1.
Dawson Springs, Kentucky
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Dawson Springs is a home rule-class city in Hopkins and Caldwell counties in the U. S. state of Kentucky. The population was 2,764 at the 2010 census and it is the birthplace of former governor Steve L. Beshear. Originally known as Tradewater Bend, the city was incorporated in 1832 under the name Dawson City by two Menser brothers, from the late 1800s to the 1930s, Dawson Springs was well known as a spa and resort town. It is still popular as a tourist destination because of the Pennyrile Forest State Resort Park and nearby lakes, Dawson Springs is located in southwestern Hopkins County at 37°10′18″N 87°41′21″W. Its southern and western border is the Tradewater River, which is also the Hopkins/Caldwell County line, a small portion of Dawson Springs extends across the river into Caldwell County. U. S. Route 62 passes through the center of the city, leading east 14 miles to Nortonville, interstate 69, the Western Kentucky Parkway, runs generally parallel to US62 and touches the northern end of Dawson Springs city limits, with access from exit 92. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 3.8 square miles, of which 3.7 square miles is land and 0.077 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,980 people,1,214 households, the population density was 755.8 people per square mile. There were 1,353 housing units at a density of 343.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 72% White,0. 94% African American,0. 27% Native American,0. 30% Asian,0. 07% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 27% of the population. 31. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 2.90. In the city, the population was out with 23. 1% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,21. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 84.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $22,670, and the median income for a family was $27,872. Males had an income of $29,545 versus $18,875 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,649, about 25. 5% of families and 27. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 39. 0% of those under age 18 and 18. 9% of those age 65 or over. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dawson Springs has a subtropical climate. City of Dawson Springs official website Dawson Springs at Kentuckytourism. com
2.
Town
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A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
3.
Yukon River
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The Yukon River is a major watercourse of northwestern North America. The source of the river is located in British Columbia, Canada, the lower half of the river lies in the U. S. state of Alaska. The river is 3,190 kilometres long and empties into the Bering Sea at the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, the average flow is 6,430 m³/s. The total drainage area is 832,700 km², of which 323,800 km² is in Canada, the total area is more than 25% larger than Texas or Alberta. The longest river in Alaska and Yukon, it was one of the means of transportation during the 1896–1903 Klondike Gold Rush. A portion of the river in Yukon—The Thirty Mile section, from Lake Laberge to the Teslin River—is a national heritage river, paddle-wheel riverboats continued to ply the river until the 1950s, when the Klondike Highway was completed. The name Yukon, or ųųg han, is a contraction of the words in the Gwichin phrase chųų gąįį han, which means white water river and refers to the visual effect of glacial silt in the Yukon River. The contraction omits the consonant “ch” and the vowels “ąįį. ”In 1843, the Holikachuks had told the Russians that their name for the river was Yukkhana and that this name meant big river. Although it served as the name of a big river, Yukkhana does not literally correspond to a Holikachuk phrase that means big river. The Holikachuks had borrowed the upriver language name and conflated its meaning with the meaning of Kuigpak, two years later, the Gwich’ins told the Hudson’s Bay Company that their name for the river was Yukon and that the name meant white water river. White water river in fact corresponds to Gwich’in words that can be shortened to form Yukon, the Lewes River is the former name of the upper course of the Yukon, from Marsh Lake to the confluence of the Pelly River at Fort Selkirk. The Yukon River has had a history of pollution from mining, military installations, dumps, wastewater. The generally accepted source of the Yukon River is the Llewellyn Glacier at the end of Atlin Lake in British Columbia. Others suggest that the source is Lake Lindeman at the end of the Chilkoot Trail. Either way, Atlin Lake flows into Tagish Lake, as eventually does Lake Lindeman after flowing into Bennett Lake, Tagish Lake then flows into Marsh Lake. The Yukon River proper starts at the end of Marsh Lake. Some argue that the source of the Yukon River should really be Teslin Lake and the Teslin River, the upper end of the Yukon River was originally known as the Lewes River until it was established that it actually was the Yukon. North of Whitehorse, the Yukon River widens into Lake Laberge, other large lakes that are part of the Yukon River system include Kusawa Lake and Kluane Lake
4.
Yukon
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Yukon is the smallest and westernmost of Canadas three federal territories. The territory has the smallest population of any province or territory in Canada, Whitehorse is the territorial capital and Yukons only city. The territory was split from the Northwest Territories in 1898 and was named the Yukon Territory, though officially bilingual, the Yukon Government also recognizes First Nations languages. At 5,959 m, Yukons Mount Logan, in Kluane National Park and Reserve, is the highest mountain in Canada, most of Yukon has a subarctic climate, characterized by long cold winters and brief warm summers. The Arctic Ocean coast has a tundra climate, notable rivers include the Yukon River, after which the territory was named, as well as the Pelly, Stewart, Peel, White and Tatshenshini rivers. Long before the arrival of Europeans, central and southern Yukon was populated by First Nations people, sites of archeological significance in Yukon hold some of the earliest evidence of the presence of human occupation in North America. The sites safeguard the history of the first people and the earliest First Nations of the Yukon, the volcanic eruption of Mount Churchill in approximately 800 AD in what is now the U. S. Coastal and inland First Nations had extensive trading networks, European incursions into the area only began early in the 19th century with the fur trade, followed by missionaries. By the 1870s and 1880s gold miners began to arrive and this drove a population increase that justified the establishment of a police force, just in time for the start of the Klondike Gold Rush in 1897. The increased population coming with the gold led to the separation of the Yukon district from the Northwest Territories. Its northern coast is on the Beaufort Sea and its ragged eastern boundary mostly follows the divide between the Yukon Basin and the Mackenzie River drainage basin to the east in the Mackenzie mountains. Most of the territory is in the watershed of its namesake, the southern Yukon is dotted with a large number of large, long and narrow glacier-fed alpine lakes, most of which flow into the Yukon River system. The larger lakes include Teslin Lake, Atlin Lake, Tagish Lake, Marsh Lake, Lake Laberge, Kusawa Lake, bennett Lake on the Klondike Gold Rush trail is a lake flowing into Nares Lake, with the greater part of its area within Yukon. Canadas highest point, Mount Logan, is in the territorys southwest, Mount Logan and a large part of the Yukons southwest are in Kluane National Park and Reserve, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other national parks include Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park in the north, other watersheds include the Mackenzie River, the Peel Watershed and the Alsek–Tatshenshini, and a number of rivers flowing directly into the Beaufort Sea. The two main Yukon rivers flowing into the Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories are the Liard River in the southeast, notable widespread tree species within Yukon are the black spruce and white spruce. Many trees are stunted because of the growing season and severe climate. The capital, Whitehorse, is also the largest city, with about three-quarters of the population, the second largest is Dawson City, which was the capital until 1952
5.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
6.
Country
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A country is a region that is identified as a distinct national entity in political geography. Sometimes the word countries is used to both to sovereign states and to other political entities, while other times it refers only to states. The word country comes from Old French contrée, itself derived from Vulgar Latin contrata and it most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. Areas much smaller than a state may be called by names such as the West Country in England, the Black Country, Constable Country. In many European countries the words are used for sub-divisions of the territory, as in the German Bundesländer. The modern Italian contrada is a word with its meaning varying locally, the term country is frequently used to refer to sovereign states. There is no agreement on the number of countries in the world. There are 206 sovereign states, of which 193 states are members of the United Nations, all are defined as states by declarative theory of statehood and constitutive theory of statehood. The latest proclaimed state is South Sudan in 2011, the Kingdom of Denmark, a sovereign state, comprises Metropolitan Denmark and two nominally separate countries—the Faroe Islands, and Greenland—which are almost fully internally self-governing. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, a state, comprises four separate countries, Netherlands, Aruba, Curaçao. The degree of autonomy of non-sovereign countries varies widely, some are possessions of sovereign states, as several states have overseas territories, with citizenry at times identical and at times distinct from their own
7.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
8.
