1.
Cecil Rhodes
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Cecil John Rhodes PC was a British businessman, mining magnate and politician in South Africa, who served as Prime Minister of the Cape Colony from 1890 to 1896. An ardent believer in British imperialism, Rhodes and his British South Africa Company founded the southern African territory of Rhodesia, South Africas Rhodes University is also named after him. Rhodes set up the provisions of the Rhodes Scholarship, which is funded by his estate, the son of a vicar, Rhodes grew up in Bishops Stortford, Hertfordshire, and was a sickly child. He was sent to South Africa by his family when he was 17 years old in the hope that the climate might improve his health. He entered the trade at Kimberley in 1871, when he was 18. His De Beers diamond company, formed in 1888, retains its prominence into the 21st century, Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament in 1880, and a decade later became Prime Minister. After Rhodess death in 1902, at the age of 48, at the time of his death he was already a very controversial figure. One of Rhodess primary motivators in politics and business was his belief that the Anglo-Saxon race was, to quote his will. Most histories of South Africa covering the last decades of the century are contributions to the historiography of Cecil Rhodes. According to McFarlane, the aforementioned historiography may be divided into two categories, chauvinistic approval or utter vilification. Rhodes was born in 1853 in Bishops Stortford, Hertfordshire, England and he was the fifth son of the Reverend Francis William Rhodes and his wife Louisa Peacock Rhodes. His father was a Church of England clergyman who was proud of never having preached a sermon longer than 10 minutes and his siblings included Francis William Rhodes, who became an army officer. His father therefore determined to send him abroad to try the effect of a sea voyage, Herbert had already set up as a planter in Natal, South Africa, so Cecil was despatched on a sailing vessel to join Herbert in Natal. The voyage to Durban took him seventy days, and on 1 September 1870 he first set foot on African soil and his familys hope was that the climate would improve his health. They expected he would help his older brother Herbert who operated a cotton farm, when he first came to Africa, Rhodes lived on money lent by his aunt Sophia. After a brief stay with the Surveyor-General of Natal, Dr. P. C, sutherland, in Pietermaritzburg, Rhodes took an interest in agriculture. He joined his brother Herbert on his farm in the Umkomazi valley in Natal. The land was unsuitable for cotton, and the venture failed, in October 1871, 18-year-old Rhodes and his brother Herbert left the colony for the diamond fields of Kimberley
2.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
3.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
4.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
5.
Anglo American plc
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Anglo American plc is a multinational mining company based in Johannesburg, South Africa and London, United Kingdom. It is the worlds largest producer of platinum, with around 40% of world output, as well as being a producer of diamonds, copper, nickel, iron ore. The company has operations in Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, North America, Anglo American has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE100 Index. The company has a listing on the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. In December 2015 the company announced that after a US$3 billion loss in the first half of 2015, it would be undergoing a restructure and this fact is reflected in the name of the company. The AAC became the majority stakeholder in the De Beers company in 1926, during 1945, the AAC moved into the coal industry by acquiring Coal Estates. Twelve years later, Sir Ernest died in Johannesburg and the company was succeeded by his son, Harry Oppenheimer, in the late 1940s and 1950s, the AAC focused on the development of the Free State goldfields and the Vaal Reefs mine. The success of the mines enabled the company to become the world’s largest gold-mining group, in 1961, the AAC expanded outside of southern Africa for the first time and became a major investor in the Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Company in Canada. In 1967, the moved into the steel industry by acquiring Scaw Metals. From 1967 to 1975, it continued to grow and established a number of ventures, including the Mondi Group, Amgold, in 1982, Harry Oppenheimer retired as chairman of the AAC and was succeeded by Gavin Relly. Two years later, Oppenheimer retired from De Beers and passed the chairmanship to Julian Ogilvie Thompson and its gold mining operations were spun off into the separate AngloGold corporation, which in 2004 merged with the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation to form AngloGold Ashanti. Anglo American reduced its stake in AngloGold Ashanti to 16.6 percent in 2008, in 2000, Julian Ogilvie Thompson retired as chief executive of Anglo American and was succeeded by Tony Trahar. Ogilvie Thompson also retired as chairman in 2002 and was replaced by Sir Mark Moody-Stuart, from 2002 to July 2008 Anglo American carried out black community economic empowerment transactions totalling R26 billion. Also, in 2002, Anglo Base Metals acquired the Disputada copper operations in Chile from Exxon Mobil Corporation and opened a office in Beijing. In 2003, Anglo American acquired a stake in iron ore producer Kumba Resources. In 2007, Cynthia Carroll succeeded Tony Trahar, becoming the first non-South African, the Mondi Group, a paper and packaging business, was also spun out in 2007. Opponents are also pointing to the use of cyanide, heavy metals, opponents of the Pebble Mine created Ballot Measure 4 to impose additional water quality standards on new large-scale mines in the state. However, in August 2007, Alaskans voted against the initiative, the Pebble Limited Partnership has not yet put forward a project proposal and is working to prepare a Prefeasibility Study for the project in the second half of 2009
6.
Diamond (gemstone)
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A diamond is one of the best-known and most sought-after gemstones. Diamonds have been known to mankind and used as decorative items since ancient times, the hardness of diamond and its high dispersion of light—giving the diamond its characteristic fire—make it useful for industrial applications and desirable as jewelry. Diamonds are such a highly traded commodity that multiple organizations have created for grading and certifying them based on the four Cs, which are color, cut, clarity. Other characteristics, such as presence or lack of fluorescence, also affect the desirability, the most famous use of the diamond in jewelry is in engagement rings. The practice is documented among European aristocracy as early as the 15th century, though ruby, the modern popularity of diamonds was largely created by De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd. which established the first large-scale diamonds mines in South Africa. Through an advertising campaign beginning in the 1930s and continuing into the century, De Beers made diamonds into a key part of the betrothal process. The diamonds high value has been the force behind dictators and revolutionary entities, especially in Africa, using slave. The value of diamonds is attributed largely to the tight control over this supply. Early references to diamonds in India come from Sanskrit texts, the Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India. Buddhist works dating from the 4th century BC describe the diamond as a well-known and precious stone, golconda served as an important center for diamonds in central India. Diamonds were traded to both the east and west of India and were recognized by various cultures for their gemological or industrial uses. In his work Naturalis Historia, the Roman writer Pliny the Elder noted diamonds ornamental uses, diamonds eventually spread throughout the world, even though India had remained the only major source of the gemstone until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in 1725. A Chinese work from the 3rd century BC mentions, Foreigners wear it in the belief that it can ward off evil influences. The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially did not use diamond as a jewel, diamonds reached ancient Rome from India. Diamonds were also discovered in 700 AD in Borneo, and were used by the traders of southeast Asia, the modern era of diamond mining began in the 1860s in Kimberley, South Africa with the opening of the first large-scale diamond mine. The first diamond there was found in 1866 on the banks of the Orange River, in 1869, an even larger 83.50 carat diamond was found on the slopes of Colesberg Kopje on the farm Vooruitzigt belonging to the De Beers brothers. This sparked off the famous New Rush and within a month,800 claims were cut into the hillock which were worked frenetically by two to three thousand men, as the land was lowered so the hillock became a mine—in time, the world-renowned Kimberley Mine. Following agreement by the British government on compensation to the Orange Free State for its land claims
7.
Diamond
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Diamond is a metastable allotrope of carbon, where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Diamond is less stable than graphite, but the rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions. Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the covalent bonding between its atoms. In particular, diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material and those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells. Because of its extremely rigid lattice, it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities, such as boron, small amounts of defects or impurities color diamond blue, yellow, brown, green, purple, pink, orange or red. Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion, most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers in the Earths mantle. Carbon-containing minerals provide the source, and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3.3 billion years. Diamonds are brought close to the Earths surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma, Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the conditions in the Earths mantle. An alternative, and completely different growth technique is chemical vapor deposition, several non-diamond materials, which include cubic zirconia and silicon carbide and are often called diamond simulants, resemble diamond in appearance and many properties. Special gemological techniques have developed to distinguish natural diamonds, synthetic diamonds. The word is from the ancient Greek ἀδάμας – adámas unbreakable, the name diamond is derived from the ancient Greek αδάμας, proper, unalterable, unbreakable, untamed, from ἀ-, un- + δαμάω, I overpower, I tame. Diamonds have been known in India for at least 3,000 years, Diamonds have been treasured as gemstones since their use as religious icons in ancient India. Their usage in engraving tools also dates to early human history, later in 1797, the English chemist Smithson Tennant repeated and expanded that experiment. By demonstrating that burning diamond and graphite releases the same amount of gas, the most familiar uses of diamonds today are as gemstones used for adornment, a use which dates back into antiquity, and as industrial abrasives for cutting hard materials. The dispersion of light into spectral colors is the primary gemological characteristic of gem diamonds. In the 20th century, experts in gemology developed methods of grading diamonds, four characteristics, known informally as the four Cs, are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds, these are carat, cut, color, and clarity. A large, flawless diamond is known as a paragon and these conditions are met in two places on Earth, in the lithospheric mantle below relatively stable continental plates, and at the site of a meteorite strike. The conditions for diamond formation to happen in the mantle occur at considerable depth corresponding to the requirements of temperature and pressure
8.
