidate. The Twelfth Amendment requires each elector to cast one vote for president, each state chooses electors, amounting in number to that states combined total of senators and representatives. There are a total of 538 electors, corresponding to the 435 representatives and 100 senators, the Constitution bars any federal official, elected or appointed, from being an elector. The Office of the Federal Register is charged with administering the Electoral College, all states except Maine and Nebraska and California before 1913 have chosen electors on a winner-take-all basis since the 1880s. Under the winner-take-all system, the electors are awarded to the candidate with the most votes in that state. Maine and Nebraska use the congressional district method, selecting one elector within each district by popular vote. Although no elector is required by law to honor their pledge. If no person receives a majority of votes for vice president, then the Senate will select the vice president. The Constitutional Convention in 1787 used the Virginia Plan as the basis for discussions, the Virginia Plan called for the Congress to elect the president. Delegates from a majority of states agreed to this mode of election, however once the Electoral College had been decided on, several delegates openly recognized its ability to protect the election process from cabal, corruption, intrigue, and faction. Some delegates, including James Wilson and James Madison, preferred popular election of the executive, the right of suffrage was much more diffusive in the Northern than the Southern States, and the latter could have no influence in the election on the score of Negroes. The substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to the fewest objections, the Convention approved the Committees Electoral College proposal, with minor modifications, on September 6,1787. Delegates from states with smaller populations or limited land area such as Connecticut, New Jersey, in The Federalist Papers, James Madison explained his views on the selection of the president and the Constitution. 39, Madison argued the Constitution was designed to be a mixture of state-based and population-based government, Congress would have two houses, the state-based Senate and the population-based House of Representatives. Meanwhile, the president would be elected by a mixture of the two modes, alexander Hamilton in Federalist No.68 laid out what he believed were the key advantages to the Electoral College. The electors come directly from the people and them alone for that purpose only and this avoided a party-run legislature, or a permanent body that could be influenced by foreign interests before each election. Hamilton explained the election was to place among all the states. The choice was to be made by a majority of the Electoral College, Hamilton argued, electors meeting in the state capitals were able to have information unavailable to the general public
34.
Dixiecrat
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The States Rights Democratic Party was a short-lived segregationist political party in the United States. Supporters assumed control of the state Democratic parties in part or in full in several Southern states, the Party opposed racial integration and wanted to retain Jim Crow laws and white supremacy in the face of possible federal intervention. Its members were referred to as Dixiecrats, a portmanteau of Dixie, referring to the Southern United States, the party did not run local or state candidates, and after the 1948 election its leaders generally returned to the Democratic Party. The Dixiecrats had little impact on politics. However, they did have a long-term impact, the Dixiecrats began the weakening of the Solid South. The term Dixiecrat is sometimes used by Northern Democrats to refer to conservative Southern Democrats from the 1940s to the 1990s, bryan disliked the Klan but never publicly attacked it. In the 1930s a realignment occurred courtesy of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. S, members of the Republican Party, along with many Democrats from the northern United States, supported civil rights legislation that the Deep South Democrats in Congress almost unanimously opposed. When Roosevelt died, the new president Harry Truman established a highly visible Presidents Committee on Civil Rights, a group of Southern governors such as Strom Thurmond of South Carolina and Fielding L. Wright of Mississippi met to consider the place of Southerners within the Democratic Party. In July, the convention re-nominated Truman and adopted a plank proposed by Northern liberals led by Hubert Humphrey calling for civil rights,35 southern delegates walked out, the move was on to remove Trumans name from the ballot in the southern United States. Just days after the 1948 Democratic National Convention, the States Rights Democrats held their own convention at Municipal Auditorium in Birmingham, while several leaders from the Deep South such as Strom Thurmond and James Eastland attended, most major Southern Democrats did not attend the conference. Among those absent were Georgia Senator Richard Russell, Jr. who had finished with the second most delegates in the Democratic presidential ballot, Wright would be the vice presidential nominee. Laney traveled to Birmingham during the convention, but he decided that he did not want to join a third party. Thurmond himself had doubts about a third-party bid, but party organizers convinced him to accept the partys nomination, wrights supporters had hoped that Wright would lead the ticket, but Wright deferred to Thurmond, who had greater national stature. The goal of the party was to win the 127 electoral votes of the Solid South in the hopes of throwing the election to the Representatives, once in the House, the Dixiecrats hoped to throw their support to whichever party would agree to their segregationist demands. Even if the Republicans won a majority of electoral votes. In implementing their strategy, the States Rights Democrats faced a set of state election laws. The States Rights Democrats eventually succeeded in making the Thurmond-Wright ticket the official Democratic ticket in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, in other states, they were forced to run as a third-party ticket. We oppose the elimination of segregation, the repeal of miscegenation statutes and we favor home-rule, local self-government and a minimum interference with individual rights
35.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
36.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
37.
