1.
Trainer (aircraft)
–
A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews. Civilian pilots are trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to allow for a student and instructor. The aircraft may be modified to withstand the conditions imposed by training flights. The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are, pilot and instructor side by side, or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. It is now the norm for pilots to begin their training in an aircraft with side by side seating. This, however, has not always been the case, given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to eliminate unsuitable candidates. The cost to air forces that do not follow a graduated training regimen is not just monetary. There are two areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills, in operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques. Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in an aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the United States Air Force Academy. The U. S. replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program with the Diamond DA20, at the end of this stage, pilot trainees are assessed as to where their attributes lie, as fast jet, multi-engine or rotary wing pilots. Those who are judged unsuitable for a commission, but show other attributes, may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators. Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders, after the ab-inito phase a candidate may progress to basic, or primary, trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers, like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano, prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions, examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130. Effective combat aircraft are a function now electronics as much as, if not more so than and it is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics
Trainer (aircraft)
–
Slingsby T-67 Firefly of the UK Defence Elementary Flying Training School, used for training army and navy pilots
Trainer (aircraft)
–
Cockpit of the
Aermacchi SF.260. Student pilot or PIC in the right-hand seat, where all primary flight instrument are.
Trainer (aircraft)
–
HAL HJT-36 jet trainer that is set to replace the
HAL Kiran aircraft of the
Indian Air Force, together with the
HAL Tejas.
Trainer (aircraft)
–
Polish 3Xtrim 3X55 Trener ultralight trainer
2.
De Havilland Canada
–
De Havilland Aircraft of Canada Ltd. was an aircraft manufacturer with facilities based in what is now the Downsview area of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The original home of de Havilland Canada was the home of the Canadian Air & Space Museum located in what is now Downsview Park. After a number of changes, Bombardier Inc. sold the rights to the out-of-production aircraft to Viking Air Ltd. of Sidney, British Columbia. Founded in 1928 as a subsidiary of de Havilland Aircraft de Havilland Canada was first located at De Lesseps Field in Toronto, flown for the first time on 26 October 1931, the DH.82 Tiger Moth was derived from the DH.60 Moth. The DH82 was powered by a 120 hp Gipsy II engine, more than 1,000 Tiger Moths were delivered before the Second World War, and subsequently 4,005 were built in the UK and shipped all over the world. The follow-up DH.83 Fox Moth was designed in England in 1932 as a light, the de Havilland Tiger Moth was a basic trainer of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan during the Second World War, whereby air crews from all over the British Commonwealth trained in Canada. DHC was a Canadian unit of the parent British de Havilland, Production of the Mosquito, nicknamed the Mossie, was the companys greatest contribution to the war effort. It was one of the few aircraft of the era constructed almost entirely of wood and was nicknamed The Wooden Wonder. The Mosquito was designed to use speed instead of armament to evade attack. The original design was intended as a bomber, but soon proved itself in high-level photography. Out of the more than 7,000 Mosquitoes produced overall by de Havilland, some 500 were delivered to the UK by the end of the war, although several were lost en route across the Atlantic. After the war, de Havilland Canada began to build its own designs uniquely suited to the harsh Canadian operating environment, the company also continued production of several British de Havilland aircraft and later produced a licence-built version of the American-designed Grumman S2F Tracker. In 1962 the Avro Canada aircraft production facility was transferred to de Havilland Canada by their parent company. The first true postwar aviation project was the DHC-1 Chipmunk, designed as a primary trainer, the Chipmunk was an all-metal, low wing, tandem two-place, single-engine airplane with a conventional tail wheel landing gear. It had fabric-covered control surfaces and a plastic canopy covering the pilot. The production versions of the airplane were powered by a 145 hp in-line de Havilland Gipsy Major 8 engine, the DHC-1 Chipmunk was still being used as a training aircraft by the UKs Army Air Corps up until 1995. All of the RAFs modern aircraft have tricycle undercarriage, so pilots are unfamiliar with tail wheel aircraft, returning to designing purpose-built aircraft for Canadas north, the DHC-2 Beaver was developed in 1947. The first of the STOL family that de Havilland would produce, in the civilian sector, the Beaver soon excelled on wheels, skis and floats, and in 1951, the Beaver would be selected by the US Air Force and Army as a new liaison aircraft
De Havilland Canada
–
C-FGYN Adlair Aviation Ltd. de Havilland Beaver (DHC2) Mk I on floats
De Havilland Canada
–
A former
RCAF Chipmunk
De Havilland Canada
–
Beaver of
Whistler Air
De Havilland Canada
–
Turbo Otter of
Harbour Air
3.
Royal Air Force
–
The Royal Air Force is the United Kingdoms aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918, following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world. The RAF describe its mission statement as, an agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission. The mission statement is supported by the RAFs definition of air power, Air power is defined as the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events. Today the Royal Air Force maintains a fleet of various types of aircraft. The majority of the RAFs rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces, most of the RAFs aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations or at long-established overseas bases. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps, at that time it was the largest air force in the world. The RAFs naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924, the RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War, under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed Article XV squadrons for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from countries, and exiles from occupied Europe. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theatres. In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe, the largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, during the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E and these were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navys Polaris submarines, the nuclear deterrent passed to the navys submarines on 30 June 1969. With the introduction of Polaris, the RAFs strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one and this tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s. For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period
Royal Air Force
–
A later version of the
Spitfires which played a major part in the
Battle of Britain.
Royal Air Force
–
Royal Air Force emblem
Royal Air Force
–
The
Avro Lancaster heavy bomber was extensively used during the strategic bombing of Germany.
Royal Air Force
–
The
Handley Page Victor bomber was a
strategic bomber of the RAF's
V bomber force used to carry both conventional and
nuclear bombs.
4.
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air force of Canada. Its role is to provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower, the RCAF is one of three environmental commands within the unified Canadian Armed Forces. Lieutenant-General Michael J. Hood, CMM CD, is the current Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force, the RCAF is a partner with the United States Air Force in protecting continental airspace under the North American Aerospace Defense Command. The RCAF also provides all primary air resources to and is responsible for the National Search, the RCAF traces its history to the Canadian Air Force which was formed in 1920. The Canadian Air Force was incorporated in 1923 and granted royal sanction in 1924 by King George V, in 1968 the RCAF was amalgamated with the Royal Canadian Navy, and the Canadian Army, as part of the unification of the Canadian Forces. Air units were split between several different commands, Air Defence Command, Air Transport Command, Mobile Command, Maritime Command, in 1975 some commands were dissolved, and all air units were placed under a new environmental command called simply Air Command. Air Command reverted to its name of the Royal Canadian Air Force in August 2011. The Royal Canadian Air Force has served in the Second World War, the Korean War, as a NATO member, the force maintained a presence in Europe during the second half of the 20th century. The Canadian Air Force was established in 1920 as the successor to a short-lived two-squadron Canadian Air Force formed during the First World War in Europe. John Scott Williams, MC, AFC, was tasked in 1921 with organizing the CAF, the new Canadian Air Force was a branch of the Air Board and was chiefly a training militia that provided refresher training to veteran pilots. Many CAF members also worked with the Air Boards Civil Operations Branch on operations that included forestry, in 1923, the CAF became responsible for all flying operations in Canada, including civil aviation. In 1924, the Canadian Air Force, was granted the royal title, most of its work was civil in nature, however, in the late 1920s the RCAF evolved into more of a military organization. After budget cuts in the early 1930s, the air began to rebuild. By the end of the war, the RCAF had become the fourth largest allied air force, after the war, the RCAF reduced its strength. In 1950, the RCAF became involved with the transport of troops and supplies to the Korean War, however, members of the RCAF served in USAF units as exchange officers and several flew in combat. Both auxiliary and regular air defence squadrons were run by Air Defence Command, at the same time, the Pinetree Line, the Mid-Canada Line and the DEW Line radar stations, largely operated by the RCAF, were built across Canada because of the growing Soviet nuclear threat. In 1957, Canada and the United States created the joint North American Air Defense Command, coastal defence and peacekeeping also became priorities during the 1950s and 1960s. In 1968 the Royal Canadian Navy, Royal Canadian Air Force and this initiative was overseen by then Liberal Defence Minister, Paul Hellyer
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
Badge of Air Command, replaced by new RCAF badge in 2013
Royal Canadian Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
CC-177 Globemaster III
Royal Canadian Air Force
–
A CF-18 Hornet fires an
AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile at a
MQM-107E Streaker aerial target drone during a "Combat Archer" mission
5.