Botswana
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Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens refer to themselves as Batswana, formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. Since then, it has maintained a tradition of stable representative democracy. Botswana is topographically flat, with up to 70 percent of its territory being the Kalahari Desert and it is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. Its border with Zambia to the north near Kazungula is poorly defined, a mid-sized country of just over 2 million people, Botswana is one of the most sparsely populated nations in the world. Around 10 percent of the lives in the capital and largest city. The economy is dominated by mining, cattle, and tourism, Botswana boasts a GDP per capita of about $18,825 per year as of 2015, which is one of the highest in Africa. Its high gross national income gives the country a modest standard of living, Botswana is a member of the African Union, the Southern African Development Community, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the United Nations. The country has been among the hardest hit by the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the death rate due to AIDS or AIDS-related causes has fallen sharply from 2005 to 2013, and the number of new infections in children has also fallen. As of 2014, Botswana has the third-highest prevalence rate for HIV/AIDS, the history of Botswana starts more than 100,000 years ago, when the first humans inhabited the region. The original inhabitants of southern Africa were the Bushmen and Khoi peoples, both speak Khoisan languages and lived as hunter-gatherers. About a thousand years ago, large chiefdoms emerged that were later eclipsed by the Great Zimbabwe empire, around 1300 CE, peoples in present-day Transvaal began to coalesce into three main linguistic and political groups, including the Batswana. The Batswana, a term used also to all citizens of Botswana. Prior to European contact, the Batswana lived as herders and farmers under tribal rule, as groups broke off and moved to new land, new tribes were created. Some human development occurred before the colonial period, during the 1700s, the slave and ivory trades were expanding. To resist these pressures, Shaka, the king of the Zulu Empire, conquered tribes began to move northwest into Botswana, destroying everything in their path. In their efforts to re-establish themselves at the end of period, tribes began to exchange ivory and skins for guns with European traders. Christian missionaries sent from Europe also spread to the interior, often at the invitation of tribal chiefs who wanted guns, by 1880 every major village had a resident missionary, and their influence became permanent
9.
Namibia
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Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
10.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
11.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
12.
Monopoly
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A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
13.
Alfred Beit
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Alfred Beit was a British gold and diamond magnate in South Africa, and a major donor and profiteer of infrastructure development on the African continent. Born and brought up in Hamburg, Germany, he was the eldest son and his younger siblings included Otto Beit. Alfred Beit was a scholar and was apprenticed to Jules Porgès & Cie. Beit made his first fortune in property speculation, responding to a demand for business premises, he bought a piece of land and built twelve corrugated iron sheds for offices and rented eleven out monthly and kept one for himself. Twelve years later he sold the land for a considerable profit, Beit was sent to Kimberley, South Africa in 1875 by his firm to buy diamonds—following the diamond strike at Kimberley. He became a friend of Cecil Rhodes through his role in the Kimberley Central Company. Beit was captivated by Rhodes talk of big schemes, together, they proceeded to buy out digging ventures and to eliminate opposition such as Barney Barnato. He rapidly became one of a group of financiers who gained control of the claims in the Central, Dutoitspan. Rhodes was the politician and Beit provided a lot of the planning. Beits diamond interests were mainly concentrated on Kimberley mine and he focused his main attention on the Kimberley Central Company aiming to expand its interests. He had a role in the rise of Kimberley Central Company. In 1886 Beit extended his interests to the newly discovered goldfields of the Witwatersrand, in his business ventures there he made use of financiers Hermann Eckstein and Sir Joseph Robinson. He founded the Robertson Syndicate and the firm of Wernher, Beit & Co and he imported mining engineers from the USA and was among the first to adopt deep-level mining. Rhodes purportedly was granted concessions by Lobengula, as a result of which Beit founded the British South Africa Company in 1888, Beit became life-governor of De Beers and also a director of numerous other companies such as Rand Mines, Rhodesia Railways and the Beira Railway Company. In 1888 Beit moved to London when he felt he was able to manage his financial empire. Beit moved into Tewin Water, near Welwyn, a large Regency house with Victorian additions and 7,000 acres, in the 1890s, he had a mansion built in Park Lane – Aldford House. As a result of this debacle, Rhodes resigned as Prime Minister, Beit was obliged to resign as director of the Charter Company, but was elected vice-president of the British South Africa Company a few years later. With the death of Rhodes in 1902, Beit, as one of the trustees, helped control the estate, currently being helped by the Oppenheimer family of De Beers
14.
N M Rothschild & Sons
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N M Rothschild & Sons Limited or Rothschild Group is a British multinational investment banking company controlled by the Rothschild family. It was founded in the City of London in 1811 and now serves as the British division of Rothschild & Co and it is the 7th oldest bank in continuous operation in the United Kingdom. Rothschilds financial advisory division is known to serve British nobility, including the British Royal Family, chairman Sir Evelyn Rothschild is currently the personal financial advisor of Queen Elizabeth II, and she knighted him in 1989 for his services to banking and finance. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, Mayer Amschel Rothschild rose to one of Europes most powerful bankers in the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel in the Holy Roman Empire. In pursuit of expansion, he appointed his sons to start banking operations in the capitals of Europe, including sending his third son, Nathan Mayer Rothschild. Nathan Mayer Rothschild first settled in Manchester, where he established a business in finance and he later moved to London, where he founded N M Rothschild & Sons in 1811, through which he made a fortune with his involvement in the government bonds market. According to historian Niall Ferguson, For most of the nineteenth century, through the creation of a network of agents, couriers and shippers, the bank was able to provide funds to the armies of the Duke of Wellington in Portugal and Spain. In 1818 the Rothschild bank arranged a £5 million loan to the Prussian government, the providing of other innovative and complex financing for government projects formed a mainstay of the banks business for the better part of the century. N M Rothschild & Sons financial strength in the City of London became such that by 1825, Nathan Mayers eldest son, Lionel de Rothschild succeeded him as head of the London branch. Under Lionel the bank financed the British governments 1875 purchase of a controlling interest in the Suez Canal, Lionel also began to invest in railways as his uncle James had been doing in France. In 1869, Lionels son, Alfred de Rothschild, became a director of the Bank of England, Alfred was one of those who represented the British Government at the 1892 International Monetary Conference in Brussels. In 1873 de Rothschild Frères in France and N M Rothschild & Sons of London joined with other investors to acquire the Spanish governments money-losing Rio Tinto copper mines, the new owners restructured the company and turned it into a profitable business. By 1905, the Rothschild interest in Rio Tinto amounted to more than 30%, in 1887, the French and English Rothschild banking houses loaned money to, and invested in, the De Beers diamond mines in South Africa, becoming its largest shareholders. The First World War marked a change of fortune and emphasis for Rothschild, after the War, the Rothschild banks began a steady transition towards advisory work and finance raising for commercial concerns, including the London Underground. In 1938, the Austrian Rothschilds’ interests were given to the Nazis, in France and Austria, the family was scattered for the duration of the Second World War. In the 1980s, Rothschild took a role in the international phenomenon of privatisation. The company was involved from the beginning and developed a role which spread out to more than thirty countries worldwide. In recent years, Rothschild advised on nearly a thousand completed mergers, Rothschild also advised on some of the largest and most high-profile corporate restructurings around the world
15.
Ernest Oppenheimer
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Sir Ernest Oppenheimer was a diamond and gold mining entrepreneur, financier and philanthropist, who controlled De Beers and founded the Anglo American Corporation of South Africa. He was born in Friedberg, Germany, the son of Edward Oppenheimer, Oppenheimer began his working life at 17, when he entered Dunkelsbuhler & Company, a diamond brokerage in London. His efforts impressed his employer and in 1902, at the age of 22, he was sent to South Africa to represent the company as a buyer in Kimberley, where he eventually rose to the position of mayor. He became great friends with William Lincoln Honnold, an American engineer, chairman Transvaal Coal Trust, Brakpan Mines, Springs Mines, in 1917, they launched the Anglo American Corporation with financial assistance from J. P. Morgan. The initial capital was £1 million, half of the capital was subscribed in America and half in England and South Africa. In 1927, Ernest Oppenheimer managed to wrest control of Cecil Rhodess De Beers empire and built and he was involved in a number of controversies, including price fixing, antitrust behaviour and an allegation of not releasing industrial diamonds for the US war effort during World War II. He died in Johannesburg in 1957 and he was born into a Jewish family, but as an adult, he converted to Anglicanism and was buried at St Georges Church, Parktown. He was succeeded in the business by his son Harry Oppenheimer, oppenheimers brother, Sir Bernard Oppenheimer, was also heavily involved in the diamond industry. In 1964, the Oppenheimer Diamond was named in his honour by its owner, Harry Winston, who donated the stone to the Smithsonian Institution as a memorial
16.