Provinces and territories of Canada
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Canadas geography is divided into administrative divisions known as provinces and territories that are responsible for delivery of sub-national governance. Over its history, Canadas international borders have changed several times, the ten provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. Several of the provinces were former British colonies, Quebec was originally a French colony, the three territories are Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon, which govern the rest of the area of the former British North America. Together, the provinces and territories make up the worlds second-largest country by area, the powers flowing from the Constitution Act are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively. In modern Canadian constitutional theory, the provinces are considered to be co-sovereign divisions, the territories are not sovereign, but simply part of the federal realm, and have a commissioner who represents the federal government. Notes, There are three territories in Canada, unlike the provinces, the territories of Canada have no inherent sovereignty and have only those powers delegated to them by the federal government. They include all of mainland Canada north of latitude 60° north and west of Hudson Bay, the following table lists the territories in order of precedence. Prior to Confederation, Ontario and Quebec were united as the Province of Canada, over the following years, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island were added as provinces. The Hudsons Bay Company controlled large swathes of western Canada referred to as Ruperts Land and the North-Western Territory until 1870, subsequently, the area was re-organized into the province of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories. The remaining Arctic islands were transferred by Britain to Canada in 1880,1898 saw the Yukon Territory, later renamed simply as Yukon, carved from the parts of the Northwest Territories surrounding the Klondike gold fields. On September 1,1905, a portion of the Northwest Territories south of the 60th parallel north became the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. In 1912, the boundaries of Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba were expanded northward, Manitobas to the 60° parallel, Ontarios to Hudson Bay, in 1907, Newfoundland acquired dominion status. In the middle of the Great Depression in Canada with Newfoundland facing a period of economic crisis. In 2001, it was officially renamed Newfoundland and Labrador, in 1903, the Alaska Panhandle Dispute fixed British Columbias northwestern boundary. This was one of two provinces in Canadian history to have its size reduced. In 1999, Nunavut was created from the portion of the Northwest Territories. Yukon lies in the portion of The North, while Nunavut is in the east. All three territories combined are the most sparsely populated region in Canada, covering 3,921,739 km2 in land area and they are often referred to as a single region, The North, for organisational and economic purposes
9.
Pacific Time Zone
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The Pacific Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting eight hours from Coordinated Universal Time. During daylight saving time, its time offset is UTC−7 and is based on the mean solar time of the 105th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory. In the United States and Canada, this zone is generically called the Pacific Time Zone. Specifically, it uses Pacific Standard Time when observing standard time, most of Canada uses daylight saving time. In Mexico, the UTC−8 time zone is known as the Northwest Zone, the largest city in the Pacific Time Zone is Los Angeles, the citys metropolitan area is the largest in the zone. The following states or areas are part of the Pacific Time Zone, California Washington Oregon – all, except for most of Malheur County, nevada Idaho Panhandle – the northern half of Idaho, north of the Salmon River. The town of Hyder, Alaska, is officially in the Alaska Time Zone, however, most of the town observes the Pacific Time because of strong connections with nearby Stewart, British Columbia, which is in the Pacific Time Zone. The United States Post Office in Hyder strictly adheres to Alaska Time, in Canada, the Pacific Time Zone includes most of British Columbia, all of Yukon, and the townsite of Tungsten. In Mexico, the state of Baja California lies completely within the Pacific Time Zone and this does not include the state of Baja California Sur, which is south of Baja California. Through 2006, the time changed to daylight time at 02,00 LST to 03,00 LDT on the first Sunday in April. The Canadian provinces and territories that use daylight time each adopted these dates between October 2005 and February 2007, in Mexico, beginning in 2010, the portion of the country in this time zone uses the extended dates, as do some other parts. The vast majority of Mexico, however, still uses the old dates
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
11.
Area code 867
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Area code 867, the area code for the three Canadian territories in the Arctic far north, was created on October 21,1997, from portions of area codes 403 and 819. It is the least populated mainland North American area code, serving only about 100,000 people and it is adjacent to Greenland, Russia and eight provinces or states, more jurisdictions than any other area code in North America. And its one of four Canadian area codes yet to be overlaid, the others being 506,709, the incumbent local exchange carrier in 867 is Northwestel, a subsidiary of BCE. Until 1964, the area now served by 867 did have up to five independent telephone companies. The +1-867 area code is the most expensive geographic calling area in Canada, the digits were chosen to promote the theme TOP of the world, as 867 spells TOP on a standard North American keypad. It has the largest land area of any code in the North American Numbering Plan. The territorial extent reaches 3,173 km from Cape Dyer on Baffin Island to the Alaska border, the largest distances between exchanges are 2,200 km from Sanikiluaq to Grise Fiord, and 3,365 km from Beaver Creek to Pangnirtung. Four different official time zones are observed within the area, the eastern Northwest Territories were among the last areas of North America without telephone service. When area codes were instituted in 1947, this region was part of western Quebecs area code 514. In 1957, these areas were nominally shifted to eastern Quebecs area code 418. Bell Canada introduced telephone service in the eastern NWT in 1958, as direct distance dialing was rolled out in this area in the 1970s, the eastern NWT, along with a large swath of northwestern Quebec, was shifted to western Quebecs area code 819. Bell Canada sold its service territory to Northwestel in 1992. Prior to the creation of 867,403 and 819 were geographically the largest area codes in the North American Numbering Plan,403 spanned more than one-ninth of the planets circumference, while 819 spanned one-eighth. Since the creation of 867, Nunavut has taken all of the former 819 portion of the Northwest Territories. Area code 403 has since been split to create 780 for the northern two-thirds of Alberta. All existing prefixes stayed the same with the change to 867, northwestels proposal for a new regulatory regime was approved for 2007, allowing resale of local telephone service, but no competitors entered the market to avail themselves of the resale option. The expense of deployment is limiting deployment so far to Whitehorse, Yellowknife, Inuvik, Behchoko, Aklavik and Hay River, communities that now have only one prefix are not likely to need a second prefix other than for local growth or the entry of a competitor. * Behchoko has two separate exchange areas each with its own prefix, but Iristels 292 prefix is overlaid on both using independent faciliites
12.
National Topographic System
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The National Topographic System or NTS is the system used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country. NTS maps are available in a variety of scales, the standard being 1/50,000, the maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. The National Topographic System is split into three major zones defined by latitude spans, the Southern zone covers latitudes between 40°N and 68°N, the Arctic zone covers latitudes between 68°N and 80°N, and the High Arctic zone covers latitudes between 80°N and 88°N. All map series span four degrees of latitude, but are split differently east-to-west depending on the zones they are located in, Map series in the Southern and Arctic zones span eight degrees of longitude, while those in the High Arctic zone span sixteen degrees of longitude. The NTS designates the southernmost set of map series, from 40 to 44 degrees north latitude, with numbers that end with the digit 0, using 10,20,30 and 40. The third row, ending with the digit 2, spans from 2,12,22,32 and so on to 102 off the west coast, while the fifth, sixth and seventh rows extend furthest west, using 115,116 and 117. In the Southern zone, map series are split into sixteen map areas, while in the Arctic and High Arctic zones, all map areas are in turn split into sixteen map sheets. Map areas in a series are assigned letters in a pattern starting in the southeastern part of the series. In the Southern zone, the run from A through P, while in the Arctic and High Arctic zones. Each map area in turn is split into sixteen map sheets, international Map of the World The National Topographic System The Atlas of Canada - Toporama
13.