Portuguese Air Force
–
The Portuguese Air Force is the aerial warfare force of Portugal. Locally, it is referred to by the acronym FAP, and it is the youngest of the three branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces. The Portuguese Air Force was formed on July 1,1952, the CEMFA is the only officer in the Air Force with the rank of general. Presently, the FAP is a professional force made of career personnel. As 2015, the FAP employed a total of 5957 military personnel, the Air Force further included 842 civilian employees. Besides its warfare role, the FAP has also public service roles, namely assuring the Portuguese Air Search, until 2014, the FAP also integrated the National Aeronautical Authority. The AAN is now a body, but continues to be headed by the Chief of Staff of the Air Force, with the Air Force assuring most of its activities. Its aerobatic display teams are the Asas de Portugal jet aircraft display team, the remote origins of the Portuguese Air Force lay in the origins of the Portuguese military aeronautics. Portugal was directly linked with the history of the aeronautics since its early beginnings, in 1709, the Portuguese priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão requested a patent for a device to move through the air, which consisted in a kind of hot air balloon. The patent was granted on the 19 April 1709 and small models of this device were tested with success in several occasions. Accordingly, with some opinions, a real device would have performed a crewed flight over Lisbon, taking off from the São Jorge Castle. This may have been the first manned flight in history, the AeCP becomes one of the major boosters of the development of the aviation in Portugal in the early 20th century, including of its military use. Despite the previous use of balloons by the Portuguese Army, its first air unit was created in 1911. This unit was the Aerostation Company, which was part of the Army Telegraphic Service and was intended to operate observation aerostats and this unit would later receive a handful of airplanes. In 1912, the Portuguese Government receives its first airplane, a Deperdussin B, the Government further receives a Maurice Farman MF4 offered by the O Comércio do Porto newspaper and an Avro 500 offered by the Portuguese Republican Party. These aircraft would be integrated in the Aerostation Company, but remained years without use because of the inexistence of pilots, still in 1912, midshipman Miguel Freitas Homem of the naval purser branch applied for admission to any course that would qualify him as an aviator. He was so the first so the first member of the Portuguese Military to formally request to be an aircraft pilot. In the same year, by request of the AeCP, the legislator António José de Almeida presents a bill to the Portuguese Parliament for the creation of a Military Aviation Institute
Portuguese Air Force
–
Portuguese
De Havilland DH-82 Tiger Moth at the Portuguese Air Force Museum
Portuguese Air Force
–
Portuguese Air Force Coat of Arms
Portuguese Air Force
–
PoAF North American T-6 at the Portuguese Air Force Museum
Portuguese Air Force
–
Asas de Portugal display team.
6.
Belgian Air Force
–
The Belgian Air Component is the air arm of the Belgian Armed Forces. The Belgian military aviation was founded in 1909 and is one of the worlds oldest air services, the commander is Major General aviator Frederik Vansina, appointed on 23 July 2009. The Belgian military aviation was founded in 1909 as a branch of the Belgian Army, King Alberts interest in the military use of aircraft was the main impetus for its formation. Coincidentally, in the aviation sector, Baron Pierre de Caters earned the first civil pilots brevet that same year. Caters would promptly establish an aviation school, at approximately the same time, the War Ministry followed the French militarys example and had pilots earn a civil pilots brevet before their military one. In 1910, three Belgian lieutenants earned their pilots brevets at the school, paying their own fees, two of the artillery lieutenants were Baudoin de Montens dOosterwyck, who earned Brevet No.19 on 30 September, and Alfred Sarteel, granted No.23 on 10 November. The third lieutenant, Georges Nelis, was the new forces first aviation candidate, an aircraft was personally purchased for him. In spring of 1911, the new air force established its aviation school with five pilots. It received its first aircraft via Baron Caters, who gave the aircraft to King Albert and they were disciplined for their efforts. Belgium entered World War I with aircraft tasked solely for reconnaissance missions, a truck was assigned to each squadron, along with a fifth truck serving as a mobile workshop. Each squadron had a commander, five pilots, and six observers, as a result, most of the new aviators were from the Engineers and Artillery components of the Belgian armed forces. As the war began, a squadron was created, staffed with civilian pilots called to the colors. Sous Lieutenant Henri Crombez flew one of the first war patrols, adjutant Behaeghe was the first to engage an enemy, a few days later. On 3 January 1915, two guns supplied by British were fitted to two Belgian aircraft, making a dual effort against the foe possible, these were Belgiums first dedicated fighter planes. In February, thirteen of the Belgian airmen flew 28 offensive patrols, on 26 March, Sous Lieutenant Boschmans sent a German two-seater into a steep dive when he seemed to hit the pilot, the German was not seen to either crash or land. This was the Belgian aviators first victory claim, in April, Lieutenant Fernand Jacquet mounted a machine gun on his pusher aircraft and sought out the enemy. On the 17th, he and his observer scored Belgiums first confirmed aerial victory, luckily for them, they missed, success would probably have blown them out of the sky. On 18 January 1916, the decision was made to form a fighter squadron
Belgian Air Force
–
Belgian Air Component wings
Belgian Air Force
–
The first Belgian airship Belgique
Belgian Air Force
–
Sopwith Camel in the colours of the Belgian 1st Squadron
Belgian Air Force
–
Belgian
Fairey Firefly II, 1931
7.
Trainer aircraft
–
A trainer is a class of aircraft designed specifically to facilitate flight training of pilots and aircrews. Civilian pilots are trained in a light aircraft, with two or more seats to allow for a student and instructor. The aircraft may be modified to withstand the conditions imposed by training flights. The two seating configurations for trainer aircraft are, pilot and instructor side by side, or in tandem, usually with the pilot in front, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. It is now the norm for pilots to begin their training in an aircraft with side by side seating. This, however, has not always been the case, given the expense of military pilot training, air forces typically conduct training in phases to eliminate unsuitable candidates. The cost to air forces that do not follow a graduated training regimen is not just monetary. There are two areas for instruction, flight training and operational training. In flight training a candidate seeks to develop their flying skills, in operational training the candidate learns to use his or her flying skills through simulated combat, attack and fighter techniques. Typically, contemporary military pilots learn initial flying skills in an aircraft not too dissimilar from civilian training aircraft. In this phase candidates are screened for mental and physical attributes. Aircraft used for this include the Slingsby Firefly, as at one time used by the United States Air Force Academy. The U. S. replaced the Firefly and the Enhanced Flight Screen Program with the Diamond DA20, at the end of this stage, pilot trainees are assessed as to where their attributes lie, as fast jet, multi-engine or rotary wing pilots. Those who are judged unsuitable for a commission, but show other attributes, may be offered the chance to qualify as navigators. Smaller and more financially restricted air forces may use ultra-light aircraft, gliders, after the ab-inito phase a candidate may progress to basic, or primary, trainers. These are usually turboprop trainers, like the Pilatus PC-9 and Embraer Tucano, prior to the availability of high performance turboprops, basic training was conducted with jet aircraft such as the BAC Jet Provost, T-37 Tweet, and Fouga Magister. Those candidates who are not suitable to continue training as fast jet pilots may be offered flying commissions, examples of such jet trainer aircraft include the supersonic T-38 Talon, the BAE Hawk, the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, the Aero L-39 and the Yakovlev Yak-130. Effective combat aircraft are a function now electronics as much as, if not more so than and it is at this stage that a pilot begins to learn to operate radar systems and electronics
Trainer aircraft
–
Slingsby T-67 Firefly of the UK Defence Elementary Flying Training School, used for training army and navy pilots
Trainer aircraft
–
Cockpit of the
Aermacchi SF.260. Student pilot or PIC in the right-hand seat, where all primary flight instrument are.
Trainer aircraft
–
HAL HJT-36 jet trainer that is set to replace the
HAL Kiran aircraft of the
Indian Air Force, together with the
HAL Tejas.
Trainer aircraft
–
Polish 3Xtrim 3X55 Trener ultralight trainer
8.
Second World War
–
World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
Second World War
–
Clockwise from top left: Chinese forces in the
Battle of Wanjialing, Australian
25-pounder guns during the
First Battle of El Alamein, German
Stuka dive bombers on the
Eastern Front in December 1943, a U.S. naval force in the
Lingayen Gulf,
Wilhelm Keitel signing the
German Instrument of Surrender, Soviet troops in the
Battle of Stalingrad
Second World War
–
The
League of Nations assembly, held in
Geneva,
Switzerland, 1930
Second World War
–
Adolf Hitler at a German
National Socialist political rally in
Weimar, October 1930
Second World War
–
Italian soldiers recruited in 1935, on their way to fight the
Second Italo-Abyssinian War
9.
De Havilland Tiger Moth
–
The de Havilland DH.82 Tiger Moth is a 1930s biplane designed by Geoffrey de Havilland and built by the de Havilland Aircraft Company. It was operated by the Royal Air Force and many other operators as a trainer aircraft. The Tiger Moth remained in service with the RAF until it was succeeded and replaced by the de Havilland Chipmunk during the early 1950s, many of the military surplus aircraft subsequently entered into civil operation. Many nations have used the Tiger Moth in both military and civil applications, and it remains in use as a recreational aircraft in several different countries. It is still used as a primary training aircraft, particularly for those pilots wanting to gain experience before moving on to other tailwheel aircraft. Many Tiger Moths are now employed by companies offering trial lesson experiences. The de Havilland Moth club, founded 1975, is now an owners association offering a mutual club and technical support.51.51, the starting point for the Tiger Moth was in fact the successful Gypsy Tiger. Successively more capable engines had developed and the company had produced a prototype to test the new de Havilland Gipsy III engine. This prototype, a monoplane was initially a modification of the standard Gypsy Tiger. Jackson, development of the standard Tiger Moth version from the prototype had proceeded relatively straightforward after this point. As a result of the Martlesham trials, a report for the type was produced. A single prototype, designated as the DH.82 Tiger Moth, was ordered by the British Air Ministry under Specification 15/31, which sought a suitable ab-initio training aircraft. Access to the front cockpit of the Moth predecessors was restricted by the proximity of the fuel tank directly above the front cockpit. The solution adopted was to shift the upper wing forward but sweep the wings back to maintain the centre of lift, other changes included a strengthened structure, fold-down doors on both sides of the cockpit and a revised exhaust system. The Tiger Moth quickly became a success, various models of the aircraft were exported to more than 25 Air Forces of various overseas nations. In addition to the demand, aircraft were also produced for the civil market. Following the end of all manufacturing, third parties would occasionally re-build Tiger Moths to a configuration to the Fox Moth. Civil examples were also being produced at this time, both for British private customers and to customers in countries such as Ceylon, Greece, Lithuania, Rhodesia, Peru
De Havilland Tiger Moth
–
DH.82 Tiger Moth
De Havilland Tiger Moth
–
Canadian DH.82C Tiger Moth showing characteristic canopy
De Havilland Tiger Moth
–
Royal New Zealand Air Force Tiger Moth aircraft with blind flying hoods for instrument training, early in the war.