J. P. Morgan
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John Pierpont J. P. Morgan was an American financier and banker who dominated corporate finance and industrial consolidation in late 19th and early 20th Century United States. In 1892, Morgan arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and he was instrumental in the creation of the United States Steel Corporation, International Harvester and AT&T. He directed the banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907 and he was the leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to efficiency and modernization helped transform American business. Morgan has been described as America’s greatest banker, Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75, leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont Morgan, Jr. His fortune was estimated at only US$80 million, prompting John D. Rockefeller to say, Morgan was born into the influential Morgan family in Hartford, Connecticut, and was raised there. He was the son of Junius Spencer Morgan and Juliet Pierpont, Pierpont, as he preferred to be known, had a varied education due in part to the plans of his father. In the fall of 1848, Pierpont transferred to the Hartford Public School and then to the Episcopal Academy in Cheshire, Connecticut, boarding with the principal. In September 1851, Morgan passed the exam for The English High School of Boston. In the spring of 1852, an illness struck which was to more common as his life progressed. Rheumatic fever left him in so much pain that he could not walk and he convalesced there for almost a year, then returned to the English High School in Boston to resume his studies. After he graduated, his father sent him to Bellerive, a school near the Swiss village of Vevey and his father then sent him to the University of Göttingen in order to improve his German. He attained a level of German within six months and also a degree in art history, then traveled back to London via Wiesbaden. Morgan went into banking in 1857 at the London branch of merchant banking firm Peabody, in 1858, he moved to New York City to join the banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American representatives of George Peabody and Company. Morgan had avoided serving during the war by paying a substitute $300 to take his place, from 1860 to 1864, as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York for his fathers firm, renamed J. S. Morgan & Co. upon Peabodys retirement in 1864, from 1864–72, he was a member of the firm of Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel, at that time, Anthony J. Drexel became Pierponts mentor at the request of Junius Morgan. After the death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened J. P. Morgan & Company in 1895, retaining close ties with Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of Paris, and J. S. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking houses of the world, Morgan had many partners over the years, such as George W. Perkins, but always remained firmly in charge
17.
Price fixing
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The defining characteristic of price fixing is any agreement regarding price, whether expressed or implied. Price fixing requires a conspiracy between sellers or buyers, the purpose is to coordinate pricing for mutual benefit of the traders. Price fixing is permitted in some markets but not others, where allowed, in neo-classical economics, price fixing is inefficient. The anti-competitive agreement by producers to fix prices above the market price transfers some of the surplus to those producers. International price fixing by private entities can be prosecuted under the antitrust laws of many countries, examples of prosecuted international cartels are those that controlled the prices and output of lysine, citric acid, graphite electrodes, and bulk vitamins. In the United States, price fixing can be prosecuted as a federal offense under section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act. Criminal prosecutions may only be handled by the U. S. Department of Justice, many state attorneys general also bring antitrust cases and have antitrust offices, such as Virginia, New York, and California. Private individuals or organizations may file lawsuits for damages for antitrust violations. Under American law, exchanging prices among competitors can also violate the antitrust laws and this includes exchanging prices with either the intent to fix prices or if the exchange affects the prices individual competitors set. Proof that competitors have shared prices can be used as part of the evidence of a price fixing agreement. Experts generally advise that competitors avoid even the appearance of agreeing on price, since 1997, US Courts have divided price fixing into two categories, vertical and horizontal maximum price fixing. Vertical price fixing includes an attempt to control the price of its product at retail. Also in 2008, the defendants of United States v LG Display Co, United States v. Chunghwa Picture Tubes, and United States v. In Canada, it is a criminal offense under section 45 of the Competition Act. Bid rigging is considered a form of fixing and is illegal in both the United States and Canada. In the United States, agreements to fix, raise, lower, stabilize and it does not matter if the price agreed upon is reasonable or for a good or altruistic cause or if the agreement is unspoken and tacit. Although price fixing usually means sellers agreeing on price, it can include agreements among buyers to fix the price at which they will buy products. Price fixing is illegal in Australia under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 which have similar prohibitions to the US
18.
Trust (business)
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A trust or corporate trust is an American English term for a large business with significant market power. It is often used in a sense to refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States during the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. Originally, the corporate trust was a device used to consolidate power in large American corporate enterprises. Nine individuals held trust certificates and acted as the board of trustees. One of those trustees was Rockefeller himself, who held 41% of the trust certificates and this kind of arrangement became popular and soon had many imitators. An 1888 article explained the difference between trusts in the sense and the newfangled corporate trusts, A trust is. Simply the case of one person holding the title of property, whether land or chattels, for the benefit of another, nothing can be more common or more useful. But the word is now applied to a certain class, of commercial agreements and, by reason of a popular and unreasoning dread of their effect. This is unfortunate, for it is difficult to find a substitute for it, for example, the Standard Oil Trust terminated its own trust agreement in March 1892. In 1898, President William McKinley launched the era when he appointed the U. S. The report of the Commission was seized upon by Theodore Roosevelt, prominent trusts included Standard Oil, U. S. Steel, the American Tobacco Company, the International Mercantile Marine Company, and the match companies controlled by Ivar Kreuger, the Match King. De Beers had a dominant role in the supply of diamonds, other trusts were formed by several companies, such as the Motion Picture Patents Company or Edison Trust which controlled the movie patents. Patents were also important to the Bell Telephone Company, as indicated by the litigation that came to be known as The Telephone Cases. The Truth About The Trusts, A Description and Analysis of the American Trust Movement, boudreaux, Donald J. and Thomas J. Dilorenzo. The Protectionist Roots of Antitrust The Review of Austrian Economics 6, barak Orbach and Grace Campbell, The Antitrust Curse of Bigness, Southern California Law Review. Media related to Private Trust Company at Wikimedia Commons
19.
Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild
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Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild of Tring, Baron de Rothschild, GCVO PC, was a British banker and politician from the wealthy international Rothschild family. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was a friend of the Prince of Wales, on 16 April 1867, he married Emma Louise von Rothschild, a cousin from the Rothschild banking family of Germany in Frankfurt. They had three children, Lionel Walter Evelina Rothschild-Behrens Nathaniel Charles In 1847, his uncle Anthony Nathan de Rothschild was created 1st Baronet de Rothschild, since Sir Anthony had no male heirs, the baronetcy passed on his death to his nephew Nathan Mayer Rothschild. In 1885, Rothschild became a member of the House of Lords when he was created Baron Rothschild, of Tring in the County of Hertford and he also was Baron de Rothschild in the Austrian Empire, a noble title he had inherited via his father. In 1838, Queen Victoria had authorized the use of this Austrian title in the United Kingdom, Rothschild sat in the House of Commons as Liberal Member of Parliament for Aylesbury from 1865 to 1885. He was elected at least four times before he was permitted to sit in the Commons, as a religious Jew, he was unable to enter public life. Benjamin Disraeli stood for equality for Jews before the law and, when Rothschild finally entered the chamber, he moved to the Conservative benches to shake his opponent by the hand. One of the most important consequences for the emancipation of the Jews was that these freedoms were written into the Second Reform Act. When he was raised to the peerage by Gladstone, Rothschild was the first Jewish member of the House of Lords not to have converted to Christianity. In common with the rest of his family, Rothschild joined the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party formed in 1886 by Joseph Chamberlain, are we to have all ways of reform, financial and social, blocked, simply by a notice-board, No Thoroughfare. Rothschild recommended the Lords reject the Parliament Bill which was, however, in 1914, after the outbreak of World War I, Rothschild was consulted for economic advice by Lloyd George. At his first invitation to confer at the Treasury, when asked what could be done to more money for the war effort, Rothschild reportedly answered, Tax the rich. The peerage was inherited by his son, Lionel Walter Rothschild and he worked as a partner in the London branch of the family bank, N M Rothschild & Sons, and became head of the bank after his fathers death in 1879. During his tenure, he also maintained its pre-eminent position in private venture finance and in issuing loans to the governments of the US, following the Rothschilds funding of the Suez Canal, a close relationship was maintained with Benjamin Disraeli and affairs in Egypt. Rothschild also funded Cecil Rhodes in the development of the British South Africa Company and he later administered Rhodes estate after Rhodes death in 1902 and helped to set up the Rhodes Scholarship scheme at the University of Oxford. He was a prominent member of the Round Table movement, created in 1909 and he also served as a trustee of the London Mosque Fund until his death. In his youth, Rothschild was a Captain in the Buckinghamshire Yeomanry, was Lord Lieutenant of Buckinghamshire from 1889 until his death and was known as an agriculturist. In 1902, he was sworn of the Privy Council and was appointed to the Royal Victorian Order as a Knight Grand Cross and he died in London, five days after an operation, on 31 March 1915 and was buried at Willesden Jewish Cemetery
20.