Subarctic climate
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The subarctic climate is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the effects of an ocean. These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd and Dsd. This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet, in winter, temperatures can drop to −40 °C and in summer, record low temperatures can be as cold as −60 °C. With 5–7 consecutive months where the temperature is below freezing. Summer warmth is insufficient to thaw more than a few surface feet, seasonal thaw penetrates from 2 to 14 ft, depending on latitude, aspect, and type of ground. Some northern areas with subarctic climates located near oceans, have milder winters and no permafrost, the frost-free season is very short, varying from about 45 to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur during any month in many areas. Most subarctic climates have very little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm over an entire year, a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high altitudes in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation due to orographic lift. Mount Washington, with temperatures typical of a climate, receives an average rain-equivalent of 101.91 inches of precipitation per year.5 metres that does not melt until June. Vegetation in regions with subarctic climates is generally of low diversity, as only hardy species can survive the long winters, trees are mostly limited to conifers, as few broadleaved trees are able to survive the very low temperatures in winter. This type of forest is known as taiga, a term which is sometimes applied to the climate found therein as well. Even though the diversity may be low, numbers are high, the process by which plants become acclimated to cold temperatures is called hardening. In some areas, ice has scoured rock surfaces bare, entirely stripping off the overburden, elsewhere rock basins have been formed and stream courses dammed, creating countless lakes. The Tatra Mountains in Poland, above 800m, the Eastern Anatolia, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Turkey. The Pyrenees, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Andorra, France and Spain, further north in Siberia, continentality increases so much that winters can be exceptionally severe, averaging below −38 °C, even though the hottest month still averages more than 10 °C. This creates Dfd, Dwd and Dsd climates, one example is parts of the Snowy Mountains in Australia, although theyre more alpine than true subarctic. In China and Mongolia, as one moves southwestwards or towards lower altitudes, temperatures increase, Boreal ecology Boreal forest Plants of continental subarctic climate Köppen climate classification Subantarctic
14.
Klondike Gold Rush
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The Klondike Gold Rush was a migration by an estimated 100,000 prospectors to the Klondike region of the Yukon in north-western Canada between 1896 and 1899. Gold was discovered there by miners on August 16,1896 and. Some became wealthy, but the majority went in vain and it has been immortalized in photographs, books, films, and artifacts. To reach the fields most took the route through the ports of Dyea. Here, the Klondikers could follow either the Chilkoot or the White Pass trails to the Yukon River, each of them was required to bring a years supply of food by the Canadian authorities in order to prevent starvation. In all, their equipment weighed close to a ton, which for most had to be carried in stages by themselves, together with mountainous terrain and cold climate this meant that those who persisted did not arrive until summer 1898. Once there, they found few opportunities and many left disappointed, mining was challenging as the ore was distributed in an uneven manner and digging was made slow by permafrost. As a result, some chose to buy and sell claims, building up huge investments. To accommodate the prospectors, boom towns sprang up along the routes and at their end Dawson City was founded at the confluence of the Klondike, from a population of 500 in 1896, the town grew to house around 30,000 people by summer 1898. Built of wood, isolated and unsanitary, Dawson suffered from fires, high prices, despite this, the wealthiest prospectors spent extravagantly gambling and drinking in the saloons. The Native Hän people, on the hand, suffered from the rush, being moved into a reserve to make way for the stampeders. From 1898, the newspapers that had encouraged so many to travel to the Klondike lost interest in it. In the summer of 1899, gold was discovered around Nome in west Alaska, the boom towns declined and the population of Dawson City fell. Gold mining activity lasted until 1903 when production peaked after heavier equipment was brought in, since then the Klondike has been mined on and off, and today the legacy draws tourists to the region and contributes to its prosperity. The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in region, in the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, here, they encountered the Hän people, semi-nomadic hunters and fishermen who lived along the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The Hän did not appear to know about the extent of the deposits in the region
15.
Klondike River
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The Klondike River is a tributary of the Yukon River in Canada that gave its name to the Klondike Gold Rush. The Klondike River has its source in the Ogilvie Mountains and flows into the Yukon River at Dawson City and its name comes from the Hän word Trondëk meaning hammerstone, a tool which was used to hammer down stakes used to set salmon nets. Gold was discovered in tributaries of the Klondike River in 1896 which started the Klondike gold rush, in Jack Londons story A Relic of the Pliocene, this river was mentioned as Reindeer River
16.
National Historic Sites of Canada
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Parks Canada, a federal agency, manages the National Historic Sites program. As of 2016, there are 976 National Historic Sites,171 of which are administered by Parks Canada, the sites are located across all ten provinces and three territories, with two sites located in France. There are related federal designations for National Historic Persons and National Historic Events, Sites, Events, and Persons are each typically marked by a federal plaque, but the markers do not indicate which designation a subject has been given. The Rideau Canal is a National Historic Site, while the Welland Canal is a National Historic Event, emerging Canadian nationalist sentiment in the late 19th century and early 20th century led to an increased interest in preserving Canadas historic sites. There were galvanizing precedents in other countries, in the United Kingdom, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty was created in 1894 to protect that countrys historic and natural heritage. Domestically, Lord Dufferin, the Governor General from 1872 to 1878, initiated some of the earliest, high-profile efforts to preserve Canadas historic sites. He was instrumental in stopping the demolition of the fortifications of Quebec City, at the same time, the federal government was looking for ways to extend the National Park system to Eastern Canada. In 1914, the Parks Branch undertook a survey of sites in Canada. Fort Howe in Saint John, New Brunswick was designated a historic park in 1914. The fort was not a site of significant national historic importance, Fort Anne in Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia was also designated in 1917. At the same time, the Department of Militia and Defence was anxious to transfer old forts, harkin, the first Commissioner of Dominion Parks, to develop a departmental heritage policy. On Harkins recommendation, the government created the Advisory Board for Historic Site Preservation in 1919 in order to advise the Minister on a new program of National Historic Sites. Brigadier General Ernest Alexander Cruikshank, an authority on the War of 1812 and the history of Ontario, was chosen as the Boards first chairman. Due to a lack of resources, the HSMBC limited itself to recommending sites for designation, of the 285 National Historic Sites designated by 1943,105 represented military history,52 represented the fur trade and exploration, and 43 represented famous individuals. There was also a strong bias in favour of commemorating sites in Ontario over other parts of the country, at one point, some members of the HSMBC concluded that there were no sites at all in Prince Edward Island worthy of designation. Lawrence, and in Niagara, promoting a loyalist doctrine of unity with Britain. Proposals to designate sites related to the immigration of Jews, Blacks and Ukrainians to Canada were rejected, such was the view of Canadian history by the Board in the first half of the 20th century. As time passed and the system grew, the scope of the program, by the 1930s, the focus of the heritage movement in Canada had shifted from commemoration to preservation and development
17.
Moose
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The moose or elk, Alces alces, is the largest extant species in the deer family. Moose are distinguished by the broad, flat antlers of the males, Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. Hunting and other activities have caused a reduction in the size of the mooses range over time. Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats, currently, most moose are found in Canada, Alaska, New England, Fennoscandia, Latvia, Estonia and Russia. Their diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. The most common predators are the gray wolf along with bears. Unlike most other species, moose are solitary animals and do not form herds. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive and move quickly if angered or startled and their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female. Alces alces is called a moose in North American English, and that same word elk in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, the Cervus canadensis, also called the wapiti. A mature male moose is called a bull, a female a cow. The word elk originated from Proto-Germanic languages, from which Old English evolved, the British English word elk has cognates in other Indo-European languages, for example elg in Danish/Norwegian, älg in Swedish, alnis in Latvian, Elch in German, and łoś in Polish. In the continental-European languages, these forms of the word elk almost always refer to the Alces alces, the word moose first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages, and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The term moose is a name of North American origin, the animal is known in British English as the elk. The moose became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age, long before the Europeans discovery of America, the youngest bones were found in Scotland and are roughly 3900 years old. Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described elk as a deer that was as large as a horse, confusingly, the word elk is used in North America to refer to a different animal, Cervus canadensis, which is also called by the Algonkian indigenous name, wapiti. The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names, the wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe although it was much larger and was not red. The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, the wapiti is very similar to the red deer of central and western Europe, although it is distinctly different behaviorally and genetically. Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti elk because of its size, the moose resembled the German elk, which was less familiar to the British colonists
18.