De Havilland Tiger Moth
–
A 1944-built Queen Bee in 2008.
10.
Biplane
–
A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main wings stacked one above the other. The first powered, controlled aeroplane to fly, the Wright Flyer, used a biplane wing arrangement, while a biplane wing structure has a structural advantage over a monoplane, it produces more drag than a similar unbraced or cantilever monoplane wing. Improved structural techniques, better materials and the quest for greater speed made the biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes by the late 1930s. Biplanes offer several advantages over conventional cantilever monoplane designs, they permit lighter wing structures, low wing loading, however, interference between the airflow over each wing increases drag substantially, and biplanes generally need extensive bracing, which causes additional drag. Biplanes are distinguished from tandem wing arrangements, where the wings are placed forward and aft, instead of above, the term is also occasionally used in biology, to describe the wings of some flying animals. In a biplane aircraft, two wings are placed one above the other, either or both of the main wings can support ailerons, while flaps are more usually positioned on the lower wing. Bracing is nearly always added between the upper and lower wings, in the form of wires and/or slender interplane struts positioned symmetrically on either side of the fuselage. The primary advantage of the biplane over the traditional single plane or monoplane is to combine great stiffness with light weight. A braced monoplane wing must support itself fully, while the two wings of a help to stiffen each other. The biplane is therefore inherently stiffer than the monoplane, also, the structural forces in the spars of a biplane wing tend to be lower, so the wing can use less material to obtain the same overall strength and is therefore much lighter. A disadvantage of the biplane was the need for extra struts to space the wings apart, the low power supplied by the engines available in the first years of aviation meant that aeroplanes could only fly slowly. This required an even lower stalling speed, which in turn required a low wing loading, combining both large wing area with light weight. A biplane wing of a span and chord has twice the area of a monoplane the same size and so can fly more slowly. Alternatively, a wing of the same area as a monoplane has lower span and chord, reducing the structural forces. Biplanes suffer aerodynamic interference between the two planes and this means that a biplane does not in practice obtain twice the lift of the similarly-sized monoplane. The farther apart the wings are spaced the less the interference, given the slow speed and low power of early aircraft, the drag penalty of the wires and struts and the mutual interference of airflows were relatively minor and acceptable factors. The smaller biplane wing also allows greater maneuverability, during World War One, this further enhanced the dominance of the biplane and, despite the need for speed, military aircraft were among the last to abandon the biplane form. Specialist sports Aerobatic biplanes are still occasionally made, biplanes were originally designed with the wings positioned directly one above the other
Biplane
–
Reproduction of a
Sopwith Camel biplane.
Biplane
–
The
Antonov An-2 is the largest single-engine biplane design and has the longest production history of any aircraft, except for the
C 130.
Biplane
–
Biplane hang glider under tow. Philadelphia, USA, 1920s.
Biplane
–
Zeppelin-Lindau D.I strutless biplane
11.
Maiden flight
–
The maiden flight of an aircraft is the first occasion on which an aircraft leaves the ground under its own power. This is similar to a maiden voyage. The first flight of a new type is always a historic occasion for the type. In the early days of aviation it could be dangerous, because the exact handling characteristics of the aircraft were generally unknown, the first flight of a new type is almost invariably flown by a highly experienced test pilot. First flights are usually accompanied by a plane, to verify items like altitude, airspeed. A first flight is one stage in the development of an aircraft type. Unless the type is a research aircraft, the aircraft must be tested extensively to ensure that it delivers the desired performance with an acceptable margin of safety. In the case of aircraft, a new type must be certified by a governing agency before it can enter operation. An incomplete list of first flights of aircraft types, organized by date. October 23,1906 – Alberto Santos-Dumont 14-bis flight, in Bagatelle park, Paris and he flew 5,080 feet, to win the Scientific American Trophy and its $2,500 purse. July 28,1935 – Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress – World War II American heavy bomber. December 17,1935 – Douglas DC-3 – propeller-driven passenger and cargo aircraft of more than 10,000 were produced December 29,1939 – Consolidated B-24 – World War II American heavy bomber. November 2,1947 – Hughes H-4 Hercules – only flight of this oversized flying boat, July 27,1949 – de Havilland Comet – first jet airliner. August 23,1954 – Lockheed C-130 Hercules – military transport plane, may 27,1955 – Sud Aviation Caravelle – first jet airliner with engines mounted in the tail. April 25,1962 – Lockheed A-12 Blackbird – supersonic reconnaissance plane, june 29,1962 – Vickers VC10 – first airliner with 4 engines mounted in the tail. April 9,1967 – Boeing 737 – short-to-medium-range airliner, october 4,1968 – Tupolev 154 – Soviet/Russian airliner, still in operation. December 31,1968 – Tupolev Tu-144 – Soviet supersonic airliner, february 9,1969 – Boeing 747 – first widebody airliner. March 2,1969 – Anglo-French Concorde – supersonic airliner, september 19,1969 – Mil Mi-24 – Russian/Soviet-made helicopter used by many countries to this day
Maiden flight
–
Airbus A380 on April 27, 2005
Maiden flight
–
Boeing 787 on December 15, 2009
Maiden flight
–
Airbus A350 XWB on June 14, 2013
12.
De Havilland
–
Operations were later moved to Hatfield in Hertfordshire. The De Havilland company became a member of the Hawker Siddeley group in 1960, today it is part of BAE Systems plc, the British aerospace and defence business. In January 1920 Geoffrey de Havilland was working for Airco as technical director, BSA bought Airco on 20 January 1920 from George Holt Thomas on the say-so of one BSA director, Percy Martin, having done inadequate due diligence. Within days BSA discovered Aircos true circumstances and shut it down, the resulting losses were so great BSA was unable to pay a dividend for the next four years. With Thomass help de Havilland took modest premises at the nearby Stag Lane Aerodrome and formed a limited liability company, the directors were de Havilland, Arthur E. Turner and chief engineer Charles Clement Walker. The real capital was from Geoffrey de Havilland and George Holt Thomas, banking on an order worth about £2,500 originally intended for Airco de Havilland brought in friends Charles Clement Walker, Wilfred E. Nixon, Francis E. N. St. Barbe and Frank Hearle. Hugh Burroughes went to the Gloster Aircraft Company, the fledgling enterprise was lucky to be approached the next year by a man wanting a new aeroplane built for him, Alan Samuel Butler. He invested heavily in the business, the first years turnover was £32,782 and net profit £2,387 and in early 1922 they bought Stag Lane aerodrome for £20,000. They survived until 1925 when de Havillands own design, the Moth proved to be just what the world was waiting for. In 1928 de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited went public and these included the Gipsy Moth and Tiger Moth. These aircraft set many records, many piloted by de Havilland himself. Amy Johnson flew solo from England to Australia in a Gipsy Moth in 1930, the Moth series of aeroplanes continued with the more refined Hornet Moth, with enclosed accommodation, and the Moth Minor, a low-wing monoplane constructed of wood. One of de Havillands trademarks was that the name of the type was painted on using a particularly elegant Roman typeface. When there was a strike at the plant, the artisans who painted the name on the planes used the typeface to make the workers protest signs. The DH84 Dragon was the first aeroplane purchased by Aer Lingus in 1936, they operated the DH 86B Dragon Express. The company followed this with the even higher-performing Hornet fighter, which was one of the pioneers of the use of metal-wood and metal-metal bonding techniques. After the Second World War de Havilland continued with advanced designs in both the military and civil fields, but several public disasters doomed the company as an independent entity. The experimental tailless jet-powered de Havilland DH108 Swallow crashed in the Thames Estuary, killing Geoffrey de Havilland, a large additional aircraft factory was acquired in 1948 at Hawarden Airport at Broughton near Chester, where production supplemented the Hatfield output
De Havilland
–
Building
Mosquito aircraft at the de Havilland factory in Hatfield, 1943
De Havilland
–
de Havilland Aircraft Company Limited
De Havilland
–
The first de Havilland DH106
Comet prototype at Hatfield in 1949
De Havilland
–
The de Havilland Biplane No. 2 or
F.E.1 in flight, circa 1911
13.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
14.