Rothschild family
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During the 19th century, the Rothschild family possessed the largest private fortune in the world, as well as the largest private fortune in modern world history. The Rothschild family has frequently been the subject of conspiracy theories, the first member of the family who was known to use the name Rothschild was Izaak Elchanan Rothschild, born in 1577. The name is derived from the German zum rothen Schild, meaning with the red sign, the familys ascent to international prominence began in 1744, with the birth of Mayer Amschel Rothschild in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. He was the son of Amschel Moses Rothschild, a money changer who had traded with the Prince of Hesse, the family motto appears below the shield, Concordia, Integritas, Industria. Paul Johnson writes he Rothschilds are elusive, there is no book about them that is both revealing and accurate. Libraries of nonsense have been written about them, a woman who planned to write a book entitled Lies about the Rothschilds abandoned it, saying, ‘It was relatively easy to spot the lies, but it proved impossible to find out the truth. Their assets were held in financial instruments, circulating through the world as stocks, bonds, changes made by the Rothschilds allowed them to insulate their property from local violence, Henceforth their real wealth was beyond the reach of the mob, almost beyond the reach of greedy monarchs. Another essential part of Mayer Rothschilds strategy for success was to control of their banks in family hands. By this means, Jewish financiers obtained a share of international finance during the middle. The head of the group was the Rothschild family. It also states, Of more recent years, non-Jewish financiers have learned the same method, and, on the whole. Mayer Rothschild successfully kept the fortune in the family with carefully arranged marriages, by the late 19th century, however, almost all Rothschilds had started to marry outside the family, usually into the aristocracy or other financial dynasties. The surname Rothschild is rare in Germany, the German surname Rothschild is not related to the Protestant surname Rothchilds from the United Kingdom. Another line, of the British branch of the family, was elevated by Queen Victoria, research conducted by GreatGameIndia Magazine has revealed that the Rothschild family was one of the controller families of the East India Company. The Rothschilds already possessed a significant fortune before the start of the Napoleonic Wars, in 1815 alone, the Rothschilds provided £9.8 million in subsidy loans to Britains continental allies. The brothers helped coordinate Rothschild activities across the continent, and the family developed a network of agents, in one instance, the family network enabled Nathan to receive in London the news of Wellingtons victory at the Battle of Waterloo a full day ahead of the governments official messengers. It was then repeated in popular accounts, such as that of Morton. The basis for the Rothschilds most famously profitable move was made after the news of British victory had made public
21.
Dutch people
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The Dutch, occasionally referred to as Netherlanders—a term that is cognate to the Dutch word for Dutch people, Nederlanders—are a Germanic ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a culture and speak the Dutch language. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at an early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place, despite the small size of the Netherlands, the Dutch left behind a legacy in excess of their mere numbers. The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of music, dances, architectural styles and clothing. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard, the dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity, although in modern times the majority is no longer religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality, as with all ethnic groups the ethnogenesis of the Dutch has been a lengthy and complex process. The text below hence focuses on the history of the Dutch ethnic group, for Dutch national history, for Dutch colonial history, see the article on the Dutch Empire. Following the end of the period in the West around 500, with large federations settling the decaying Roman Empire. In the Low Countries, this began when the Franks, themselves a union of multiple smaller tribes. Eventually, in 358, the Salian Franks, one of the three main subdivisions among the Frankish alliance settled the areas Southern lands as foederati, Roman allies in charge of border defense. On a political level, the Frankish warlords abandoned tribalism and founded a number of kingdoms, however, the population make-up of the Frankish Empire, or even early Frankish kingdoms such as Neustria and Austrasia, was not dominated by Franks. Though the Frankish leaders controlled most of Western Europe, the Franks themselves were confined to the Northwestern part of the Empire, the current Dutch-French language border has remained virtually identical ever since, and could be seen as marking the furthest pale of gallicization among the Franks. The medieval cities of the Low Countries, which experienced major growth during the 11th and 12th century, were instrumental in breaking down the already relatively loose local form of feudalism, as they became increasingly powerful, they used their economical strength to influence the politics of their nobility. While the cities were of political importance, they also formed catalysts for medieval Dutch culture. The various city guilds as well as the necessity of water boards in the Dutch delta and it is also around this time, that ethnonyms such as Diets and Nederlands emerge. This process marked a new episode in the development of the Dutch ethnic group, as now political unity started to emerge, consolidating the strengthened cultural, despite their linguistic and cultural unity, and economic similarities, there was still little sense of political unity among the Dutch people. However, the centralist policies of Burgundy in the 14th and 15th centuries, at first violently opposed by the cities of the Low Countries, had a profound impact and changed this
22.
Settler
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A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established a permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally from a culture, as opposed to nomads who share. Settlements are often built on land already claimed or owned by another group, many times settlers are backed by governments or large countries. One can witness how settlers very often occupied land previously home to long-established peoples, the word settler was not originally usually used in relation to free labour immigrants, such as slaves, indentured labourers, or convicts. In United States history it refers to people who helped to settle new lands. In this usage, pioneers are usually among the first to an area, whereas settlers can arrive after first settlement and this correlates with the work of military pioneers who were tasked with construction of camps before the main body of troops would arrive at the designated campsite. In Imperial Russia, the government invited Russians or foreign nationals to settle in sparsely populated lands, see, e. g. articles Slavo-Serbia, Volga German, Volhynia, Russians in Kazakhstan. In the Middle East, there are a number of references to various squatter, among those, Iraq – the Arabization program of the Baath Party in the late 1970s in North Iraq, which aimed at settling Arab populations instead of Kurds following the Second Iraqi-Kurdish War. Israel – Israelis who moved to areas captured during the Six-Day War in 1967 are termed Israeli settlers, in recent Israeli settlers have been settling in Palestinian territory such as the Gaza Strip and West Bank. However, this has caused political unrest and many settlers are forcibly removed from their settlements by the Israeli government, Syria – In recent times, Arab settlers have also moved in large numbers to ethnic minority areas, such as northeast Syria. Women and children experience violence in these highly dangerous ares because of the conflict, many natives face displacement when new settlements are established. During 1948 Palestine war, in which Israel was created, over 750,000 Palestinians were displaced from their homes, oftentimes fences or walls are built preventing the natives from traveling back onto the land. Settlements make it difficult for native people to continue their work. For example, if the settlers take part of the land which the trees grow on then the natives no longer have access to those olive trees. Many are met with violence when they try to get the things they need from the land, settlers in hypothetical societies, such as on other planets, often feature in science fiction or fantasy fiction and/or video games. Mascot for Texas Womans University, more specifically called the Pioneer. The colony concerned is sometimes controlled by the government of a home country
23.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
24.
Orange Free State
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It is the historical precursor to the present-day Free State province. In the northern part of the territory a Voortrekker Republic was established at Winburg in 1837 and this state was in federation with the Republic of Potchefstroom which later formed part of the South African Republic. The new republic incorporated the Orange River Sovereignty and included the traditions of the Winburg-Potchefstroom Republic and it ceased to exist as an independent Boer republic on 31 May 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging at the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Boer War. Following a period of rule by the British, it joined the Union of South Africa in 1910 as the Orange Free State Province, along with the Cape Province, Natal. In 1961, the Union of South Africa became the Republic of South Africa. The republics name derives partly from the Orange River, which in turn was named in honour of the Dutch ruling royal family, the official language in the Orange Free State was Dutch. Europeans first visited the north of the Orange River towards the close of the 18th century. At that time, the population was sparse, early in the 19th century Griquas established themselves north of the Orange. Between 1817 and 1831, the country was devastated by the chief Mzilikazi and his Matabele in the known as the Mfecane. Up to this time the few Europeans who had crossed the Orange had come mainly as hunters or as missionaries and they were followed in 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek. These emigrants left the Cape Colony for various reasons, but all shared the desire to escape from British authority. When Boer families first reached the area discovered that it had been devastated by a section of the Zulu tribe under Mzilikazi and his people. The Matebele had swept the country, destroying the fields, carrying off the cattle, the Boers soon came into collision with Mzilikazis raiding parties, which attacked Boer hunters who crossed the Vaal River. Reprisals followed, and in November 1837 the Boers decisively defeated Mzilikazi, in the meantime another party of Cape Dutch emigrants had settled at Thaba Nchu, where the Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. The emigrants were treated with kindness by Moroka II, the chief of that tribe. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary form of government. After the defeat of Mzilikazi the town of Winburg was founded, a Volksraad elected, the emigrants already numbered some 500 men, besides women and children and many servants. Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers were added to
25.