Joseph Ladue
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Joseph Francis Joe Ladue was a prospector, businessman and founder of Dawson City, Yukon, Canada. Ladue was born in Schuyler Falls, New York and his mother died when he was seven years old, and his father in 1874. Upon his fathers death, 19-year-old Joe headed west, in 1876, he found employment in a gold mine in Deadwood, South Dakota, beginning as a general labourer and working his way up to engineer, foreman and superintendent. He eventually quit to go prospecting in Arizona and New Mexico, in 1882, he crossed the Chilkoot Pass into the interior of the Yukon, where he prospected and traded for a couple of years. In August 1896, a few days after the discovery of gold in the Klondike, in January 1897, he named the new town Dawson after Canadian geologist George Mercer Dawson. By July, about 5000 people lived there, Ladue could sell town lots for as much as $5000 or $8000. He relocated his saw mill to Dawson, it ran continuously night and he also set up a store and the first saloon in town. In addition, he acquired a number of gold claims. All this enabled Ladue to leave the north a rich man that year, Ladue returned to his home town and on December 15,1897, he married Anna Kitty Mason. He was in health and died of consumption at Schuyler Falls on June 27,1901. He was survived by his wife and a son, Works by Joseph Ladue at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Joseph Ladue at Internet Archive The Klondike Weekly, Dawson City, Yukon Territory
19.
George Mercer Dawson
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George Mercer Dawson CMG FRS FRSC, was a Canadian scientist and surveyor. He was born in Pictou, Nova Scotia, the eldest son of Sir John William Dawson, Principal of McGill University and his wife, by age 11, he was afflicted with tuberculosis of the spine that resulted in a deformed back and stunted his growth. However, his physical limitations did not deter Dawson from becoming one of Canadas greatest scientists, tutors and his father provided his educational needs during his slow recovery from the illness. Dawson later attended the High School of Montreal and McGill University before moving to London to study geology and paleontology at the Royal School of Mines beginning in 1869, Dawson graduated after three years with the highest marks in his class. Dawson received an LL. D. from Queens University in 1890, Dawson began his career in the 1870s as a professor of chemistry at Morrin College in Quebec City. He then performed extensive surveys of Western Canada in the 19th century beginning with the International Boundary Survey from 1872 to 1876 and this report established Dawson as a respected scientist. During 1883 and 1884, Dawson travelled through the Canadian Rockies where he was tasked by the Canadian government to map out major mountains, some of the many peaks he discovered were Mount Assiniboine 3,618 metres and Mount Temple 3,543 metres. As a result of his research, a map of his work was published in 1886 covering the Canadian Rockies from the US border to Red Deer Valley. In 1887, he led an expedition into the Yukon, developing some of the first maps of what became the separate territory. His report was republished ten years later to satisfy the publics interest in the region as a result of the Klondike Gold Rush, Dawson City was named after him. Dawson Creek, British Columbia is also named in his honour, Dawson became a staff member of the Geological Survey of Canada in 1875, progressed to assistant director in 1883 and finally to director in 1895. In 1891, Dawson was named a fellow of the Royal Society of London, in 1892, he was made a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George. Dawson died unexpectedly in Ottawa in March,1901, after a bout with acute bronchitis. He was interred in the plot in the Mount Royal Cemetery in Montreal. George Mercer Dawson with Phil Jenkins, ISBN 978-0-7710-4388-8 George Dawson - The Little Giant. Joyce Barkhouse,1974, Toronto, Clarke, Irwin, ISBN 0-7720-0734-9 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online George M. Dawson Sources of Montreal-W at www. rootsweb. com
20.
Cartography
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Cartography is the study and practice of making maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively, the fundamental problems of traditional cartography are to, Set the maps agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing, traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections, eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the maps purpose. This is the concern of generalization, reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization, orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design, modern cartography constitutes many theoretical and practical foundations of geographic information systems. The earliest known map is a matter of debate, both because the term map isnt well-defined and because some artifacts that might be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting that might depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE, the oldest surviving world maps are from 9th century BCE Babylonia. One shows Babylon on the Euphrates, surrounded by Assyria, Urartu and several cities, all, in turn, another depicts Babylon as being north of the world center. The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps since Anaximander in the 6th century BCE, in the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy wrote his treatise on cartography, Geographia. This contained Ptolemys world map – the world known to Western society. As early as the 8th century, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic, in ancient China, geographical literature dates to the 5th century BCE. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BCE, in the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Early forms of cartography of India included depictions of the pole star and these charts may have been used for navigation. Mappa mundi are the Medieval European maps of the world, approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents, the Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154
21.
Whitehorse, Yukon
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Whitehorse is the capital, largest, and only city of Yukon and the largest city in northern Canada. It was incorporated in 1950 and is located at kilometre 1426 on the Alaska Highway in southern Yukon, Whitehorses downtown and Riverdale areas occupy both shores of the Yukon River, which originates in British Columbia and meets the Bering Sea in Alaska. The city was named after the White Horse Rapids for their resemblance to the mane of a horse, near Miles Canyon. Because of the location in the Whitehorse valley, the climate is milder than comparable northern communities such as Yellowknife. At this latitude winter days are short and summer days have up to about 19 hours of daylight, Whitehorse, as reported by Guinness World Records, is the city with the least air pollution in the world. Archeological research south of the area, at a location known as Canyon City, has revealed evidence of use by First Nations for several thousand years. The surrounding area had seasonal camps and Frederick Schwatka, in 1883. Before the Gold Rush, several different tribes passed through the area seasonally, the discovery of gold in the Klondike in August,1896, by Skookum Jim, Tagish Charlie and George Washington Carmack set off a major change in the historical patterns of the region. Early prospectors used the Chilkoot Pass, but by July 1897, by June 1898, there was a bottleneck of stampeders at Canyon City, many boats had been lost to the rapids as well as five people. Samuel Steele of the North-West Mounted Police said, why more casualties have not occurred is a mystery to me, on their way to find gold, stampeders also found copper in the copper belt in the hills west of Whitehorse. The first copper claims were staked by Jack McIntyre on July 6,1898, a small settlement was developing at Canyon City but the completion of the railway to Whitehorse in 1900 put a halt to it. The White Pass and Yukon Route narrow-gauge railway linking Skagway to Whitehorse had begun construction in May 1898, construction began again at the north end of Bennett lake to Whitehorse. It was only in June–July 1900 that construction finished the difficult Bennett lake section itself, by 1901, the Whitehorse Star was already reporting on daily freight volumes. That summer there were four trains per day, in 1920 the first planes landed in Whitehorse and the first air mail was sent in November 1927. The entire 2,500 km project was accomplished between March and November 1942, the Canadian portion of the highway was only returned to Canadian sovereignty after the war. The Canol pipeline was constructed to supply oil to the north with a refinery in Whitehorse. In 1950 the city was incorporated and by 1951, the population had doubled from its 1941 numbers, on April 1,1953, the city was designated the capital of the Yukon Territory when the seat was moved from Dawson City after the construction of the Klondike Highway. On March 21,1957, the name was changed from White Horse to Whitehorse
22.