OGMA
–
OGMA – Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal S. A. is a Portuguese aerospace company providing maintenance services and manufacture of aerostructures. Its share capital is retained in 65% by Airholding SGPS consortium, the remaining 35% are owned by EMPORDEF, retained by the government of Portugal. Ten years later the Depot was renamed Oficinas Gerais de Material Aeronáutico, in 1994, the company acquired the designation of OGMA - Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal SA, which continues today. Three years later, OGMA sign the first contract with the US Navy, in 1959, it’s signed another contract with the US Air Force. In the 1970s the company receives the maintenance of C-130, P-3 Orion e Pumas, in 1972, OGMA starts its manufacture contract with Erocopter. In 2001, through Mid Life Update – MLU, Falcon Up and Falcon Star Programmes, in 2004, the privatization of OGMA was approved, between 35% of the capital of the organization held by the Portuguese Government and 65% by Airholding. On July 10,2006, OGMA inaugurated the Executive Jets Center, created to improve the services of the Embraer Legacy 600. On November 15,2013, Rodrigo Almeida Rosa is nominated the new president of OGMA, also, since 2013, OGMA is involved in the KC-390’s development program. At OGMA is manufactured the central fuselage fairing for the gear in metallic alloys, composite materials. The involvement of OGMA in the KC-390 program started during the planning and design of the aircraft, OGMA participated in the initial phase of the product and was responsible for the development and management of a chain of competitive and flexible supply, mainly based on Portuguese companies. The KC-390 was developed for a range of missions, personnel transport, airdrop of cargo and troops, refueling, medical evacuation. It is the most versatile aircraft in its associated with the full life cycle of lower market. OGMA - Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal, S. A. is situated in Alverca, approximately 15 km north east of Lisbon International Airport, close to A1and A9 highways, adjacent to Alvercas railway station. With 140,000 sqm of covered facilities, OGMA dedicates 12 maintenance hangars for Commercial, Executive, the occupied space also includes modern manufacturing facilities and extensive back shops. OGMAs vast area is provided with a 3, 000m runway, the facilities can also be accessed by highway, railway and river pier. MRO services for Commercial, Executive and Defense Aviation, Engines, Components and Engineering, among its services, OGMA is an authorized maintenance center for Embraer, Lockheed Martin, Eurocopter, and Rolls-Royce. In the aerostructures area, OGMA develops activities in such as PC12 Pilatus, Lockheed MartinC-130J, Embraer E190/E170, Eurocopter Dauphin NH-90. Within this business area, OGMA’s participation in the KC-390 project is a worth mentioning
OGMA
–
OGMA - Indústria Aeronáutica de Portugal
15.
Portugal
–
Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
Portugal
–
Citânia de Briteiros, in the
Minho Province, is the best preserved
Iron Age and
Castro culture site in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Flag
Portugal
–
The
Roman Temple of Évora, in the
Alentejo, is a symbol of
Lusitania, Roman rule in Portugal.
Portugal
–
Monument in Porto to
Vimara Peres, first ruler of the County of Portugal
16.
SA Bulldog
–
The Scottish Aviation Bulldog is a British two-seat side-by-side training aircraft designed by Beagle Aircraft as the B.125 Bulldog. The prototype Bulldog flew on 19 May 1969 at Shoreham Airport, the first order for the type was for 78 from the Swedish Air Board. Before any production aircraft were built, Beagle Aircraft ceased trading, All subsequent aircraft were built at Prestwick Airport by Scottish Aviation, and later by British Aerospace. The first 58 aircraft were delivered to the Swedish Air Force in 1971, twenty more aircraft were delivered to the Swedish Army as FPL 61C in 1972, although these were transferred to the Air Force in 1989 as SK 61C. By 2001 all the Swedish aircraft had withdrawn from military service. 26 were bought in 2004 by the Hungarian company AVIA-Rent, the largest customer was the Royal Air Force, which placed an order for 130 Bulldogs in 1972, entering service as the Bulldog T.1. It was used by the Royal Air Force as a trainer, in particular as the standard aircraft of the University Air Squadrons and, later, Air Experience Flights. The RAF sold off its remaining Bulldog trainers in 2001 as general aviation aircraft for a very low price. They were replaced by the Grob Tutor, of the Swedish aircraft,26 were bought in 2004 by the Hungarian company AVIA-Rent. When the RAF aircraft were sold on the market in the early 2000s. Bulldog Series 100 Model 101, Export model for Sweden, Swedish military designation SK61 or FPL61. Model 102, Export model for Malaysia, Model 103, Export model for Kenya. Model 104, Refurbished second prototype Model 121, Two-seat primary trainer aircraft for the Royal Air Force,130 built, five later transferred to the Armed Forces of Malta. Model 122, Export model for Ghana, Model 122A, Export model for Ghana. Model 123, Export model for Nigeria, Model 125, Export model for Jordan. Model 125A, Export model for Royal Jordanian Air Force, Model 126, Export model for Lebanon. Model 127, Export model for Kenya, Model 128, Export model for Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force. Model 129, One aircraft for a customer in Venezuela
SA Bulldog
–
Bulldog
SA Bulldog
–
Manchester University Air Squadron Bulldog at
RAF Woodvale in 1983
SA Bulldog
–
Privately owned ex-RAF Bulldog G-BZMD at the
Royal International Air Tattoo in 2006
SA Bulldog
–
The prototype Bulldog G-AXEH in the
National Museum of Flight
17.
Aerobatics
–
Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft altitudes that are not used in normal flight. Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment, additionally, some helicopters, such as the MBB Bo 105, are capable of limited aerobatic maneuvers. An example of a fully aerobatic helicopter, capable of performing loops, the term is sometimes referred to as acrobatics, especially when translated. Most aerobatic maneuvers involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal axis or lateral axis, other maneuvers, such as a spin, displace the aircraft about its vertical axis. Maneuvers are often combined to form a complete sequence for entertainment or competition. Aerobatic flying requires a set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to greater structural stress than for normal flight. In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute when performing aerobatics, aerobatic training enhances a pilots ability to recover from unusual flight conditions, and thus is an element of many flight safety training programs for pilots. While many pilots fly aerobatics for recreation, some choose to fly in aerobatic competitions, in the early days of flying, some pilots used their aircraft as part of a flying circus to entertain. Among the earliest innovators in aerobatics the Frenchman Euclids name is foremost, maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during combat or dogfights between fighter aircraft. Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable, specialist designs such as the Pitts Special, the Extra 200 and 300, and the Sukhoi Su-26M and Sukhoi Su-29 aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general use such as touring. Flight formation aerobatics are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, some are state funded to reflect pride in the armed forces while others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag, usually each team will use aircraft similar to one another finished in a special and dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function. Teams often fly V-formations — they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust, aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line. Aerobatic maneuvers flown in an aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly faster, which increases the size of the figures. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations, which restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown
Aerobatics
–
Patty Wagstaff show at
JeffCo Airport in Denver, Colorado
Aerobatics
–
The
Utterly Butterly wingwalking team perform an
aerobatic maneuver with their
Boeing Stearmans.
Aerobatics
–
The UK Swift Aerobatic Display Team at
Kemble Battle of Britain Weekend 2009. A
Swift glider is performing continuous full rolls while towed by a
Piper Pawnee
Aerobatics
–
A Spanish Air Force Colibri demonstrates its agility with a
barrel roll
18.
Bubble canopy
–
A bubble canopy is a canopy made without bracing, which attempts to provide 360° vision to the pilot. Bubble canopies have been in use since before World War II, the British had already developed the Malcolm hood, which was a bulged canopy, but the British Miles M.20 was one of the first aircraft designs to feature a true one-piece sliding bubble canopy. Although that aircraft never went into production, the concept of the canopy was later utilised on other British aircraft, such as the Hawker Typhoon. It was also fitted to the North American P-51 Mustang. Young — that it and the 47G model were to become famous for, as planes became larger, heavier and faster, designs had to be made stronger, which often meant a taller rear fuselage, but designers tried to maintain the narrow fuselage for visibility. However, as speed continued to increase, it necessary to enclose cockpits –. Increased G-loading during maneuvers forced pilots to wear tight, restrictive shoulder harnesses, unfortunately, these changes denied a pilot the ability to twist around and look directly behind. Mirrors offered some help, but had a field of view. This provided increased visibility while still allowing a pilot to keep the canopy closed for greater performance, examples of such recessed rear vision designs were the greenhouse-canopied original F4U-1 Corsair as well as the P-40. The bulged Malcolm hood, used for the Spitfire, F4U Corsair, while not offering as much visibility to the rear as the P-40 enjoyed, it allowed a pilot more visibility than a flush canopy would
Bubble canopy
–
Closeup of the front view of an
F-16 Fighting Falcon showing the bubble canopy
Bubble canopy
–
Miles M.20 showing the bubble canopy
Bubble canopy
–
F-86 Sabre in flight
Bubble canopy
–
View of a
Su-30 MKI cockpit with
IRST system
19.