Big Hole
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The first diamonds here were found on Colesberg Kopje by members of the Red Cap Party from Colesberg on the farm Vooruitzigt belonging to the De Beers brothers, in 1871. The ensuing scramble for claims led to the place being called New Rush, from mid-July 1871 to 1914 up to 50,000 miners dug the hole with picks and shovels, yielding 2,720 kilograms of diamonds. The Big Hole has a surface of 17 hectares and is 463 metres wide and it was excavated to a depth of 240 metres, but then partially infilled with debris reducing its depth to about 215 metres. Since then it has accumulated about 40 metres of water, leaving 175 metres of the hole visible. Once above-ground operations became too dangerous and unproductive, the pipe of the Kimberley Mine was also mined underground by Cecil Rhodes De Beers company to a depth of 1,097 metres. There is currently an effort in progress to register the Big Hole as a World Heritage Site, in 1872, one year after digging started, the population of the camp of diggers grew to around 50,000. As digging progressed, many men met their deaths in mining accidents, the unsanitary conditions, scarcity of water and fresh vegetables as well as the intense heat in the summer, also took their toll. This huge company further worked on the Big Hole until it came to the depth of 215 metres, with an area of about 17 hectares. There are other, larger, mine excavations, but these were created using earth-moving equipment rather than manual labour, there was an official opening during the Kimberleys centenary celebrations in 1971. One of the attractions was the Diamond Hall, the Mine Museum went through subsequent further upgrades. Between 2002 and 2005 De Beers invested R50 million in developing the Big Hole into a tourism facility. The new facility, the Big Hole Kimberley, elaborating a theme of Diamonds and Destiny, was expected to double visitor numbers to the Big Hole
26.
Hopetown
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Hopetown is a town which lies at the edge of the Great Karoo in South Africas Northern Cape province. It is situated on a slope leading down to the Orange River. The first diamond discovered in South Africa, the Eureka Diamond, was found at Hopetown, Hopetown was founded in 1850 when Sir Harry Smith extended the northern frontier of the Cape Colony to the Orange River. A handful of settlers claimed ground where there was a ford over the Orange River. Hopetown was named after William Hope, Auditor-General and Secretary of the Cape Colony Government at the time, Hoopstad is a different town and should not be confused with Hopetown in the Northern Cape, South Africa. Hopetown was a farming area until several large diamonds, most notable the Eureka Diamond. The ford was upgraded to a bridge in 1884
27.
Orange River
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The Orange River is the longest river in South Africa. It rises in the Drakensberg mountains in Lesotho, flowing westwards through South Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, the river forms part of the international borders between South Africa and Namibia and between South Africa and Lesotho, as well as several provincial borders within South Africa. Except for Upington, it does not pass any major cities. The Orange River plays an important role in the South African economy by providing water for irrigation, the river was named by Robert Jacob Gordon after the Dutch Royal House. Other names include Gariep River, Groote River or Senqu River, the official name, however, is the Orange River. The Orange rises in the Drakensberg mountains along the border between South Africa and Lesotho, about 193 km west of the Indian Ocean and at an altitude of over 3,000 m. While in Lesotho, the river is known as the Senqu and parts of it freeze in winter and this creates droughts downstream of it which mainly affects goat and cattle production. The river then runs westward through South Africa, forming the boundary of the Free State province. In this section the river flows first into the Gariep Dam, from the border of Lesotho to below the Van der Kloof Dam the river bed is deeply incised. Further downstream the land is flatter, and the river is used extensively for irrigation. At the western point of the Free State, southwest of Kimberley, the Orange meets with its tributary, the Vaal River. From here it flows westward for 550 km, forming the border between the province and Namibias ǁKaras Region. On the border, the passes the town of Vioolsdrif. In the last 800 km of its course the Orange receives many intermittent streams, in this section, the Namib Desert terminates on the north bank of the river, so under normal circumstances the volume of water added by these tributaries is negligible. Here the bed of the river is again deeply incised. The Augrabies Falls are located on section of the Orange. The Orange empties into the Atlantic Ocean at Alexander Bay, which lies equidistant between Cape Town and Walvis Bay. Some 33 km from its mouth it is obstructed by rapids
28.
Barney Barnato
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Barney Barnato, born Barnet Isaacs, was a British Randlord, one of the entrepreneurs who gained control of diamond mining, and later gold mining, in South Africa from the 1870s. He is perhaps best remembered as being a rival of Cecil Rhodes, Barney Barnato claimed he had the same birthday as Cecil Rhodes. Most biographies give his date of birth as 5 July 1852, however, his birth certificate shows he was born Barnet Isaacs in Aldgate, London on 21 February 1851, the son of Isaac and Leah Isaacs. He was educated by Moses Angel at the Jews Free School and he had a hard life, and is reputed to have begged pass-outs from theatre-leavers at the Garrick Theatre in Leman Street, to sell them on to others for a halfpenny. For a while he became a prizefighter and music-hall turn, Barney grew up in Whitechapel, the very poor East End of London in an area that was predominantly a Jewish neighborhood. The Isaacs family lived in the area for one hundred years. Isaac Isaacs, Barney’s father made a living from selling second hand clothing, when Barney and his older brother Harry reached fourteen, they left school and entered the business. Their mother Leah died in the year after Barney was born, kate the oldest of the siblings, helped bring up the boys and two sisters Sarah and Lizzie. When they were in their teens, Barney and Harry liked to perform on stage in the Music Halls of the area, for the longest time Harry was introduced as the Great Henry Isaacs. Barney was added as “and Barnett too” so he suggested to Harry that they call themselves Bar-na-to, from that time onwards, they were known by that name on the Music Hall stages. Barney had a talent for boxing, in his day, the Marquess of Queensberry Rules were rarely used in his amateur boxing bouts. Winning was the all that mattered and he made money from his bouts, mainly by placing bets with the bookies. He was not scared of anyone, the bigger they came, the better he liked it. In 1873, Barney joined his brother Harry in the Cape Colony during the diamond rush which accompanied the discovery of diamonds at Kimberley and his brother had gone out in 1871. Barney saved up money to pay for his steerage passage. He left England and when he arrived in South Africa, he could not afford the coach to get to where the diamonds had been found and he ended up walking all the way with a bullock cart that was delivering supplies to the miners. It took him three months to walk there, Barney arrived in Kimberley to find that Harry was not doing very well. In fact he wasn’t making money from diamonds at all, but from performances on stage, Barney spent his first year learning about diamonds, buying a stone here or there and selling at a small profit and then buying more
29.
Second Boer War
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The Second Boer War, usually known as the Boer War and also at the time as the South African War, started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. Great Britain defeated two Boer states in South Africa, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State, Britain was aided by its Cape Colony, Colony of Natal and some native African allies. The British war effort was supported by volunteers from the British Empire, including Southern Africa, the Australian colonies, Canada, India. All other nations were neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain, inside Britain and its Empire there also was significant opposition to the Second Boer War. The British were overconfident and under-prepared, the Boers were very well armed and struck first, besieging Ladysmith, Kimberley, and Mafeking in early 1900, and winning important battles at Colenso, Magersfontein and Stormberg. Staggered, the British brought in numbers of soldiers and fought back. General Redvers Buller was replaced by Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener and they relieved the three besieged cities, and invaded the two Boer republics in late 1900. The onward marches of the British Army were so overwhelming that the Boers did not fight staged battles in defense of their homeland, the British quickly seized control of all of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, as the civilian leadership went into hiding or exile. In conventional terms, the war was over, Britain officially annexed the two countries in 1900, and called a khaki election to give the government another six years of power in London. However, the Boers refused to surrender and they reverted to guerrilla warfare under new generals Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, Christiaan de Wet and Koos de la Rey. Two more years of attacks and quick escapes followed. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, the British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, then the British mounted infantry units systematically tracked down the highly mobile Boer guerrilla units. The battles at this stage were small operations with few combat casualties The war ended in surrender, the British successfully won over the Boer leaders, who now gave full support to the new political system. Both former republics were incorporated into the Union of South Africa in 1910, the conflict is commonly referred to as simply the Boer War, since the First Boer War is much less well known. Boer was the term for Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans descended from the Dutch East India Companys original settlers at the Cape of Good Hope. It is officially called the South African War and it is known as the Anglo-Boer War among some South Africans. In Afrikaans it may be called the Anglo-Boereoorlog, Tweede Boereoorlog, in South Africa it is officially called the South African War
30.