First Nations
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The First Nations are the predominant Aboriginal peoples of Canada south of the Arctic. Those in the Arctic area are distinct and known as Inuit, the Métis, another distinct ethnicity, developed after European contact and relations primarily between First Nations people and Europeans. There are currently 634 recognized First Nations governments or bands spread across Canada, roughly half of which are in the provinces of Ontario and British Columbia. Under the Employment Equity Act, First Nations are a group, along with women, visible minorities. First Nations are not defined as a minority under the Act or by the criteria of Statistics Canada. Within Canada, First Nations has come into general use—replacing the deprecated term Indians—for the indigenous peoples of the Americas, individuals using the term outside Canada include supporters of the Cascadian independence movement, as well as U. S. tribes within the Pacific Northwest. The singular, commonly used on culturally politicized reserves, is the term First Nations person, North American indigenous peoples have cultures spanning thousands of years. Some of their oral traditions accurately describe historical events, such as the Cascadia earthquake of 1700, written records began with the arrival of European explorers and colonists during the Age of Discovery, beginning in the late 15th century. European accounts by trappers, traders, explorers, and missionaries give important evidence of early contact culture, in addition, archeological and anthropological research, as well as linguistics, have helped scholars piece together understanding of ancient cultures and historic peoples. Combined with later development, this relatively non-combative history has allowed First Nations peoples to have an influence on the national culture. Collectively, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples constitute Aboriginal peoples in Canada, Indigenous peoples of the Americas, First Nations came into common usage in the 1980s to replace the term Indian band in referring to groups of Indians with common government and language. Elder Sol Sanderson says that he coined the term in the early 1980s, others say that the term came into common usage in the 1970s to avoid using the word Indian, which some Canadians considered offensive. No legal definition of the term exists, some Aboriginal peoples in Canada have also adopted the term First Nation to replace the word band in the formal name of their community. While the word Indian is still a term, its use is erratic. Some First Nations people consider the term offensive, while others prefer it to Aboriginal person/persons/people, the term is a misnomer given to indigenous peoples of North America by European explorers who erroneously thought they had landed on the Indian subcontinent. The use of the term Native Americans, which the United States government and it refers more specifically to the Aboriginal peoples residing within the boundaries of the United States. The parallel term Native Canadian is not commonly used, but Natives and autochthones are, under the Royal Proclamation of 1763, also known as the Indian Magna Carta, the Crown referred to indigenous peoples in British territory as tribes or nations. The term First Nations is capitalized, unlike alternative terms, bands and nations may have slightly different meanings
23.
St. Paul's Anglican Church (Dawson City)
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St. Pauls Anglican Church is an historic Carpenter Gothic style Anglican church building located on the corner of Front and Church streets in Dawson City, Yukon, Canada. Built of wood in 1902, it served as the cathedral of the Anglican Diocese of Yukon until the diocesan see was moved to Whitehorse in 1953. Its steep pitched roof, its pointed arch entry through its belfry tower, st. Pauls was designated a National Historic Site of Canada on June 1,1989. St. Pauls is still a parish in the Diocese of Yukon. The Rev. Laurie Munro is its incumbent priest, while the Rev. Percy Henry is its deacon, lay Ministers are Mabel Henry, Shirley Pennell and Betty Davidson
24.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
25.
Alaska Highway
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The Alaska Highway was constructed during World War II for the purpose of connecting the contiguous United States to Alaska across Canada. It begins at the junction with several Canadian highways in Dawson Creek, British Columbia, completed in 1942 at a length of approximately 1,700 miles, as of 2012 it is 1,387 mi long. The difference in distance is due to constant reconstruction of the highway, the highway was opened to the public in 1948. Legendary over many decades for being a rough, challenging drive and it is at this point that the Alaska Highway meets the Richardson Highway, which continues 96 mi to the city of Fairbanks. This is often regarded, though unofficially, as the portion of the Alaska Highway. Mileposts on this stretch of highway are measured from Valdez, rather than the Alaska Highway, the Alaska Highway is popularly considered part of the Pan-American Highway, which extends south to Argentina. Proposals for a highway to Alaska originated in the 1920s, thomas MacDonald, director of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, dreamed of an international highway spanning the United States and Canada. In order to promote the highway, Slim Williams originally traveled the route by dogsled. Since much of the route would pass through Canada, support from the Canadian government was crucial, however, some route consideration was given. The preferred route would pass through the Rocky Mountain Trench from Prince George, British Columbia to Dawson City before turning west to Fairbanks, in 1929 the British Columbia government proposed a highway to Alaska to encourage economic development and tourism. American President Herbert Hoover appointed a board with American and three Canadian members to evaluate the idea, when the United States approached Canada again in February 1936, the Canadian government refused to commit to spending money on a road connecting the United States. The Canadians also worried about the implications, fearing that in a war between Japan and North America, the United States would use the road to prevent Canadian neutrality. Roosevelt became the first American to publicly discuss the benefits of a highway in an August speech in Chautauqua. Roosevelt remained a supporter of the highway, telling Cordell Hull in August 1937 that he wanted a road built as soon as possible. Canada agreed to construction as long as the United States bore the full cost. During construction the road was nicknamed the oil can highway by the crews due to the large number of discarded oil cans. The needs of war dictated the route, intended to link the airfields of the Northwest Staging Route that conveyed lend-lease aircraft from the United States to the Soviet Union. Thus the long, impractical route over difficult terrain was chosen, the road was originally built mostly by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers as a supply route during World War II
26.
Placer mining
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Placer mining is the mining of stream bed deposits for minerals. This may be done by open-pit or by various surface excavating equipment or tunnelling equipment, the metal or gemstones, having been moved by stream flow from an original source such as a vein, are typically only a minuscule portion of the total deposit. Since gems and heavy metals like gold are more dense than sand. The containing material may be too loose to safely mine by tunnelling, where water under pressure is available, it may be used to mine, move, and separate the precious material from the deposit, a method known as hydraulic mining, hydraulic sluicing or hydraulicking. The word placer derives from the Spanish placer, meaning shoal or alluvial/sand deposit, from Catalan placer, from plassa, from Medieval Latin placea the origin word for place and plaza in English. The word in Spanish is thus derived from placea and refers directly to an alluvial or glacial deposit of sand or gravel. Placers supplied most of the gold for a part of the ancient world. Hydraulic mining methods such as hushing were used widely by the Romans across their empire, one of the largest sites was at Las Médulas, where seven 30 mile long aqueducts were used to work the alluvial gold deposits through the first century AD. Placer mining continues in many areas of the world as a source of diamonds, industrial minerals and metals, gems, platinum, an area well protected from the flow of water is a great location to find gold. Gold is very dense and is found in a stream bed. Many different gold deposits are dealt with in different ways, placer deposits attract many prospectors because their costs are very low. There are many different places gold could be placed, such as a residual, alluvial, residual deposits are more common where there has been weathering on rocks and where there hasn’t been water. They are deposits which have not been washed away yet or been moved, the residual usually lies at the site of the lode. This type of deposit undergoes rock weathering, alluvial or eluvial deposits sometimes have the largest gold deposit and are very common. This deposit is created when a force of nature moves or washes the gold away and it contains pieces of ore that have been washed away from the lode. Alluvial deposits are the most common type of placer gold and this type of deposit occurs mostly in valleys. Bench deposits are created when gold reaches a stream bed, gold accumulations in an old stream bed that are high are called bench deposits. They can be found on slopes that drain into valleys
27.
Tourism
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Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
28.
Klondike Highway
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The Klondike Highway is a highway that links the Alaskan coastal town of Skagway to Yukons Dawson City. Its route somewhat parallels the route used by prospectors in the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, in Yukon, the Klondike Highway is marked as Yukon Highway 2. In Alaska, the Highway is marked as Alaska Route 98, the BC section is now maintained by the Yukon government as a natural extension of Highway 2. The highway is 712 km long, the original 53 km section known locally as the Carcross Road was actually made into a part of the Alaska Highway in 1942, until the Marsh Lake route was opened the next year. As Yukon Highway 5, it formed a road with Highway 6. It was renumbered as Highway 2 in 1978, being incorporated into the Klondike Highway designation, the road underwent alignment improvements during the 1980s. Construction of the Carcross-Skagway Road began in the 1950s, was abandoned partway up a mountain from Skagway and it was only open for a few weeks before seasonal closure. The first full season of use was in 1979. The new owners of the Faro mine secured government agreement to open the highway for trucking, the last winter closure ended in the spring of 1986. The Carcross-Skagway Road portion of the highway underwent substantial rerouting, widening and paving in the late 1980s, the quality of roads from Whitehorse to Dawson City prior to 1950 was poor and only for the hardiest of travelers and motorized vehicles. The Whitehorse-Mayo Road, Yukons original Highway 2, extended along todays route from Whitehorse to Stewart Crossing, then turned northeast to Mayo, Elsa, the last of three bridges was finished in 1960 to replace ferries at Carmacks, Pelly Crossing and Stewart Crossing. Yukons original Highway 3, the Dawson-Mayo Road, was opened in September 1955 between Stewart Crossing and Dawson City. The Dawson-Mayo Road became part of Highway 2 in 1978 and was named the Klondike Highway, while the road northeast from Stewart Crossing became Highway 11, and was later named the Silver Trail. Even as of 1979, the entire Klondike Highway was gravel, rebuilding and some rerouting was completed in the late 1980s. Approximately, the first 30 km of the North Klondike Highway are still known as the Mayo Road to the residents of Whitehorse. Although kilometric distance markers have been in place since the early 1980s, the entire route is in Skagway, Skagway Borough. List of Yukon territorial highways List of Alaska Routes List of Canadian highways by province Overland Trail Skagway - Fraser Border Crossing Internet travelog of Jim Teresco, specifically Skagway, June 23,2001, pictures 11 and 12 and their associated captions
29.