Poland
–
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe, situated between the Baltic Sea in the north and two mountain ranges in the south. Bordered by Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, the total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres, making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. With a population of over 38.5 million people, Poland is the 34th most populous country in the world, the 8th most populous country in Europe, Poland is a unitary state divided into 16 administrative subdivisions, and its capital and largest city is Warsaw. Other metropolises include Kraków, Wrocław, Poznań, Gdańsk and Szczecin, the establishment of a Polish state can be traced back to 966, when Mieszko I, ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded in 1025, and in 1569 it cemented a political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin. This union formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest and most populous countries of 16th and 17th century Europe, Poland regained its independence in 1918 at the end of World War I, reconstituting much of its historical territory as the Second Polish Republic. In September 1939, World War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany, followed thereafter by invasion by the Soviet Union. More than six million Polish citizens died in the war, after the war, Polands borders were shifted westwards under the terms of the Potsdam Conference. With the backing of the Soviet Union, a communist puppet government was formed, and after a referendum in 1946. During the Revolutions of 1989 Polands Communist government was overthrown and Poland adopted a new constitution establishing itself as a democracy, informally called the Third Polish Republic. Since the early 1990s, when the transition to a primarily market-based economy began, Poland has achieved a high ranking on the Human Development Index. Poland is a country, which was categorised by the World Bank as having a high-income economy. Furthermore, it is visited by approximately 16 million tourists every year, Poland is the eighth largest economy in the European Union and was the 6th fastest growing economy on the continent between 2010 and 2015. According to the Global Peace Index for 2014, Poland is ranked 19th in the list of the safest countries in the world to live in. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century, the origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole. In some foreign languages such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish the exonym for Poland is Lechites, historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquity, many distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement, dating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Age, the Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the authority of the Roman Church
Poland
–
Reconstruction of a
Bronze Age,
Lusatian culture settlement in
Biskupin, c. 700 BC
Poland
–
Flag
Poland
–
Earliest known contemporary depiction of a Polish ruler; King
Mieszko II Lambert of Poland being presented with a
Liturgical book by
Matilda of Swabia, 1025–1031
Poland
–
Drawing of the
Battle of Grunwald, which was fought against the
German Order of Teutonic Knights, 15 July 1410
20.
Cantilever
–
A cantilever is a rigid structural element, such as a beam or a plate, anchored at only one end to a support from which it is protruding. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs, when subjected to a structural load, the cantilever carries the load to the support where it is forced against by a moment and shear stress. Cantilevers are widely found in construction, notably in cantilever bridges and balconies, in cantilever bridges the cantilevers are usually built as pairs, with each cantilever used to support one end of a central section. The Forth Bridge in Scotland is an example of a truss bridge. A cantilever in a timber framed building is called a jetty or forebay. In the southern United States a historic barn type is the barn of log construction. Temporary cantilevers are used in construction. The partially constructed structure creates a cantilever, but the structure does not act as a cantilever. This is very helpful when temporary supports, or falsework, cannot be used to support the structure while it is being built. So some truss arch bridges are built each side as cantilevers until the spans reach each other and are then jacked apart to stress them in compression before final joining. Nearly all cable-stayed bridges are built using cantilevers as this is one of their chief advantages, many box girder bridges are built segmentally, or in short pieces. This type of construction lends itself well to balanced cantilever construction where the bridge is built in both directions from a single support and these structures are highly based on torque and rotational equilibrium. In an architectural application, Frank Lloyd Wrights Fallingwater used cantilevers to project large balconies, the East Stand at Elland Road Stadium in Leeds was, when completed, the largest cantilever stand in the world holding 17,000 spectators. The roof built over the stands at Old Trafford Football Ground uses a cantilever so that no supports will block views of the field, the old, now demolished Miami Stadium had a similar roof over the spectator area. The largest cantilever in Europe is located at St James Park in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, less obvious examples of cantilevers are free-standing radio towers without guy-wires, and chimneys, which resist being blown over by the wind through cantilever action at their base. Another use of the cantilever is in fixed-wing aircraft design, pioneered by Hugo Junkers in 1915, early aircraft wings typically bore their loads by using two wings in a biplane configuration braced with wires and struts. They were similar to bridges, having been developed by Octave Chanute. The wings were braced with crossed wires so they would stay parallel, the cables and struts generated considerable drag, and there was constant experimentation for ways to eliminate them
Cantilever
–
The
Forth Bridge, a cantilever truss bridge.
Cantilever
Cantilever
–
This concrete bridge temporarily functions as a set of two balanced cantilevers during construction - with further cantilevers jutting out to support
formwork.
Cantilever
–
Howrah Bridge in
India, a cantilever bridge.
21.
Monoplane
–
A monoplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with a single main wing plane, in contrast to a biplane or other multiplane, each of which has multiple planes. A monoplane has inherently the highest efficiency and lowest drag of any wing configuration and is the simplest to build, however, during the early years of flight, these advantages were offset by its greater weight and lower manoeuvrability, making it relatively rare until the 1930s. Since then, the monoplane has been the most common form for a fixed-wing aircraft, although the first successful aircraft were biplanes, the first attempts at heavier-than-air flying machines were monoplanes, and many pioneers continued to develop monoplane designs. For example, the first aeroplane to be put into production was the 1907 Santos-Dumont Demoiselle, while the Blériot XI flew across the English Channel in 1909, throughout 1909–1910, Hubert Latham set multiple altitude records in his Antoinette IV monoplane, eventually reaching 1,384 m. The equivalent German language term is Eindecker, as in the mid-wing Fokker Eindecker fighter of 1915 which for a time dominated the skies in what known as the Fokker scourge. The German military Idflieg aircraft designation system prior to 1918 prefixed monoplane type designations with an E, however, the success of the Fokker was short-lived, and World War I was dominated by biplanes. Towards the end of the war, the parasol monoplane became popular, nonetheless, relatively few monoplane types were built between 1914 and the late 1920s, compared with the number of biplanes. The reasons for this were primarily practical, towards the end of the First World War, the inherent high drag of the biplane was beginning to restrict performance. Engines were not yet enough to make the heavy cantilever-wing monoplane viable. It remained popular throughout the 1920s, on flying boats with a shallow hull, a parasol wing allows the engines to be mounted above the spray from the water when taking off and landing. It was popular on flying boats during the 1930s, an example being the Consolidated PBY Catalina. It died out when taller hulls became the norm during World War II, most military aircraft of WW II were monoplanes, as have been virtually all aircraft since. Jet and rocket engines have more power, and all modern high-speed aircraft. The inherent efficiency of the monoplane can best be realised in the cantilever wing which carries all structural forces internally. By contrast, a wing has additional drag from the exposed bracing struts and/or wires. On the other hand, the wing has greater structural efficiency. This in turn means that for a wing of a size, bracing allows it to fly slower with a lower-powered engine, while a heavy cantilever wing needs a more powerful engine. A cantilever wing can be lighter by making it thicker
Monoplane
–
du Temple Monoplane 1874
Monoplane
–
Low wing on a
Curtiss P-40
Monoplane
–
Mid wing on a
de Havilland Vampire T11.
Monoplane
–
Shoulder wing on an
ARV Super2.
22.
Strake
–
A strake or stringer is part of the shell of the hull of a boat or ship which, in conjunction with the other strakes, keeps the vessel watertight and afloat. Stringers run horizontally along the ships frame providing structural strength, on a longboat, one strake will typically be made up of numerous planks running end to end. The strake immediately adjacent to the keel is known as the garboard strake, there are two, one on each side of the keel. The uppermost continuous strake along the topsides is called the sheer strake, in old vessels, a rubbing strake was built in just below a carvel sheer strake. It was much less broad but thicker than other strakes so that it projected, in clinker boats, the rubbing strake was applied to the outside of the sheer strake. The strakes adjacent to the garboard are referred to accordingly as the first broad, each strake thereafter has its own special name such as bottom strakes, lowers, bilge strakes, topside strakes, and uppers. A stealer is a short strake employed to reduce the width of plank required where the girth of the hull increases or is due to a tuck in the shape. It is commonly employed in carvel and iron/steel shipbuilding, but there are few, possibly only one type of. A stealer is a short strake employed to reduce the width of plank required where the girth of the hull increases or is due to a tuck in the shape. This statement represents a mis-understanding of what a stealer is tasked with accomplishing as a hull is lined-off, after determining the widths of strakes amidships, a quantity can be determined for all these strakes. This quantity is divided into the height of the stem to determine the width of the average hood-end. This width must be twice the thickness or it will not be able to carry its fasteners. If the hood-ends are not wide enough, the quantity is dropped by one until the resulting revised width is enough to carry its fasteners. This was analogous to strengthening the hood-end by making it wider, a device was needed to compensate for the drop in strakes that actually reached the stem. The device was a strake that was stooped short of the stem by burying its forward butt end into a notch chiseled into a through plank. This strake was called a steeler by the plankers and a plank by the liners who originated it by counting strakes during the lining off process. Where the transverse sections of the shape are fuller, the strakes are wider. In many larger vessels, to ending with very narrow strakes
Strake
–
Garboard strakes and related near-keel members.
23.
Stall (fluid mechanics)
–
In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary depending on the fluid, foil. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wings angle of attack. A stall does not mean that the engine have stopped working, vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, the principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of attack. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the lift coefficient occurs. Flow separation begins to occur at angles of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the regions on the top of the wing increase in size. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack produce less lift, a fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude. Most aircraft are designed to have a stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have an alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore. The buffet margin is, for a set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can be attained only at low airspeed, attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high-speed stall or may merely cause the aircraft to climb. Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in autorotation, as air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. This characteristic increases the lift from the wing and increases the likelihood of the aircraft entering into a spin
Stall (fluid mechanics)
–
Airflow separating from an
airfoil at a high
angle of attack, as occurs at the stall
Stall (fluid mechanics)
–
A
Schweizer SGS 1-36 being used for
deep stall research by
NASA over the
Mojave Desert in 1983
24.