Siege of Kimberley
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The Siege of Kimberley took place during the Second Boer War at Kimberley, Cape Colony, when Boer forces from the Orange Free State and the Transvaal besieged the diamond mining town. The Boers moved quickly to try to capture the British enclave when war broke out between the British and the two Boer republics in October 1899, the town was ill-prepared, but the defenders organised an energetic and effective improvised defence that was able to prevent it from being taken. Cecil Rhodes, who had made his fortune in the town, and his presence was controversial, as his involvement in the Jameson Raid made him one of the primary protagonists behind war breaking out. Rhodes was constantly at loggerheads with the military, but he was instrumental in organising the defence of the town. The Boers shelled the town with their artillery in an attempt to force the garrison to capitulate. The British military had to change its strategy for the war as public opinion demanded that the sieges of Kimberley, Ladysmith, the first attempt at relief of Kimberley under Lord Methuen was stopped at the battles of Modder River and Magersfontein. The 124-day siege was relieved on 15 February 1900 by a cavalry division under Lieutenant-General John French. The battle against the Boer general Piet Cronjé continued at Paardeberg immediately after the town itself was relieved, South Africa was initially a Dutch colony after the Dutch East India Company set up a shipping station at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652. Many Dutch farmers elected to move away from British influence into the hinterland, the discoveries led to a massive influx of Uitlanders into the Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. Tensions soon started rising between the British Empire and the two Boer republics, discussions broke down in October 1899 when the British ignored a Boer ultimatum to stop concentrating forces on the borders of the Boer republics. The town had a population of 40,000, of which 25,000 were white, the closest Boer settlements were Jacobsdal to the south and Boshof to the east. The De Beers company was concerned about the defence of Kimberley some years before the outbreak of the war, in 1896, an arms depot was formed, a plan of defence sent to the authorities and a local defence force set up. His reply to an appeal for arms in September 1899 stated, There is no reason whatever for apprehending that Kimberley is or will be in any danger of attack, the town next appealed to the High Commissioner, this time with more success. On 4 October 1899, Major Scott-Turner was permitted to summon volunteers to join the town guard and raise the Diamond Fields Artillery. Three days later, the town was placed under the command of Colonel Robert Kekewich of the 1st Battalion, Loyal Regiment, and secured against a coup de main, but not against sustained siege. Colonel Kekewichs troops consisted of four companies of the Loyal North Lancashire Regiment, some Royal Engineers, six RML2.5 inch mountain guns and two machine guns. Also at his disposal were 120 men of the Cape Police,2,000 irregular troops, the Kimberley Light Horse, eight Maxim machine guns were mounted on redoubts built atop tailing heaps around the town. Cecil John Rhodes, the founder of De Beers, was contemplating moving into the town, the citizens feared that his presence there, given his prominent role in the breakdown of Anglo-Boer relations leading up to the war, would antagonise the Boers
31.
Shell (projectile)
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A shell is a payload-carrying projectile that, as opposed to shot, contains an explosive or other filling, though modern usage sometimes includes large solid projectiles properly termed shot. Solid shot may contain a pyrotechnic compound if a tracer or spotting charge is used, originally, it was called a bombshell, but shell has come to be unambiguous in a military context. Words cognate with grenade are still used for an artillery or mortar projectile in some European languages, shells are usually large-calibre projectiles fired by artillery, combat vehicles, and warships. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder topped by a nose for good aerodynamic performance, possibly with a tapering base. Solid cannonballs did not need a fuse, but hollow munitions filled with something such as gunpowder to fragment the ball, needed a fuse, percussion fuses with a spherical projectile presented a challenge because there was no way of ensuring that the impact mechanism hit the target. Therefore, shells needed a fuse that was ignited before or during firing. The earliest record of shells being used in combat was by the Republic of Venice at Jadra in 1376, shells with fuses were used at the 1421 siege of St Boniface in Corsica. These were two hollowed hemispheres of stone or bronze held together by an iron hoop, as described in their book, these hollow, gunpowder-packed shells were made of cast iron. At least since the 16th Century grenades made of ceramics or glass were in use in Central Europe, a hoard of several hundred ceramic greandes were discovered during building works in front of a bastion of the Bavarian City of Ingolstadt, Germany dated to the 17th Century. Lots of the grenades obtained their orignal blackpowder loads and igniters, most probably the grenades were intentionally dumped the moat of the bastion before the year 1723. Early powder burning fuses had to be loaded fuse down to be ignited by firing or a portfire put down the barrel to light the fuse, other shells were wrapped in bitumen cloth, which would ignite during the firing and in turn ignite a powder fuse. Nevertheless, shells came into use in the 16th Century. By the 18th Century, it was known that the fuse towards the muzzle could be lit by the flash through the windage between the shell and the barrel, the use of exploding shells from field artillery became relatively commonplace from early in the 19th century. Until the mid 19th century, shells remained as simple exploding spheres that used gunpowder and they were usually made of cast iron, but bronze, lead, brass and even glass shell casings were experimented with. The word bomb encompassed them at the time, as heard in the lyrics of The Star-Spangled Banner, typically, the thickness of the metal body was about a sixth of their diameter and they were about two thirds the weight of solid shot of the same calibre. To ensure that shells were loaded with their fuses towards the muzzle, in 1819, a committee of British artillery officers recognised that they were essential stores and in 1830 Britain standardised sabot thickness as a half inch. The sabot was also intended to reduce jamming during loading, despite the use of exploding shell, the use of smoothbore cannons, firing spherical projectiles of shot, remained the dominant artillery method until the 1850s. By the late 18th century, artillery could use canister shot to defend itself from infantry or cavalry attack and this involved loading a tin or canvas container filled with small iron or lead balls instead of the usual cannonball
32.
Armoured train
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An armoured train is a railway train protected with armour. Armoured trains usually include railroad cars armed with artillery and machine guns and they were mostly used during the late 19th and early 20th century, when they offered an innovative way to quickly move large amounts of firepower. Most countries discontinued their use - road vehicles became more powerful and offered more flexibility. However, the Russian Federation used improvised armored trains in the Second Chechen War of 1999-2009, the rail cars on an armoured train were designed for many tasks. Typical roles included, Artillery - fielding a mixture of guns, machine guns, infantry - designed to carry infantry units, may also mount machine guns. Machine gun - dedicated to machine guns, anti-aircraft - equipped with anti-aircraft weapons. The US at one time proposed having a system for the MX Missile program. In addition to metal plates, concrete and sandbags were used in some cases for improvised armoured trains. Armoured trains were escorted by a kind of rail-tank called a draisine. One such example was the Littorina armoured trolley which had a cab in the front and rear, Littorina mounted two dual 7. 92mm MG13 machine gun turrets from Panzer I light tanks. Armoured trains saw use during the 19th century in the American Civil War, the Franco-Prussian War, the Boers captured Churchill and many of the trains contingent, but many others escaped, including wounded soldiers who had been carried on the trains engine. Early in the 20th century, Russia used armoured trains during the Russo-Japanese War, Armoured trains went on to see use during the Mexican Revolution and World War I. The most intensive use of armoured trains was during the Russian Civil War, the Spanish Civil War saw a little use of armoured trains, though World War II saw more. The French used them during the First Indochina War, and a number of countries had armoured trains during the Cold War, the last combat use appears to have been during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. The most successful armored train was a car built to defend the Philadelphia, Wilmington. The railroad had been attacked by forces to prevent transport of Union soldiers to the front. Baldwin Locomotive Works modified a baggage car in late April,1861, a 24-pounder howitzer was placed on a swivel mount at the opposite end of the car from the pushing locomotive. The sides of the car were sheathed with 2. 5-inch oak planks covered with 0. 5-inch boiler plate, the remainder of the car contained fifty ports for riflemen
33.
Long Cecil
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In 1902, during Cecil Rhodes funeral procession in Cape Town, his coffin was carried on top of the Long Cecil carriage. Today the gun is located on the stylobate of the Honoured Dead Memorial in Kimberley, at some time before 1915 Pratt & Whitney built a model of this gun as a gift to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The defenders at Kimberley had only the relatively small RML2.5 inch Mountain Gun at their disposal, labram and Edward Goffe, Chief Draughtsman at the mine, reviewed the limited number of textbooks and publications on gunmaking that were available in Kimberley. From this and calculations on what it would require to build a gun capable of firing a shell over 7,600 metres, they decided that it was feasible to build the gun with the materials at hand. Construction of the gun began on 26 December 1899 with rough-turning of the barrel, the barrel was constructed from a 10-foot-long,10. 5-inch-diameter billet of mild steel. The steel billet was originally ordered as a shaft for one of the De Beers workshop machines, as with all the components, custom ammunition for the gun had to be manufactured in the De Beers workshops. The first proving shot was fired a little over three weeks later on 19 January 1900 at a Boer encampment near Kamfers Dam, north of the city. Contemporary accounts state that the Boers were initially surprised by range of the new gun, the gun fired a total of 255 shells onto Boer positions from the time of its manufacture until the end of the siege about a month later. The gun did not change the balance of power for long, the shelling of the besieged residents thereby escalated and soon became more lethal than before. The shelling ended only with arrival of Major-General Frenchs 8, 000-strong cavalry on 15 February 1900, notes on the construction of Long Cecil, a 4.1 inch rifled breachloading gun, in Kimberley, during the siege 1899-1900. Media related to Long Cecil at Wikimedia Commons
34.