Nitrocellulose
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Nitrocellulose is a highly flammable compound formed by nitrating cellulose through exposure to nitric acid or another powerful nitrating agent. When used as a propellant or low-order explosive, it was known as guncotton. Partially nitrated cellulose has found uses as a film and in inks. In 1862 the first man-made plastic, nitrocellulose, was created by Alexander Parkes from cellulose treated with nitric acid and a solvent. Celluloid was used by Kodak, and other suppliers, from the late 1880s as a base in photography, X-ray films, and motion picture films. After numerous fires caused by unstable nitrate films, safety film started to be used from the 1930s in the case of X-ray stock and from 1948 for motion picture film. Henri Braconnot discovered in 1832 that nitric acid, when combined with starch or wood fibers, would produce a lightweight combustible explosive material, a few years later in 1838, another French chemist, Théophile-Jules Pelouze, treated paper and cardboard in the same way. Jean-Baptiste Dumas obtained a material, which he called nitramidine. These substances were highly unstable and were not practical explosives, however, around 1846 Christian Friedrich Schönbein, a German-Swiss chemist, discovered a more practical solution. As he was working in the kitchen of his home in Basel and he reached for the nearest cloth, a cotton apron, and wiped it up. He hung the apron on the door to dry, and, as soon as it was dry. His preparation method was the first to be widely imitated—one part of cotton wool to be immersed in 15 parts of an equal blend of sulfuric and nitric acids. After two minutes, the cotton was removed and washed in water to set the esterification level. It was then dried at a temperature below 40 °C. Schönbein collaborated with the Frankfurt professor Rudolf Christian Böttger, who had discovered the process independently in the same year. By coincidence, a third chemist, the Brunswick professor F. J. Otto had also produced guncotton in 1846 and was the first to publish the process, much to the disappointment of Schönbein and Böttger. The process uses nitric acid to convert cellulose into cellulose nitrate and water, 3HNO3+ C6H10O5 → C6H73O5 + 3H2O The sulfuric acid is present as a catalyst to produce the nitronium ion, the reaction is first order and proceeds by electrophilic substitution at the C-OH centers of the cellulose. The power of guncotton made it suitable for blasting, as a projectile driver, it had around six times the gas generation of an equal volume of black powder and produced less smoke and less heating
30.
Permafrost
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In geology, permafrost is ground, including rock or soil, at or below the freezing point of water 0 °C for two or more years. Most permafrost is located in high latitudes, but alpine permafrost may exist at altitudes in much lower latitudes. Ground ice is not always present, as may be in the case of nonporous bedrock, Permafrost accounts for 0. 022% of total water on earth and exists in 24% of exposed land in the Northern Hemisphere. It also occurs subsea on the shelves of the continents surrounding the Arctic Ocean, portions of which were exposed during the last glacial period. A global temperature rise of 1.5 °C above current levels would be enough to start the thawing of permafrost in Siberia, Permafrost is soil, rock or sediment that is frozen for more than two consecutive years. In areas not overlain by ice, it exists beneath a layer of soil, rock or sediment, in practice, this means that permafrost occurs at an average air temperature of -2 °C or colder. Active layer thickness varies with the season, but is 0.3 to 4 meters thick, in the Northern Hemisphere, 24% of the ice-free land area, equivalent to 19 million square kilometers, is more or less influenced by permafrost. Most of this area is found in Siberia, northern Canada, Alaska, beneath the active layer annual temperature swings of permafrost become smaller with depth. The deepest depth of permafrost occurs where geothermal heat maintains a temperature above freezing, above that bottom limit there may be permafrost, whose temperature doesnt change annually—isothermal permafrost. The extent of permafrost varies with the climate, today, a considerable area of the Arctic is covered by permafrost. Overlying permafrost is an active layer that seasonally thaws during the summer. Plant life can be supported only within the active layer since growth can occur only in soil that is fully thawed for some part of the year, thickness of the active layer varies by year and location, but is typically 0. 6–4 m thick. In areas of continuous permafrost and harsh winters, the depth of the permafrost can exceed 1,400 m, Permafrost can also store carbon, both as peat and as methane. Work investigating the permafrost carbon pool size estimates that 1400–1700 Gt of carbon is stored in the northern circumpolar permafrost region, while a recent study that includes stores of the Tibetan Plateau, estimates total carbon pools in the permafrost of the Northern Hemisphere to be 1832 Gt. This large carbon pool represents more carbon than currently exists in all living things, Permafrost typically forms in any climate where the mean annual air temperature is less than the freezing point of water. Exceptions are found in moist-wintered forest climates, such as in Northern Scandinavia and the North-Eastern part of European Russia west of the Urals, fossil cold anomalies in the Geothermal gradient in areas where deep permafrost developed during the Pleistocene persist down to several hundred metres. This is evident from temperature measurements in boreholes in North America, typically, the below-ground temperature varies less from season to season than the air temperature, with mean annual temperatures tending to increase with depth. Thus, if the annual air temperature is only slightly below 0 °C
31.
Library and Archives Canada
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Library and Archives Canada is a federal institution tasked with acquiring, preserving and making Canadas documentary heritage accessible. LAC reports to Parliament through Mélanie Joly, the Minister of Canadian Heritage since November 4,2015, the National Library of Canada was founded in 1953. Freda Farrell Waldon contributed to the writing of the brief which led to the founding of the National Library of Canada, in 2004, Library and Archives Canada combined the functions of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. It was established by the Library and Archives of Canada Act, a subsequent Order in Council dated May 21,2004 united the collections, services and personnel of the National Archives of Canada and the National Library of Canada. Since inception LAC has reported to Parliament through the Minister of Canadian Heritage, LAC is expected to maintain effective recordkeeping practices that ensure transparency and accountability. Some of this content, primarily the collection, university theses. Many items have not been digitized and are available in physical form. As of May 2013 only about 1% of the collection had been digitized, representing about 25 million of the more popular, genealogists account for 70% of LACs clients. The building at 395 Wellington Street in downtown Ottawa is the physical location where the public may access the collection in person. The building was opened on June 20,1967. With the de-emphasis on physical visits, in-person services have been curtailed, for example since April 2012 reference services are by appointment only, there are also administrative offices in Gatineau and preservation and storage facilities throughout Canada for federal government records. It was built at a cost of CDN$107 million, and the opening took place on June 4,1997. It is a building containing 48 climate-controlled preservation vaults and state-of-the-art preservation laboratories. In 2000, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada named it one of the top 500 buildings constructed in Canada during the last millennium. A Nitrate Film Preservation Facility on the Communications Research Centre campus in Shirleys Bay, on the outskirts of Ottawa, the collection contains 5,575 film reels dating back to 1912, including some of the first Canadian motion pictures and photographic negatives. The film material is sensitive and requires precise temperatures for its preservation. The facility will feature a high bay metal shelving system with an environment to better protect Canadas published heritage. RSS feeds provide links to new content on the LAC website, a new modernized website is being developed and is scheduled for completion in 2013, with both new and old websites accessible during the transition period. e
32.