Harry F. Byrd, Sr.
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Harry Flood Byrd, Sr. of Berryville in Clarke County, Virginia, was an American newspaper publisher, and political leader of the Democratic Party in Virginia. He was the leader of the coalition in the United States Senate. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia and his son Harry F. Byrd, Jr. succeeded him as U. S. Senator. Byrd was a dominant figure in Virginia who reorganized and modernized Virginias government and his political machine dominated Virginia Democratic Party politics for much of the first half of the 20th century. Financial conditions in Virginia during his youth conditioned his thinking on fiscal matters throughout his life and he is best remembered for his austere pay-as-you-go financial policies. Byrd was also known as a racist and avowed white separatist and this policy created a large subset of black students who were denied their education in several Virginia counties. These students, many of whom are alive, are known as the lost generation. Harry Flood Byrd was born in Martinsburg, West Virginia in 1887 and moved with his parents, Eleanor Bolling and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. to Winchester, Virginia the same year. Byrd was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia, his ancestors included William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, Harry Flood Byrd was the brother of famed aviator Richard Evelyn Byrd. Joel Flood served as Commonwealth Attorney of Appomattox County from 1919 to 1932 and he became a long-time Federal Court Judge of the Fifth Judiciary Circuit, serving from 1940 to 1964. Young Harry Byrds father was an apple grower in the Shenandoah Valley. He attended the schools and Shenandoah Valley Academy in Winchester. Harry Byrd never lacked food, but he had no money for luxuries, if a man got into debt, there was small chance of getting out of it. Even worse in Byrds eyes was the dilemma of the state itself, Virginia beginning in 1816 had taken on debt to help finance many internal public improvements through the Virginia Board of Public Works before the Civil War. Some of these improvements, which were primarily canals, turnpikes, others had been made in the former portion of the state that separated to form the new State of West Virginia. For several decades thereafter, Virginia and West Virginia disputed the new share of the Virginia governments debt. The issue was settled in 1915, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that West Virginia owed Virginia $12,393,929.50. West Virginia paid the final installment of this sum in 1939, however, the issue of Virginias public debt was far from resolved during Byrds formative years
38.
William M. Rainach
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He served Claiborne and neighboring Bienville Parish in north Louisiana for three terms in the Louisiana State Senate from 1948 to 1960. Earlier, he represented Claiborne Parish in the state Louisiana House of Representatives from 1940 to 1948, when he left the House, the seat was taken by John Sidney Garrett of Haynesville, in northern Claiborne Parish, who twenty years later would serve a term as Speaker. In 1959, Rainach unsuccessfully sought the Democratic gubernatorial nomination, then equivalent to election in Louisiana at a time when few Republicans bothered to contest elections, Rainach was born as William Odom in Kentwood, a rural town in Tangipahoa Parish, east of Baton Rouge. His mother died in the epidemic of 1917, when Rainach was four. His father placed Rainach and three sons in the Baptist orphanage in Lake Charles. He and a sister, Leona Aron Rainach, were then adopted by Mr. He was such an excellent primary student that he completed grades one through four in two years and he graduated from Summerfield High School and attended from 1932 to 1933 Southern Arkansas University in Magnolia in Columbia County, Arkansas. He attended Strayers Business College in Washington, D. C. from 1935 to 1936, thereafter, he attended Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, but there is no record in A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography as to whether he graduated. Rainach wanted to be a player, but in 1924, he was struck by a bat. Coincidentally, one of his 1959 political rivals, Bill Dodd, in 1939, Rainach organized the Claiborne Electric Cooperative, Inc. based in Homer, which brought the first electricity to farms in northwest Louisiana. He founded Claiborne Butane in Homer in 1945 and was the president from 1948 to 1977. In 1967, he became the president of the Arcadia Butane Co. Inc. in Arcadia, the Rainachs lived on a 450-acre farm near Summerfield. In the 1954 legislative session, Rainach led the attempt to pass Louisianas first right-to-work law. The law was passed but repealed in 1956, right-to-work was reinstituted in Louisiana in 1976 in the second administration of Governor Edwin Washington Edwards. For some twenty years, Louisiana and Oklahoma had been the southern states that could compel an unwilling worker in a unionized workplace to join the union against his choice. Oklahoma adopted a law in 2001. I do not feel the two societies should mix, I wish it were possible for whites and blacks to live together, but it just isnt. —William M. Rainach At his own expense, Rainach founded the first Citizens Council in Claiborne Parish. He was also the founder and president of the Association of Citizens Councils of Louisiana from 1955 to 1959 and he founded and chaired the Citizens Councils of America from 1956 to 1958
39.