Pretoria
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Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa. It is one of the three capital cities, serving as the seat of the executive branch of government. Pretoria is the part of the Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality which was formed by the amalgamation of several former local authorities including Centurion. There have been proposals to change the name of Pretoria itself to Tshwane, the elder Pretorius had become a national hero of the Voortrekkers after his victory over Dingane and the Zulus in the Battle of Blood River. The elder Pretorius also negotiated the Sand River Convention, in which Britain acknowledged the independence of the Transvaal and it became the capital of the South African Republic on 1 May 1860. The founding of Pretoria as the capital of the South African Republic can be seen as marking the end of the Boers settlement movements of the Great Trek, during the First Boer War, the city was besieged by Republican forces in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty ended the war was signed in Pretoria on 3 August 1881 at the Pretoria Convention. The Second Boer War resulted in the end of the Transvaal Republic, the city surrendered to British forces under Frederick Roberts on 5 June 1900 and the conflict was ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. The Pretoria Forts were built for the defence of the city just prior to the Second Boer War, though some of these forts are today in ruins, a number of them have been preserved as national monuments. The Boer Republics of the ZAR and the Orange River Colony were united with the Cape Colony, Pretoria then became the administrative capital of the whole of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital and Bloemfontein served as the judicial capital. Between 1910 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal, on 14 October 1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital and it lies at an altitude of about 1,339 m above sea level, in a warm, sheltered, fertile valley, surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg range. Pretoria has a subtropical climate with long hot rainy summers and short cool to cold. The city experiences the typical winters of South Africa with cold, clear nights, although the average lows during winter are mild it can get bitterly cold due to the clear skies, with nighttime low temperatures in recent years in the range of 2 to −5 °C. The average annual temperature is 18.7 °C, rain is chiefly concentrated in the summer months, with drought conditions prevailing over the winter months, when frosts may be sharp. Snowfall is a rare event, snowflakes were spotted in 1959,1968 and 2012 in the city. During a nationwide heatwave in November 2011, Pretoria experienced temperatures that reached 39 °C, similar record-breaking extreme heat events also occurred in January 2013, when Pretoria experienced temperatures exceeding 37 °C on several days. The year 2014 was one of the wettest on record for the city, a total of 914 mm fell up to the end of December, with 220 mm recorded in this month alone
35.
Cullinan Diamond
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The Cullinan Diamond is the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found, weighing 3,106.75 carats, discovered at the Premier No.2 mine in Cullinan, modern-day South Africa, on 26 January 1905. It was named after the chairman of the mine, Thomas Cullinan and it was the largest polished diamond of any colour until the discovery in 1985 of the Golden Jubilee Diamond, also from the Premier Mine. Cullinan I is mounted in the head of the Sovereigns Sceptre with Cross, the second-largest is Cullinan II or the Second Star of Africa, at 317.4 carats it is the fourth-largest cut diamond in the world, and is mounted in the Imperial State Crown. Both diamonds are part of the Crown Jewels which belong to the monarch in right of the Crown, at approximately 1 1⁄3 pounds,3 7⁄8 inches long,2 1⁄4 inches wide and 2 5⁄8 inches high the diamond was twice the size of any previously discovered. Wells immediately took it for examination, Sir William Crookes performed an analysis of the Cullinan diamond, ascertaining a weight of 3,106 carats. The stone was named after Sir Thomas Cullinan, the owner of the diamond mine. Crookes mentioned its remarkable clarity, but also a spot in the middle. The colours around the spot were very vivid and changed as the analyser was turned. According to Crookes, this pointed to internal strain, such strain is not uncommon in diamonds. Because one side of the diamond was perfectly smooth, it was concluded that the stone had originally been part of a larger diamond. Crookes pronounced the Cullinan a fragment, probably less than half, of an octahedral crystal. The discovery became a sensation, with the developments being followed avidly by the press. Wells was awarded £3,500 for the find and the diamond was purchased by the Transvaal Colony government for £150,000 and insured for ten times the amount. Prime Minister Louis Botha suggested that the diamond be presented to King Edward VII as a token of the loyalty and attachment of the people of Transvaal to his throne, a vote was staged in order for the government to find out what should be done with the diamond. In the aftermath of the Boer Wars the Boers voted in favour of presenting the king with the diamond, the final vote was 42 against and 19 in favour. In the wake of the vote, the British prime minister of the time, Henry Campbell-Bannerman, however, future prime minister Winston Churchill eventually managed to persuade the king to accept, to which Edward VII finally agreed. Churchill was presented with a replica of the diamond, which he delighted in showing off to friends. In 1905, due to the value of the Cullinan
36.
Nicky Oppenheimer
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Oppenheimer is a South African businessman and philanthropist of German Jewish descent. He was formerly the Chairman of De Beers diamond mining company and of its subsidiary, the Diamond Trading Company, Nicky Oppenheimer was educated at Harrow School and Christ Church, Oxford, where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics and took the Oxford MA. Nicky Oppenheimer joined the Anglo American Corporation in 1968, and was appointed a director in 1974 and he became Deputy Chairman in 1983. He subsequently resigned as Deputy Chairman in 2001 but remained a director of the Anglo American board until 2011. Oppenheimer was appointed Deputy Chairman of the then Central Selling Organisation in 1984 and he was appointed Chairman of the Diamond Trading Company in 1985. He was Chairman of the De Beers Group from 1998 to 2012, the family has also long been involved in environmental and conservation issues. The Oppenheimer family partnered with De Beers to establish the Diamond Route in 2006 to maximize the potential of their properties for conservation, research, in 2003, the Technikon Witwatersrand in South Africa bestowed Nicky Oppenheimer with a Doctorate in Technology, honoris causa. He was the first recipient of such a doctorate by the Technikon to a person in the public. He has also received the Presidential Order of Honor from the former President of the Republic of Botswana, Mr. Festus Mogae, in 1968, he married Orcillia Strilli Lasch, daughter of industrial tycoon Helli Lasch, both are Anglican. His father was born Jewish and converted to Anglicanism, over, Luke, Oppenheimer, Nicky, Tyrrell, Chris. Waltham Place, and its Surrounding Parish
37.
German South West Africa
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German South West Africa was a colony of the German Empire from 1884 until 1915. With an area of 835,100 km², it was one, the colony had a population of around 2,600 Germans. In 1915, during the First World War, German South West Africa was invaded by the Western Allies in the form of South African and British forces. After the war its administration was taken over by the Union of South Africa and it became independent as Namibia in 1990. However, for centuries, European settlement would remain limited. In February 1805 the London Missionary Society established a mission in Blydeverwacht. In 1840 the London Missionary Society transferred all of its activities to the German Rhenish Missionary Society, some of the first representatives of this organisation were Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt and Carl Hugo Hahn. They began founding churches throughout the territory, the Rhenish missionaries had a significant impact initially on culture and dress, and then later on politics. During the same time that the Rhenish missionaries were active, merchants, on 16 November 1882 a German merchant from Bremen, Adolf Lüderitz, requested protection for a station that he planned to build in South West Africa, from Chancellor Bismarck. Once this was granted, his employee Heinrich Vogelsang purchased land from a native chief, on 24 April 1884, he placed the area under the protection of Imperial Germany to deter British encroachment. In early 1884, the gunboat SMS Nautilus visited to review the situation, a favourable report from the government, and acquiescence from the British, resulted in a visit from the SMS Leipzig and SMS Elisabeth. The German flag was raised in South West Africa on 7 August 1884. The German claims on land were confirmed during the Conference of Berlin. In October, the newly appointed Commissioner for West Africa, Gustav Nachtigal, in April 1885, the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft für Südwest-Afrika was founded with the support of German bankers, industrialists and politicians. DKGSWA was granted rights to exploit mineral deposits. The new Society soon bought the assets of Lüderitzs failing enterprises, later, in 1908, diamonds were discovered. Thus along with gold, copper, platinum, and other minerals, earlier, the colonial aim was to dispossess the indigenous peoples of their land, for use of German settlers, as well as be a source of raw materials and a market of German industrial products. Lüderitz drowned in 1886 while on an expedition to the Orange River, the company bought all of Lüderitz land and mining rights, following Bismarcks policy that private rather than public money should be used to develop the colonies
38.
South West Africa
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South West Africa was the name for modern-day Namibia when it was ruled by the German Empire and later South Africa. As a German colony from 1884, it was known as German South West Africa, germany had a difficult time administering the territory, which experienced many insurrections, especially those led by guerilla leader Jacob Morenga. The main port, Walvis Bay, and the Penguin Islands were annexed by Britain in 1878, following the creation of the Union of South Africa in 1910, Walvis Bay became part of the Cape Province. As part of the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, a corridor of land taken from the border of Bechuanaland. It was named the Caprivi Strip after the German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi, in 1915, during South West Africa Campaign of the First World War, South Africa captured the German colony. After the war, it was declared a League of Nations Class C Mandate territory under the Treaty of Versailles, from 1922, this included Walvis Bay, which, under the South West Africa Affairs Act, was governed if it were part of the mandated territory. South West Africa remained a League of Nations Mandate until World War II, the Mandate was supposed to become a United Nations Trust Territory when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the United Nations following the Second World War. This was to the advantage of the National Party, which enjoyed support from the predominantly Afrikaners. Between 1950 and 1977, all of South West Africas parliamentary seats were held by the Nationalists, an additional consequence of this was the extension of apartheid laws to the territory. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, the General Assembly constituted the Committee on South West Africa to perform the supervisory functions. In 1956, the Court further ruled that the Committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory, in 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with the Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the parties to bring the case. There was a struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South West Africa Peoples Organisation in 1960. In 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 which declared the Mandate terminated and it also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation not to recognise as valid any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia. South West Africa became known as Namibia by the UN when the General Assembly changed the name by Resolution 2372 of 12 June 1968. In 1977, South Africa transferred control of Walvis Bay back to the Cape Province, the territory became the independent Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990, although Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands were only incorporated into Namibia in 1994. The South African authorities established 10 bantustans in South West Africa in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the Odendaal Commission and these bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity based governments in 1980
39.