Toronto
–
Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, Toronto is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is well known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere, the name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto, meaning place where trees stand in the water. This refers to the end of what is now Lake Simcoe. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
Toronto
–
From top left:
Downtown Toronto featuring the
CN Tower and
Financial District from the
Toronto Harbour,
City Hall, the
Ontario Legislative Building,
Casa Loma,
Prince Edward Viaduct, and the
Scarborough Bluffs
Toronto
–
Coat of arms
Toronto
–
Map of Toronto, 1894
Toronto
–
Yonge Street in 1900
25.
Pat Fillingham
–
Pat Fillingham FRAes was an English test pilot for the de Havilland company. Fillingham flew 120 different types of aircraft during his career including all variants of the de Havilland Mosquito, Fillingham was born in 1914 as William Patrick Ingram Fillingham in Sutton Coldfield and he was educated at Worksop College and the de Havilland Aeronautical Technical School. Fillingham learned to fly with the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve at Perth in Scotland and he graduated from the de Havilland technical school in 1939 as an aeronatical engineer and joined the parent company de Havilland as a test pilot. With the start of the Second World War the company had an increase in aircraft production, by September 1942 he was the chief production test pilot flying new de Havilland Mosquito twin-engine light bombers. With production of the Mosquito in England increased to a five a day Fillingham flew a record 2,200 flights in the Mosquito, as well as the Mosquito he also flew the twin-engined De Havilland Hornet, at the time the fastest propeller aircraft in the world. With the end of the war Fillingham still had plenty to do as de Havilland produced the Dove and he flew the prototype de Havilland Canada Chipmunk in Canada in 1946. As the company moved into the 1950s Fillingham test flew the four-engined de Havilland Comet airliner, in 1972 he delivered a Trident to China, the first western jet to be imported. By 1975 De Havilland had become Hawker Siddeley Aviation and Fillingham was Deputy Chief Test Pilot when he decided to retire and his last few flying years for Hawker Siddeley he flew the Hawker Siddeley HS.125 as well as display flying the then last flying Mosquito. Fillingham had 11,450 hours on 120 different aircraft types during his career, in 1970 he was awarded a Queens Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air. Fillingham had married Sonja Couper in 1952 and they had a daughter, as well as his duties as a test pilot Fillingham also flew in air races winning the Goodyear Trophy in 1952 and the Kings Cup in 1953 flying a de Havilland Canada Chipmunk. Fillingham owned a number of motor cars and took part in three Monte Carlo Rallies. Fillingham died on 17 July 2003 aged 89
Pat Fillingham
–
Mosquito in 1943
26.
De Havilland Gipsy Major
–
The de Havilland Gipsy Major or Gipsy IIIA is a four-cylinder, air-cooled, inline engine used in a variety of light aircraft produced in the 1930s, including the famous Tiger Moth biplane. Many Gipsy Major engines still power vintage aircraft types worldwide today, the engine was a slightly modified Gipsy III, which was effectively a de Havilland Gipsy engine modified to run inverted so that the cylinders pointed downwards below the crankcase. This allowed the shaft to be kept in a high position without having the cylinders blocking the pilots forward view over the nose of the aircraft. The Major was a slightly bored-out Gipsy III, first built in 1932, total production of all Gipsy Major versions was 14,615 units. In 1934, when Geoffrey de Havilland needed a powerful engine for his twin-engined transport aircraft. In military service, the Gipsy Twelve became known as the Gipsy King, the advent of World War II cut short all civilian flying and after the war de Havilland was too busy concentrating on jet engines to put much energy into its piston engines. The Gipsy did not go without a fight though, in Canada the Gipsy Major was the engine of choice for the DHC1 Chipmunk trainer, which later replaced the Tiger Moth in the RAF. By that time however, the Gipsy Major was eclipsed by the Blackburn Cirrus Major in Britain, in its final supercharged form, the Gipsy Major used in helicopter applications delivered 220 hp. By 1945 the Gipsy Major had been cleared for a world record 1,500 hours Time between overhaul, surpassing its previously held record of 1,260 hours TBO achieved in 1943. 1,000 hours TBO had earlier been achieved in 1938, Gipsy Major I Gipsy Major IC Higher compression ratio and maximum RPM for racing use. Gipsy Major ID Fuel pump added, plus screened ignition harness, Gipsy Major IF Aluminium cylinder heads,5.25,1 compression ratio. Gipsy Major II Variable pitch propeller Gipsy Major 7 Military version of Gipsy Major 1D, Gipsy Major 8 Sodium cooled exhaust valves, cartridge starter for DHC Chipmunk. Gipsy Major 10 Electric starter option, Gipsy Major 30 Major redesign, bore and stroke increased. Gipsy Major 200 Designed as a helicopter engine. Gipsy Major 215 Turbo-supercharged helicopter engine, examples of the Gipsy Major are on display at the following museums, de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre Fleet Air Arm Museum Shuttleworth Collection Royal Air Force Museum Cosford Data from Janes. Royal Air Force Museum - Gipsy Major
De Havilland Gipsy Major
–
Gipsy Major
De Havilland Gipsy Major
–
Gypsy Major IC, Starboard Side
De Havilland Gipsy Major
–
Gypsy Major IC, Port Side
De Havilland Gipsy Major
–
Gipsy Major in the centre or nose position on a
DHA-3 Drover
27.
Reciprocating engine
–
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
Reciprocating engine
–
Internal combustion piston engine Components of a typical,
four stroke cycle, internal combustion piston engine. E - Exhaust
camshaft I - Intake camshaft S -
Spark plug V -
Valves P -
Piston R -
Connecting rod C -
Crankshaft W - Water jacket for coolant flow
28.
Downsview
–
Downsview is an area in the north end of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, located in the district of North York. Downsview was originally a farm located in the 1870s near the intersection of Keele Street. It now extends beyond the intersection of Sheppard Avenue and Dufferin Street, the area includes several large post-World War II subdivisions. However, the airport is used as a manufacturing and testing facility for Bombardier Aerospace. Downsview has large Italian, Black/Afro-Caribbean/West Indian and Latin American populations, the area is named for the farm settled by John Perkins Bull called Downs View in 1842 near Keele Street and Rustic Road. The military base and the de Havilland company, including the runway and all buildings, was closed, Bombardier has been manufacturing and testing commercial aircraft on the site since then. Some 1000 de Havilland DH98 Mosquito aircraft were built by the company at Downsview during the Second World War, most of the houses were built immediately post-war and into the 1960s, though some houses and condos have been recently built near Downsview station. The subway ride south to downtown Toronto is approximately 30 minutes, the east side of Dufferin Street is primarily residential, while the west side is industrial. This street has been relegated to a service road in the adjacent neighbourhood of Bathurst Manor. Immediately beside Dufferin Street, William R. Allen Road brings large traffic volumes from the Ontario Highway 401 exit just a minute south, an employee of the facility and a firefighter were killed as a result of the explosions. Mayor David Miller had publicly expressed his condolences to the families of the shortly thereafter. Chalkfarm Park is an 11 ha park in the area northwest of Wilson Avenue and Jane Street, recreational facilities include tennis courts, bocce courts and a splash pad. as well as the Chalkfarm Community Centre which is connected to the park. The community centre is located within the apartment complex on Chalkfarm Drive north of Sheridan Mall, Downsview Dells Park is a large 75 ha park which follows the valley of the Black Creek as it flows south and west from Sheppard Avenue midway between Keele and Jane Streets. The park features wilderness and wetland settings with picnic areas and fire pits, car parking and washrooms are available within the park. Within the park is Downsview Dells House, a municipal drug, Roding Park is an 8 ha park near Wilson Avenue and Keele Street. Recreational facilities in the include a baseball diamond, two tennis courts, four bocce courts and a childrens playground. On the north side of the park is Roding Community Centre which houses many community groups, the Toronto District School Board operates Anglophone and secular public schools. The Toronto Catholic District School Board operates Anglophone Catholic public schools, the Conseil scolaire Viamonde operates Francophone and secular public schools
Downsview
–
Downsview area, including Downsview airport
Downsview
–
Downsview Dells Park
Downsview
–
Jane-Exbury Towers
Downsview
–
Looking west over Downsview from Downsview Park
29.
Ontario
–
Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
Ontario
–
Algonquin Provincial Park, Cache Lake
Ontario
–
Flag
Ontario
–
Summer at
Sandbanks Provincial Park on Lake Ontario.
Ontario
–
The
Niagara Escarpment on the
Bruce Peninsula.
30.