Library of Congress
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The Library of Congress is the research library that officially serves the United States Congress and is the de facto national library of the United States. It is the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States, the Library is housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill in Washington, D. C. it also maintains the Packard Campus in Culpeper, Virginia, which houses the National Audio-Visual Conservation Center. The Library of Congress claims to be the largest library in the world and its collections are universal, not limited by subject, format, or national boundary, and include research materials from all parts of the world and in more than 450 languages. Two-thirds of the books it acquires each year are in other than English. The Library of Congress moved to Washington in 1800, after sitting for years in the temporary national capitals of New York. John J. Beckley, who became the first Librarian of Congress, was two dollars per day and was required to also serve as the Clerk of the House of Representatives. The small Congressional Library was housed in the United States Capitol for most of the 19th century until the early 1890s, most of the original collection had been destroyed by the British in 1814, during the War of 1812. To restore its collection in 1815, the bought from former president Thomas Jefferson his entire personal collection of 6,487 books. After a period of growth, another fire struck the Library in its Capitol chambers in 1851, again destroying a large amount of the collection. The Library received the right of transference of all copyrighted works to have two copies deposited of books, maps, illustrations and diagrams printed in the United States. It also began to build its collections of British and other European works and it included several stories built underground of steel and cast iron stacks. Although the Library is open to the public, only high-ranking government officials may check out books, the Library promotes literacy and American literature through projects such as the American Folklife Center, American Memory, Center for the Book, and Poet Laureate. James Madison is credited with the idea for creating a congressional library, part of the legislation appropriated $5,000 for the purchase of such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress. And for fitting up an apartment for containing them. Books were ordered from London and the collection, consisting of 740 books and 3 maps, was housed in the new Capitol, as president, Thomas Jefferson played an important role in establishing the structure of the Library of Congress. The new law also extended to the president and vice president the ability to borrow books and these volumes had been left in the Senate wing of the Capitol. One of the only congressional volumes to have survived was a government account book of receipts and it was taken as a souvenir by a British Commander whose family later returned it to the United States government in 1940. Within a month, former president Jefferson offered to sell his library as a replacement
33.
Cellulose acetate film
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Cellulose acetate film, or safety film, is used in photography as a base material for photographic emulsions. It was introduced in the early 20th century by manufacturers as a safe film base replacement for unstable. Cellit was a stable, non-brittle cellulose acetate polymer that could be dissolved in acetone for further processing, a cellulose diacetate film more readily dissolved in acetone was developed by the American chemist George Miles in 1904. Miles process was employed commercially for photographic film in 1909 by Eastman Kodak and these less flammable substitutes for nitrate film were called safety film. The chemical instability of cellulose nitrate material, unrecognized at the time of its introduction, has become a major threat for film collections. The first instance of cellulose triacetate degradation was reported to the Eastman Kodak Company within a decade of its introduction in 1948, the first report came from the Government of India, whose film was stored in hot, humid conditions. It was followed by reports of degradation from collections stored in similar conditions. These observations resulted in continuing studies in the Kodak laboratories during the 1960s, beginning in the 1980s, there was a great deal of focus upon film stability following frequent reports of cellulose triacetate degradation. This material releases acetic acid, the key ingredient in vinegar, the problem became known as the vinegar syndrome. In acetate film, acetyl groups are attached to long chains of cellulose. With exposure to moisture, heat, or acids, these groups break from their molecular bonds. While the acid is released inside the plastic, it gradually diffuses to the surface. The decay process follows this pattern, Acetic acid is released during the initial acetate base deterioration and this signal marks the progression of deterioration. The plastic film base becomes brittle and this occurs in the advanced stages of deterioration, weakening the film and causing it to shatter with the slightest tension. These physical changes happen because cellulose acetate consists of chains of repeating units. When the acetic acid is released as these groups break off, shrinkage also occurs during this process. With the cellulose acetate polymer chains breaking into pieces, and with their side groups splitting off. In advanced stages of deterioration, shrinkage can be as much as 10%, there have been some reports of film 35mm wide shrinking to almost 17mm
34.
Forty Mile, Yukon
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Forty Mile is best known as the oldest town in Canada’s Yukon. It was established in 1886 at the confluence of the Yukon and Fortymile rivers by prospectors, largely abandoned during the nearby Klondike Gold Rush, the town site continued to be used by Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in. It is currently a site that is co-owned and co-managed by Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in. The site has a longer history, however, as a harvest area used by First Nations for generations. This location was one of the major fall river-crossing points of the Fortymile caribou herd, hunters would intercept the herd here as it crossed the Yukon River. In spring and summer, it was the site of an important Arctic grayling, in 1886 Jack McQuesten, Alfred Mayo and Arthur Harper of the Alaska Commercial Company established a post here, after gold was discovered on the Fortymile River. Most of the miners who staked the claims in the Klondike came from this area. Yukon’s first mission school was established here in 1887 by the Anglican Church and that same year, North-West Mounted Police Inspector Charles Constantine established the territory’s first police detachment. It is also likely that the Forty Mile farm was the site of the first agriculture in Yukon. By 1894, Forty Mile boasted two well-equipped stores, a library, billiard room,10 saloons, two restaurants, a theatre, an opera house, a watchmaker, and numerous distilleries. At its peak the town population was about 600. Today, only a handful of buildings remains, since 1998, archaeological investigations, archival and oral history research, and building stabilization and preservation have been carried out at the site. On June 11,2006, the two signed a management plan at a ceremony and celebration hosted at Forty Mile by Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in. Future plans for Forty Mile include improved visitor facilities, an expansion of interpretive programming. The nearest community is Dawson City, approximately 77 km upriver from the town site. Since the construction of a road to Clinton Creek from the Top of the World Highway in the late 1960s, the site has been accessible by road, and is about 97 km from Dawson. To this day most visitors to Forty Mile arrive by water, either traveling downriver from Dawson City or motoring up the Yukon River from Alaska, Forty Mile was the place where the Discovery Claim was registered. Government of Yukon Historic Sites Page
35.
Jack London
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John Griffith Jack London was an American novelist, journalist, and social activist. Some of his most famous works include The Call of the Wild and White Fang, both set in the Klondike Gold Rush, as well as the short stories To Build a Fire, An Odyssey of the North, and Love of Life. He also wrote about the South Pacific in stories such as The Pearls of Parlay and The Heathen, London was part of the radical literary group The Crowd in San Francisco and a passionate advocate of unionization, socialism, and the rights of workers. He wrote several works dealing with these topics, such as his dystopian novel The Iron Heel, his non-fiction exposé The People of the Abyss. Jack Londons mother, Flora Wellman, was the fifth and youngest child of Pennsylvania Canal builder Marshall Wellman and his first wife, Marshall Wellman was descended from Thomas Wellman, an early Puritan settler in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Flora left Ohio and moved to the Pacific coast when her father remarried after her mother died, in San Francisco, Flora worked as a music teacher and spiritualist, claiming to channel the spirit of a Sauk chief, Black Hawk. Biographer Clarice Stasz and others believe Londons father was astrologer William Chaney, Flora Wellman was living with Chaney in San Francisco when she became pregnant. Whether Wellman and Chaney were legally married is unknown, most San Francisco civil records were destroyed by the extensive fires that followed the 1906 earthquake, nobody knows what name appeared on her sons birth certificate. Stasz notes that in his memoirs, Chaney refers to Londons mother Flora Wellman as having been his wife, according to Flora Wellmans account, as recorded in the San Francisco Chronicle of June 4,1875, Chaney demanded that she have an abortion. When she refused, he disclaimed responsibility for the child and she was not seriously wounded, but she was temporarily deranged. After giving birth, Flora turned the baby over for care to Virginia Prentiss and she was a major maternal figure throughout Londons life. Late in 1876, Flora Wellman married John London, a partially disabled Civil War veteran, the family moved around the San Francisco Bay Area before settling in Oakland, where London completed public grade school. He wrote to William Chaney, then living in Chicago, Chaney concluded by saying that he was more to be pitied than London. London was devastated by his fathers letter, in the following, he quit school at Berkeley. London was born near Third and Brannan Streets in San Francisco, the house burned down in the fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the California Historical Society placed a plaque at the site in 1953. Although the family was working class, it was not as impoverished as Londons later accounts claimed, in 1885, London found and read Ouidas long Victorian novel Signa. He credited this as the seed of his literary success, in 1886, he went to the Oakland Public Library and found a sympathetic librarian, Ina Coolbrith, who encouraged his learning. In 1889, London began working 12 to 18 hours a day at Hickmotts Cannery, seeking a way out, he borrowed money from his foster mother Virginia Prentiss, bought the sloop Razzle-Dazzle from an oyster pirate named French Frank, and became an oyster pirate
36.