Stansfield Turner
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Stansfield Turner is a retired admiral in the United States Navy who was Director of Central Intelligence from 1977 to 1981 and President of the Naval War College from 1972 to 1974. He was also a research scholar at the University of Maryland. He was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University while serving in the Navy, earning a degree in Philosophy, later he served as NATO Commander in Chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe, headquartered in Naples. Under Turners direction, the CIA emphasized technical intelligence and signal intelligence more than human intelligence, in 1979, Turner eliminated over 800 operational positions in what was called the Halloween Massacre. The reductions applied to Vietnam-era personnel according to employee and then novelist Jason Matthews. ”Turner gave notable testimony to Congress revealing much of the extent of the MKULTRA program, reform and simplification of the intelligence communitys multilayered secrecy system was one of Turners significant initiatives, but produced no results by the time he left office. Turner accused Snepp of breaking the agreement required of all CIA agents. Regardless, the CIA ultimately won its case against Snepp at the U. S. Supreme Court, the Court forced Snepp to turn over all his profits from Decent Interval and to seek preclearance of any future writings about intelligence work for the rest of his life. Upon leaving the agency, Turner became a lecturer, writer, and TV commentator, Turner served as a member of the Graduate School of Oceanography at the University of Rhode Islands Marine Advisory Council. Turner has been critical of the Bush administrations handling of the 2003 Invasion of Iraq. N. A meaningful role is eroding daily, and the reluctance to get involved in building is being supplanted by just that. S. Detainees, Turner was quoted as saying I am embarrassed that the USA has a president for torture. I think it is just reprehensible and he advocates torture, what else is it. I just dont understand how a man in that position can take such a stance, cheney countered the bill went well beyond banning torture and could be interpreted by courts to ban most forms of interrogation. In January 2000, Turner survived a crash in Costa Rica. He was on board a L-410 Turbolet operated by Taxi Aereo Centroamericano, on a flight from the airport of Tobías Bolaños International Airport in San José. Three minutes after take-off the airplane crashed into a home killing 4 people on board, Turner currently resides in Great Falls, Virginia, and is a Christian Scientist. Stansfield Turner is an Honorary fellow of his University of Oxford alma mater, Exeter College, Stansfield Turner was inducted as a Laureate of The Lincoln Academy of Illinois and awarded the Order of Lincoln by the Governor of Illinois in 1999 in the area of Government
40.
Diamonds as an investment
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The difficulty of properly assessing the value of an individual gem-quality diamond complicates the situation. The end of the De Beers monopoly and new discoveries in the second half of the 20th century have reduced the resale value of diamonds. Taverniers law is used to determine the price of a diamond, the formula is for basic calculation and demonstrates how the price of a diamond increases along with its size. Larger gemstones are rarer and go up rapidly in price, Diamonds of 25 carats and more usually have their own names. In contrast to metals, there is no universal world price per gram for diamonds. Gemstone specialty organizations have varying standards which can be used to aid in identification and pricing, including GIA, HRD. These organizations focus on research and education, which pass on to their members. Rough diamond prices have historically impacted by the mining companies controlling supply. Since the 1950s, techniques have developed to manufacture diamonds. Synthetic diamonds are diamonds, but man-made, not naturally occurring. Modern techniques can produce diamonds of any desired chemistry or size. It is much cheaper to produce diamonds through artificial synthesis than to mine them, the inability to guarantee that a diamond is naturally occurring could undermine the premium price still currently charged over synthetic diamonds. There are several factors contributing to low liquidity of diamonds, one of the main factors is the lack of terminal market. Most commodities have terminal markets, and some form of exchange, clearing house. Until recently this did not exist for diamonds, Diamonds are also subject to value added tax in the UK and EU, and sales tax in most other developed countries, therefore reducing their effectiveness as an investment medium. Most diamonds are sold through retail stores at high profit margins. Diamonds in larger sizes are rare, and their price is dependent on the features of the diamond. Fashion and marketing aspects can also cause fluctuations in price and this makes it difficult to establish a uniform and readily understood pricing system
41.
N. W. Ayer & Son
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N. W. Ayer & Son was an advertising agency founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1869. It called itself the oldest advertising agency in the United States, named after Francis Ayers father N. W. Ayer, it ventured into advertising in 1884. It created a number of memorable slogans for firms such as De Beers, AT&T, the company started to decline in the 1960s and, after a series of mergers, was closed in 2002 with its assets sold to the Publicis Groupe. N. W. Ayer & Son was founded in Philadelphia in 1869 by 21-year-old Francis Wayland Ayer, N. W. Ayer & Son started its business by representing religious weekly newspapers. By 1877, N. W. Ayer & Son had become successful enough to obtain what remained of another agency, in 1884, Ayer expanded into the advertising business. Ayer styled itself the oldest advertising firm in the U. S, in 1892, artists and writers began working in groups known as creative teams. Eventually Ayer became responsible for some of the most recognized slogans in advertising history, Gerold M. Lauck was president of Ayer in the 1930s. When it rains it pours, advertising salt for Morton Salt, Id walk a mile for a Camel, advertising Camel cigarettes for R. J. Sometimes formed into a jingle, Id walk a mile for a mild, mild Camel, a diamond is forever, advertising diamonds for De Beers, coined in 1947 by Mary Frances Gerety. Reach out and touch someone, advertising long-distance telephone service for AT&T Corp. coined in 1979 by Anthony P. Galli and Stanley Lomas. We may be the phone company in town, but we try not to act like it, advertising phone services for AT&T. Todays army wants to join you, advertising service for the U. S. Army. Be all you can be, advertising service for the U. S. Army. N. W. Ayer & Son created one of the most recognized slogans of the 20th century, harry Oppenheimer of De Beers and Ayer president Gerold M. Lauck discussed a marketing campaign in 1938 that would change the falling price of diamonds at the time. The idea of engagement rings decorated with diamonds wasnt very popular in Europe, but interest in diamonds was high in the U. S. Because of this, Oppenheimer decided to promote the idea in the U. S. and told Lauck that, if Ayers plan was successful, Ayer was motivated to propose that its campaign should move the American spending demographic towards larger and more expensive diamonds. To successfully achieve its goal, Ayer suggested a reinforcement of the relationship of diamonds with love and this proved successful, as both men and women were caught in the relationship of diamonds being a gift of love. The slogan created for De Beers remained memorable for many years, in 1906, Ayer was commissioned by the Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York to create an advertising campaign for AT&T Corp
42.
Advertising Age
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Advertising Age is a magazine, delivering news, analysis, and data on marketing and media. The magazine was started as a newspaper in Chicago in 1930. It also features a bookstore and blogs, some created by the editorial team, others. Simon Dumenco, the Media Guy, is one of its columnists, the site www. adcritic. com was acquired by The Ad Age Group in March 2002, and www. creativity-online. com is still reached by that domain. The editorial component of Ad Age is based in New York City, the corporate and circulation component of Autoweek, as with all of the Crain publications, is based at Crains headquarters in downtown Detroit. In 1999, Advertising Age published a list of the top 100 players in advertising history, among these were Alvin Achenbaum, Bill Backer, Marion Harper Jr. Mary Wells Lawrence, ACNielson, David Ogilvy, and J. Walter Thompson. An industry trade magazine, BtoB, was folded into Ad Age in January 1,2014, Advertising Age Digital Conference is in its 10th year. Sessions at the meeting of marketers and agencies focus on what comes next in digital
43.
Eternity ring
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Because the presence of stones all the way round the eternity ring can make it cumbersome to wear, the alternative is to have the stones across the face of the ring only. This is sometimes referred to as a half-eternity ring rather than an eternity ring. Eternity rings featuring paste gems, white topaz or a mix of stones appeared in the 18th century, the concept of the diamond eternity ring was created in the 1960s by diamond merchant De Beers. The prevailing fashion at the time, particularly for engagement rings, was for them to be set with a single, the Soviet gems, however, were small, often less than 0.25 Carats. To avoid stockpiling, De Beers embarked on a campaign of promotion of jewelry containing a number of small diamonds culminating in the eternity ring, one campaign slogan, aimed at husbands, was She married you for richer or poorer. Let her know how it’s going, the idea proved popular with the public, and sales continue to be significant
$6.1 billion (FY 2016)[1]