Hertfordshire
–
Hertfordshire is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region, in 2013, the county had a population of 1,140,700 living in an area of 634 square miles. Four towns have between 50,000 and 100,000 residents, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage, Watford and St Albans. Hertford, once the market town for the medieval agricultural county derives its name from a hart. Elevations are high for the region in the north and west and these reach over 240m in the western projection around Tring which is in the Chilterns. The countys borders are approximately the watersheds of the Colne and Lea, hertfordshires undeveloped land is mainly agricultural and much is protected by green belt. The countys landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in the new town of Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, Leavesden filmed much of the UK-based $7.7 Bn box office Harry Potter film series and has the countrys studio tour. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill and his martyrs cross of a yellow saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire is well-served with motorways and railways, providing access to London. The largest sector of the economy of the county is in services, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing, the name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature in many county emblems, there is evidence of humans living in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age and this was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. 293 the first recorded British martyrdom is believed to have taken place. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill. His martyrs cross of a saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag. He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire, with the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 6th century the majority of the county was part of the East Saxon kingdom
Hertfordshire
–
Autumn harvest near St Albans
Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire
–
The offices of
T-Mobile, Hatfield
Hertfordshire
–
Headquarters of
Tesco
31.
Hawarden Airport
–
Hawarden Airport, is an airport near Hawarden in Flintshire, Wales, near the border with England and 3.5 NM west southwest of the English city of Chester. Aviation Park Group is based at the airport and provides handling, APG has a longterm tenancy agreement with Airbus UK, giving sole handling rights at the site. A large Airbus factory, which produces wings, is located at the airport. The factory is known as the Broughton factory, named after the nearest village, Hawarden Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee. The aircraft factory at Broughton was established early in the Second World War as a factory for Vickers-Armstrongs Limited. The factory produced 5,540 Vickers Wellingtons and 235 Avro Lancasters, pA474 is one of only two Lancaster aircraft remaining in airworthy condition out of the 7,377 that were built. PA474 is now part of the RAFs Battle of Britain Memorial Flight, post-war the factory was used by Vickers to build 28,000 aluminium prefab bungalows. It was located on the northwest portion of the airfield, no.3 Ferry Pilots Pool/Ferry Pool, Air Transport Auxiliary, was based at Hawarden between 5 November 1940 and 30 November 1945. Production was moved to the United States in 1996 when the 125 business was sold to the Raytheon Corporation, some parts continued to be manufactured at Broughton for some years after. In 1977 the Broughton factory became part of British Aerospace operations and it is now owned and operated by Airbus, and has continued to be the centre of wing production for all models of Airbus commercial aircraft. The airport land includes a ground named The Airfield, home of Welsh Premier League side Airbus UK Broughton F. C. which has movable floodlights due to its proximately to the runway. Airbus previously considered the A330-300 and A340-500 to require too much of the limited 1, 663m runway 04 at Hawarden, a runway extension was considered, but abandoned when Airbus chose the A330-200 which could use the existing runway. There are also regular Embraer EMB-145 / Embraer EMB-170 shuttle flights to Bristol Lulsgate and these were previously operatively by BMI Regional but are currently operated by Eastern Airways. There is much private and general activity at the airport, adding considerably to the number of aircraft movements. Operators include APEM Ltd Aviation Park Group, which provides air taxi and charter services, Flintshire Flying School, NWMAS, also operating from Hawarden Airport is Williams Aviation Ltd, which offers private jet charter. Clwyd County Council provided the company with a grant of £10,000 on the grounds that the service would improve communications between North East Wales and Cardiff. Notwithstanding the confined space of the aircraft, complimentary coffee was routinely served in-flight to passengers by the First Officer, an aircraft service centre managed and owned separately from the Airbus operation is also located at the airport. Raytheon Systems opened a new facility in 2003, to support the Raytheon Sentinel entering service with the Royal Air Force, Raytheon had a 125 and Beech 400 support centre on the airfield, which was renamed Hawker Beechcraft Ltd in early 2007
Hawarden Airport
–
Hawarden Airport
Hawarden Airport
–
RAF Hawarden in World War II viewed from north-north-west
32.
Chester
–
Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales. With a population of 81,340 in 2014, it is the most populous settlement of Cheshire West and Chester, Chester was granted city status in 1541. Chester was founded as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 79 AD, one of the main army camps in Roman Britain, Deva later became a major civilian settlement. Chester was one of the last cities in England to fall to the Normans, william the Conqueror ordered the construction of a castle, to dominate the town and the nearby Welsh border. Chester is one of the best preserved walled cities in Britain and it has a number of medieval buildings, but some of the black-and-white buildings within the city centre are Victorian restorations. Apart from a 100-metre section, the listed Grade I walls are almost complete, the Roman Legio II Adiutrix during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian founded Chester in AD79, as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix. The victrix part of the name was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix which was based at Deva, Central Chesters four main roads, Eastgate, Northgate, Watergate and Bridgegate, follow routes laid out at this time. A civilian settlement grew around the base, probably originating from trade with the fortress. The civilian amphitheatre, which was built in the 1st century and it is the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain, and is also a Scheduled Monument. The Minerva Shrine in the Roman quarry is the rock cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain. The fortress was garrisoned by the legion until at least the late 4th century, after the Roman troops withdrew, the Romano-British established a number of petty kingdoms. Chester is thought to have part of Powys. Deverdoeu was a Welsh name for Chester as late as the 12th century, another, attested in the 9th century History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius, is Cair Legion, this later developed into Caerlleon and then the modern Welsh Caer. King Arthur is said to have fought his ninth battle at the city of the legions and later St Augustine came to the city to try to unite the church, and held his synod with the Welsh Bishops. In 616, Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeated a Welsh army at the brutal and decisive Battle of Chester and her name is still remembered in St Werburghs Street which passes alongside the cathedral, and near the city walls. It was Alfreds daughter Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, that built the new Saxon burh, a new Church dedicated to St Peter alone was founded in AD907 by the Lady Æthelfleda at what was to become the Cross. Taking the helm of a barge, he was rowed the short distance up the River Dee from Edgars Field to the great Minster Church of St John the Baptist by six tributary kings called reguli. In 1071 he made Hugh dAvranches, who built Chester Castle, from the 14th century to the 18th century the citys prominent position in North West England meant that it was commonly also known as Westchester
Chester
–
Bridge Street showing
Chester Rows and
St Peter's Church
Chester
–
4, 5 and 6 Abbey Square
Chester
–
Diorama of the Roman Legionary fortress
Deva Victrix in
Grosvenor Museum, Chester.
Chester
–
Photochrom of the
Chester Rows as seen from the
Cross, 1895
33.
Alverca do Ribatejo
–
Alverca do Ribatejo is a city and a former civil parish in the municipality of Vila Franca de Xira, Portugal. In 2013, the merged into the new parish Alverca do Ribatejo e Sobralinho. It covers an area of 17.89 square kilometres and as of 2011 had a population of 31,070 and it was promoted to city status in 1990. It is a city and a suburb near the Tagus River, Alverca has been deeply connected with aviation since the early 20th century. A military air base was built there in 1918, the aerospace company OGMA, the Portuguese Air Force General Storage, the Air Force Aerodrome Engineering Unit and a branch of the Air Museum are presently based there. The Alverca aviation facilities also housed the first International Airport of Portugal, closed after the inauguration of the Lisbon Airport in the 1940s
Alverca do Ribatejo
–
Coat of arms
34.
Landing gear
–
Landing Gear is Devin the Dudes fifth studio album. It was released on October 7,2008 and it was his first studio album since signing with the label Razor & Tie. It features a high-profile guest appearance from Snoop Dogg, as of October 30,2008, the album has sold 18,906 copies. I Dont Chase Em Dont Stop Loving Me Now by L. T. D
Landing gear
–
Landing Gear
Landing gear
35.
Variable-pitch propeller
–
A controllable-pitch propeller or variable-pitch propeller is a type of propeller with blades that can be rotated around their long axis to change the blade pitch. Reversible propellers—those where the pitch can be set to negative values—can also create reverse thrust for braking or going backwards without the need to change the direction of shaft revolution. Propellers whose blade pitch could be adjusted while the aircraft was on the ground were used by a number of aviation pioneers. In 1919 L. E. Baynes AFRAeS patented the first automatic variable-pitch airscrew, dr Henry Selby Hele-Shaw and T. E. The first practical controllable-pitch propeller for aircraft was introduced in 1932, French firm Ratier pioneered variable-pitch propellers of various designs from 1928 onwards, relying on a special ball bearing helicoïdal ramp at the root of the blades for easy operation. Use of these pneumatic propellers required presetting the propeller to fine pitch prior to take-off and this was done by pressurizing the bladder with a bicycle pump, hence the whimsical nickname Gonfleurs dhélices given to the aircraft ground mechanics in France up to this day. Especially for cruising, the engine can operate in its most economical range of rotational speeds, with the exception of going into reverse for braking after touch-down, the pitch is usually controlled automatically without the pilots intervention. A propeller with a controller that adjusts the blade pitch so that the rotational speed always stays the same is called a constant-speed propeller, a propeller with controllable pitch can have a nearly constant efficiency over a range of airspeeds. A common type of propeller is hydraulically actuated, it was originally developed by Frank W. Caldwell of the Hamilton Standard Division of the United Aircraft Company. The French company of Pierre Levasseur and Smith Engineering Co. in the United States also developed controllable-pitch propellers, Smith propellers were used by Wiley Post on some of his flights. Another common type was developed by Wallace R. Turnbull. This electrically-operated mechanism was first tested in on June 6,1927 at Camp Borden, Ontario, Canada and it was favoured by some pilots in World War II, because even when the engine was no longer running the propeller could be feathered. On hydraulically-operated propellers the feathering had to happen before the loss of pressure in the engine. Hydraulic operation is too expensive and bulky, and instead light aircraft use propellers that are activated mechanically or electrically, the Silence Twister prototype kitplane was fitted with the V-Prop, an automatic self-energising and electronically self-adjusting VP propeller. When fully loaded, a vessel obviously needs more power than when empty. By varying the propeller blades to the pitch, higher efficiency can be obtained. A vessel with a VPP can accelerate faster from a standstill, a VPP can also improve vessel maneuverability by directing a stronger flow of water onto the rudder. However, a propeller is both cheaper and more robust than a VPP
Variable-pitch propeller
–
One of a
C-130J Super Hercules ' 6 bladed
Dowty Rotol R391 composite controllable- and reversible-pitch propellers.