Claiborne Parish, Louisiana
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Claiborne Parish is a parish located in the northwestern section of the U. S. state of Louisiana. The parish was formed in 1828, and was named for the first Louisiana governor, as of the 2010 census, the population was 17,195. As more settlers moved into the area, the Murrell house served as a church, school, when the state legislature created Claiborne Parish out of Natchitoches Parish in 1828, all governmental business, including court, began being held in the Murrell house. This continued until the new parishs police jury selected Russellville as the parish seat, due to flooding and health concerns, the parish seat was moved to Athens in 1846, but in 1848 fire destroyed the courthouse and all the records in it. Soon thereafter the Claiborne Police Jury chose the present site for the parish seat, John Ardis Cawthon of Louisiana Tech University studied several Claiborne Parish ghost towns in his book of local history, Ghost Towns of Old Claiborne. He recalls the words of a relative, George Washington Dance, When the courthouse moved, the village is now an old worn-out field. Much of the history is preserved in the Herbert S. Ford Memorial Museum. Louisiana Department of Public Safety and Corrections operates the David Wade Correctional Center in a section of Claiborne Parish near Homer. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the parish has an area of 767 square miles. Future Interstate 69 U. S. Highway 79 U. S, the population density was 22 people per square mile. There were 7,815 housing units at a density of 10 per square mile. 0. 76% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,28. 50% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 80% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the family size was 3.07. In the parish the population was out with 25. 60% under the age of 18,8. 00% from 18 to 24,26. 90% from 25 to 44,22. 30% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 99.80 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 98.40 males, the median income for a household in the parish was $25,344, and the median income for a family was $32,225. Males had an income of $29,161 versus $20,102 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $13,825, about 21. 40% of families and 26. 50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36. 30% of those under age 18 and 23. 20% of those age 65 or over
40.
Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana
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Plaquemines Parish is a parish located in the U. S. state of Louisiana. As of the 2010 census the population is 23,042, the parish seat is Pointe à la Hache. The parish was formed in 1807, Plaquemines Parish is part of the New Orleans–Metairie, LA Metropolitan Statistical Area. It was severely damaged in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in 2005, the name Plaquemines, in French Creole, was derived from the Atakapa word, piakimin, meaning the local fruit persimmon. The French used it to name a military post they built on the banks of the Mississippi River, eventually the name was applied to the entire parish and to a nearby bayou. The oldest European settlement in the parish was La Balize, where the French built, the name in French meant seamark, a tall structure of wood built as a guide for ships. By 1721 the French built one 62 feet high, a surviving map from about 1720 shows the island and fort, and the mouth of the river. As traffic and trade on the increased, so did the importance of river pilots who were knowledgeable about the complicated, ever-changing currents. They lived at La Balize with their families, the village was destroyed and rebuilt numerous times, but it was abandoned for good after being destroyed by a September 1860 hurricane. The pilots moved upriver and built the settlement they named Pilottown, the river pilots expertise continues to be critical, but now they generally live with their families in more populated areas. They stay at Pilottown temporarily for work, an important historical site is Fort Jackson, built in 1822 as recommended by General Andrew Jackson, hero of the Battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812. In 1861, Fort Jackson served as an important Confederate defense for the city of New Orleans during the Civil War because it was at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the US Army used it as a training base during World War I, 1917-1918. Plaquemines is one of two parishes that have kept their same boundaries from the beginning of Louisianas parishes in 1807 to today. The Mississippi River Delta of Plaquemines is also a base for assistance to offshore oil rigs, Plaquemines Parish was the first place in the United States where shippers used a container for cargo in foreign trade. The area is known for having the most southern point in Louisiana. To be further south in the United States, a person would have to be in Texas, Florida, the August 1901 Hurricane caused damage, including 4 feet of water in Buras. The Great Hurricane of 1915 devastated much of the Parish, with multiple levee breaches on both sides of the Mississippi, a 12-foot storm surge, and hundreds of deaths, homelessness was widespread, and many people were reduced to starvation until charitable aid arrived. The old Parish Courthouse in Pointe à la Hache was among the buildings destroyed in the storm
41.