The Call of the Wild
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The Call of the Wild is a short adventure novel by Jack London published in 1903 and set in Yukon, Canada during the 1890s Klondike Gold Rush, when strong sled dogs were in high demand. The central character of the novel is a dog named Buck, the story opens at a ranch in Santa Clara Valley, California, when Buck is stolen from his home and sold into service as a sled dog in Alaska. He becomes progressively feral in the environment, where he is forced to fight to survive. By the end, he sheds the veneer of civilization, and relies on primordial instinct, London spent almost a year in the Yukon collecting material for the book. The story was serialized in the Saturday Evening Post in the summer of 1903 and was published a later in book form. As early as 1923, the story was adapted to film, the story opens with Buck, a large and powerful St. Bernard-Scotch Shepherd, living happily in Californias Santa Clara Valley as the pet of Judge Miller. He is stolen by the assistant, however, sold to fund the latters gambling addiction. Put in a crate, he is starved and ill-treated, when released, he attacks the man in the red sweater but is badly beaten and taught to respect the law of the club. Buck is then sold to a pair of French-Canadian dispatchers from the Canadian government, François and Perrault, there, they train him as a sled dog. From his teammates, he learns to survive cold winter nights. A rivalry develops between Buck and the vicious, quarrelsome lead dog, Spitz, Buck eventually beats Spitz in a fight to the death. Spitz is killed by the pack after his defeat by Buck, the team is then sold to a Scottish half-breed man working the mail service. The dogs must carry heavy loads to the areas. One of the team, a husky named Dave, becomes sick. Bucks next owners are a trio of stampeders, who are inexperienced at surviving in the Northern wilderness and they struggle to control the sled and ignore warnings that the spring melt poses dangers. They overfeed the dogs and then starve them when the food runs out, on their journey they meet John Thornton, an experienced outdoorsman, who notices the dogs have been poorly treated and are in a weakened condition. He warns the trio against crossing the river, but they ignore his advice, exhausted, starving, and sensing the danger ahead, Buck refuses and continues to lie unmoving in the snow. After Buck is beaten by Hal, Thornton stands up for buck realizing he is a remarkable dog
37.
Pierre Berton
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Pierre Francis de Marigny Berton, CC OOnt was a noted Canadian author of non-fiction, especially Canadiana and Canadian history, and was a well-known television personality and journalist. An accomplished storyteller, Berton was one of Canadas most prolific and he wrote on popular culture, Canadian history, critiques of mainstream religion, anthologies, childrens books and historical works for youth. He was also a founder of the Writers Trust of Canada, Bertons 50 books became popular because his light and fast-paced style was not weighted down by footnotes or deep probes into primary sources. Stacey in 1980, said Berton demonstrated his skill as an anecdotalist, or storyteller and his two-volume documentation on the War of 1812, running 928 pages, was republished in 2011 as Pierre Bertons War of 1812. He was born on July 12,1920, in Whitehorse, Yukon and his family moved to Dawson City, Yukon in 1921. His mother, Laura Beatrice Berton was a teacher in Toronto until she was offered a job as a teacher in Dawson City at the age of 29 in 1907. She met Frank Berton in the mining town of Granville shortly after settling in Dawson. Bertons family moved to Victoria, British Columbia in 1932, at age 12 he joined the Scout Movement and later wrote that The Scout Movement was the making of me. He credited Scouting with keeping him from becoming a juvenile delinquent and he started his journalism career in scouting and later wrote that the first newspaper I was ever associated with was a weekly typewritten publication issued by the Seagull Patrol of St. Mary’s Troop. He remained in scouting for seven years and wrote about his experiences in an article titled My Love Affair with the Scout Movement. Like his father, Pierre Berton worked in Klondike mining camps during his years as a major at the University of British Columbia. He spent his early career in Vancouver, where at 21 he was the youngest city editor on any Canadian daily. He elected to go Active and his aptitude was such that he was appointed Lance Corporal and attended NCO school, due to a background in university COTC and inspired by other citizen-soldiers who had been commissioned, he sought training as an officer. Berton spent the several years attending a variety of military courses, becoming, in his words. He was warned for overseas duty many times, and was granted embarkation leave many times, in the UK, he was told that he would have to requalify as an IO because the syllabus in the UK was different from that in the intelligence school in Canada. By the time Berton had requalified, the war in Europe had ended and he volunteered for the Canadian Army Pacific Force, granted a final embarkation leave, and found himself no closer to combat employment by the time the Japanese surrendered in September 1945. In 1947 he went on an expedition to the Nahanni River with pilot Russ Baker, Bertons account for the Vancouver Sun was picked up by International News Service, making him a noted adventure-travel writer. Berton moved to Toronto in 1947, at the age of 31 he was named managing editor of Macleans
38.
Robert W. Service
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Robert William Service was a British-Canadian poet and writer who has often been called the Bard of the Yukon. He is best known for his poems The Shooting of Dan McGrew and The Cremation of Sam McGee, from his first book, Songs of a Sourdough. His vivid descriptions of the Yukon and its made it seem that he was a veteran of the Klondike gold rush. Although his work remains popular, Services poems were received as being crudely comical works. Service was born in Preston, Lancashire, England, the third of ten children and his father, also Robert Service, was a banker from Kilwinning, Scotland, who had been transferred to England. When he was five, Service was sent to live in Kilwinning with his three aunts and his paternal grandfather, the towns postmaster. There he is said to have composed his first verse, a grace, on his birthday, At nine. He attended Glasgows Hillhead High School, after leaving school, Service joined the Commercial Bank of Scotland which would later become the Royal Bank of Scotland. He was writing at this time and reportedly already selling his verses and he was also reading poetry, Browning, Keats, Tennyson, and Thackeray. When he was 21, Service travelled to Vancouver Island, British Columbia, with his Buffalo Bill outfit and this sometimes required him to leech off his parents Scottish neighbours and friends who had previously emigrated to Canada. In 1899, Service was a clerk in Cowichan Bay. The Colonist also published Services Music in the Bush on September 18,1901, in her 2006 biography, Under the Spell of the Yukon, Enid Mallory revealed that Service had fallen in love during this period. He was working as a labourer and store clerk when he first met Constance MacLean at a dance in Duncan B. C. where she was visiting her uncle. MacLean lived in Vancouver, on the mainland, so he courted her by mail, though he was smitten, MacLean was looking for a man of education and means to support her so was not that interested. To please her, he took courses at McGill Universitys Victoria College, in 1903, down on his luck, Service was hired by a Canadian Bank of Commerce branch in Victoria, British Columbia, using his Commercial Bank letter of reference. The bank watched him, gave him a raise, and sent him to Kamloops in the middle of British Columbia, in Victoria he lived over the bank with a hired piano, and dressed for dinner. In Kamloops, horse country, he played polo, in the fall of 1904, the bank sent him to their Whitehorse branch in Yukon. With the expense money he himself a raccoon coat
Dawson City, Yukon