Leander Perez
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Leander Henry Perez, Sr. was the Democratic political boss of Plaquemines and St. Bernard parishes in southeastern Louisiana during the middle third of the 20th century. Officially, he served as a judge, later as district attorney. He was known for enforcing and preserving segregation, Perez was born in the small town of Dalcour, on the east bank of Plaquemines Parish, to Roselius E. Fice Perez and the former Gertrude Solis. The Perez and Solis families were Isleño American, a community descended from settlers from the Canary Islands. Perez was educated in New Orleans schools, Louisiana State University at Baton Rouge, Perez opened a law practice in New Orleans and in Plaquemines Parish. In 1916, Perez was defeated as a candidate from Plaquemines Parish for state representative, in 1919, he was appointed judge of the 29th Judicial District to fill an unexpired term. In 1920, he won a term as judge by defeating the candidate of a local political machine run by his intra-party rival John Dymond. Perez was elected district attorney in 1924 and became involved in a dispute over trapping lands and he served as district attorney until 1960, never earning more than $7,000 a year. In 1928, Perez allied with Huey Pierce Long, Jr. who was elected governor, in 1929, he successfully defended Long in the latters impeachment trial before the Louisiana State Senate. Perez became wealthy by subleasing state mineral lands, in 1940, the state Crime Commission investigated Perez at the request of then Governor Sam Houston Jones. In 1943, Jones sent state troopers to Plaquemines Parish to enforce his appointment of an anti-Perez parish sheriff, Perez and Jones both came out of the conservative wing of the Democratic Party, but whereas Perez had been a Huey Long backer, Jones was staunchly anti-Long. In 1919, Judge Perez launched a reign of bought elections, laws were enacted on Perezs fiat and were rubber-stamped by the parish governing councils. Perez-endorsed candidates often won with 90% or more of the ballots and those who appeared to vote were intimidated by Perezs enforcers. He sent large tough men into the voting booths to help people vote, Perez testified that he bribed voters $2, $5, and $10 to vote his way, depending on who they were. Subjective and discriminatory treatment by white registrars prevented most blacks from registering, starting in 1936, Perez diverted millions from government funds through illegal land deals. When he was an attorney, he was the legal adviser to the Plaquemines levee boards. He used this position to negotiate payoffs between corporations he set up and the big oil companies that leased the levee board lands for drilling, as early as 1941, Perez’s ties to companies involved in lucrative mineral leases were under investigation. In 1983, it was discovered that $80 million in oil royalties had been paid to Delta Development Co. which Perez secretly owned, after Perezs death, the parish government sued his heirs, seeking restitution of $82 million in government funds
42.
Excommunication
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The word excommunication means putting a specific individual or group out of communion. In some religions, excommunication includes spiritual condemnation of the member or group, Excommunication may involve banishment, shunning, and shaming, depending on the religion, the offense that caused excommunication, or the rules or norms of the religious community. 1 Corinthians 5, 1-8 directs the church at Corinth to excommunicate a man for sexual immorality, in 2 Corinthians 2, 5-11, the man, having repented and suffered the punishment by the majority is restored to the church. In Romans 16,17, Paul writes to mark those who cause divisions contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned and avoid them. Also, in 2 John 1, 10-11, the writer advises believers that whosoever transgresseth and he that abideth in the doctrine of Christ, he hath both the Father and the Son. If there come any unto you, and bring not this doctrine, receive him not into your house, neither bid him God speed, within the Catholic Church, there are differences between the discipline of the majority Latin Church regarding excommunication and that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Excommunication can be either latae sententiae or ferendae sententiae, according to Bishop Thomas J. Paprocki, excommunication does not expel the person from the Catholic Church, but simply forbids the excommunicated person from engaging in certain activities. g. A thus excommunicated bishop cannot validly invest a priest as pastor of a vacant parish and they are urged to retain a relationship with the Church, as the goal is to encourage them to repent and return to active participation in its life. These are the effects for those who have incurred a latae sententiae excommunication. Since excommunication excludes from reception of the sacraments, absolution from excommunication is required before absolution can be given from the sin that led to the censure, in many cases, the whole process takes place on a single occasion in the privacy of the confessional. For some more serious wrongdoings, absolution from excommunication is reserved to a bishop, another ordinary and these can delegate a priest to act on their behalf. Such ceremonies are not held today, and instead are simply announced by the bishop, interdict is a censure similar to excommunication. It too excludes from ministerial functions in public worship and from reception of the sacraments, in the Eastern Catholic Churches, excommunications is imposed only by decree, never incurred automatically by latae sententiae excommunication. A distinction is made between minor and major excommunication and those on whom minor excommunication has been imposed are excluded from receiving the Eucharist and can also be excluded from participating in the Divine Liturgy. They can even be excluded from entering a church when divine worship is being celebrated there, the decree of excommunication must indicate the precise effect of the excommunication and, if required, its duration. They are to be removed from participation in the Divine Liturgy, and they are deprived of the right to vote or to be elected. Minor excommunication is roughly equivalent to the interdict in Western law, under current law, an excommunicate is never vitandus. Persons belonging to an Eastern Catholic Church are never subject to a latae sententiae punishment, according to the Code of Canon Law of 1917, the excommunications reserved to the Apostolic See were grouped in three categories, those reserved 1
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