Variable-pitch propeller
–
A Hamilton Standard variable-pitch propeller on a 1943 model
Stinson V77 Reliant
Variable-pitch propeller
–
A ship's variable-pitch propeller
36.
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
–
The de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver is a single-engined, high-wing, propeller-driven, STOL aircraft developed by de Havilland Canada, primarily known as a bush plane. It is used for cargo and passenger hauling, aerial application, the United States Army purchased several hundred, nine DHC-2s are still in service with the U. S. Air Force Auxiliary for search and rescue. A Royal New Zealand Air Force Beaver supported Sir Edmund Hillarys expedition to the South Pole, over 1,600 Beavers were produced until 1967 when the original assembly line shut down. Due to its success, the Royal Canadian Mint commemorated the Beaver on a special edition Canadian quarter in November 1999, after the war, de Havilland Canada management turned to the civilian market for work, aware that military contracts were unlikely to guarantee business. Almost without variation, the pilots asked for extra power and STOL performance, in a design that could be easily fitted with wheels. When de Havilland engineers noted that this would result in poor cruise performance, the doors were also made wide enough to allow for a 44 Imperial gallon drum to be rolled up into the aircraft. On September 17,1946, de Havilland officially put together a team consisting of Fred Buller, Dick Hiscocks, Jim Houston and W. Jakimiuk. At the time de Havilland Canada was still a British-owned company and this limited power, so the wing area was greatly increased in order to maintain STOL performance. When Pratt & Whitney Canada offered to supply war-surplus 450 hp Wasp Jr engines at a low price, the result was unbeatable STOL performance for an aircraft of its size. After much testing and with adjustments and improvements, the airplane was ready for the sales circuit. Since de Havilland Canada aircraft were all named after animals, it was decided that the new plane was much like the hard-working beaver. The first flight of the DHC-2 Beaver was in Downsview, Ontario by Second World War flying ace Russell Bannock on August 16,1947, the first production aircraft was delivered to the Ontario Department of Lands and Forests, a design partner, in April 1948. Initial sales were slow, perhaps two or three a month but as the plane was demonstrated sales started to improve, a key event in the Beavers history occurred the next year, when the US Army started looking for a new utility aircraft to replace their Cessnas. The competition quickly boiled down to the Beaver and the Cessna 195 but the Beaver outperformed the 195 and with the outbreak of the Korean War, soon orders increased from around the world. When production finally ceased in 1967,1,657 DHC-2 Beavers had been built, the Beaver was designed for flight in rugged and remote areas of the world. Its short takeoff and landing capability made it ideal for areas normally only accessible by canoe or foot, because it often flies to remote locations, often in cold climates, its oil reservoir filler is located in the cockpit and oil can be filled in flight. A series of upgrades to the design were incorporated. One major customer introduced the use of flat steps replacing the earlier tubes, in 1987, the Canadian Engineering Centennial Board named the DHC-2 one of the top ten Canadian engineering achievements of the 20th century
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
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DHC-2 Beaver
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
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A Beaver, operated by Freebird Wilderness Tours, at Airport Niederrhein in Germany
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
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A de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver operated by Kenmore Air on floats.
De Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver
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Instrument panel of a DHC-2 -- note the single pilot's yoke, that can be handed over to the co-pilot, in flight.
37.
Tandem
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Tandem is an arrangement in which a team of machines, animals or people are lined up one behind another, all facing in the same direction. The tandem harness allows additional animals to provide pulling power for a designed for a single animal. The English word tandem derives with a play from the Latin adverb tandem. Tandem seating may be used on a bicycle where it is alternative to sociable seating. Tandem can also be used generally to refer to any group of persons or objects working together. The Messerschmitt KR200 was an example of a small automobile that used tandem seating. A tandem arrangement may also be used for cars parked in a residential garage, in heavy trucks tandem refers to two closely spaced axles. Legally defined by the distance between the axles, mechanically there are many configurations, either or both axles may be powered, and often interact with each other. The two seating configurations for trainer, night and all-weather interceptor or attack aircraft are pilot and instructor side by side or in tandem, usually, the pilot is in front and the instructor behind. Attack aircraft and all-weather interceptors often use a crew member to operate avionics such as radar. Bombers such as the Convair B-58 Hustler seated three crew members in tandem, a common engineering adaptation is to lengthen the cockpit or fuselage to create a trainer with tandem seating from a single-seater aircraft. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing XB-52 bombers used fighter-style tandem seating, the Grumman A-6 Intruder, General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, Sukhoi Su-24 or the Sukhoi Su-34 are examples of combat aircraft that use this configuration. For training aircraft, it has the advantage that pilot and instructor can see each others actions, allowing the pilot to learn from the instructor, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. In some cases, such as the Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler, three Men In a Carriage Drawn by a Tandem Horse Team. Tandem Horse Teams Museum Victoria official site, illustration
Tandem
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Ponies driving in tandem
Tandem
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Tandem bicycle
Tandem
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Messerschmitt KR200 Kabrio; the folding top replaces the bubble in this version.
Tandem
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Instructor and student pilots in a
McDonnell Douglas T-45 Goshawk aircraft
38.
Acrylic glass
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The same material can be utilised as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses. Chemically, it is the polymer of methyl methacrylate. PMMA is an alternative to polycarbonate when extreme strength is not necessary. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and it is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. The first acrylic acid was created in 1843, methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated in 1865. The reaction between acid and methanol results in the ester methyl methacrylate. In 1877 the German chemist Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig discovered the process that turns methyl methacrylate into polymethyl methacrylate. In 1933, the brand name Plexiglas was patented and registered by another German chemist, in 1936 Imperial Chemical Industries began the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass. During World War II both Allied and Axis forces used acrylic glass for submarine periscopes and aircraft windshields, canopies, common orthographic stylings include polymethyl methacrylate and polymethylmethacrylate. The full chemical name is poly, although often called simply acrylic, acrylic can also refer to other polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile. The other notable names include, Acrylite, a trademark of Evonik Cyro since 1976 Lucite, a trademark of DuPont, first registered in 1937 R-Cast. Founded in 1987 after spinning off from Reynolds & Taylor and they specialize in large scale and thick monolithic acrylic. Plexiglas, a trademark of ELF Atochem, now a subsidiary of Arkema in the US, generally, radical initiation is used, but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. To produce 1 kg of PMMA, about 2 kg of petroleum is needed, PMMA produced by radical polymerization is atactic and completely amorphous. The glass transition temperature of atactic PMMA is 105 °C, PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature, i. e. it is below its Tg. The forming temperature starts at the transition temperature and goes up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including molding, compression molding. The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by casting, but in this case
Acrylic glass
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Lichtenberg figure: high voltage dielectric breakdown in an acrylic polymer block
Acrylic glass
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Poly(methyl methacrylate)
Acrylic glass
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Illustrative and secure
bromine chemical sample used for teaching. The sample vial of corrosive and poisonous liquid has been cast into an acrylic plastic cube
Acrylic glass
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Close-up of pressure sphere of
Bathyscaphe Trieste, with single conical window of PMMA (Plexiglas) set into sphere hull. The very small black circle (smaller than the man's head) is the inner side of the plastic "window," and is only a few inches in diameter. The larger circular clear black area represents the larger outer-side of the thick one-piece plastic cone "window."
39.
Aircraft canopy
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An aircraft canopy is the transparent enclosure over the cockpit of some types of aircraft. The function of the canopy is to provide a weatherproof and reasonably quiet environment for the aircrafts occupants, the canopy will be as aerodynamically shaped as possible to minimize aerodynamic drag. Very early aircraft had no canopies at all, the pilots were exposed to the wind and weather, although most flying was done in good weather. Through World War I most aircraft had no canopy, although they often had a windshield to deflect the prop wash. In the 1920s and 1930s, the speed and altitude of airplanes necessitated a fully enclosed cockpit. Early canopies were made of pieces of Flat glass held in position by a frame. The muntins reduced visibility, which was problematic for military aircraft. Also, glass canopies were much heavier than acrylic canopies, which were first introduced shortly before World War II, the acrylic bubble canopy was used on aircraft such as the Supermarine Spitfire and Westland Whirlwind, which gave better all-round visibility and reduced weight. It is still being used today on most fighter aircraft and this ruse was inspired by animals and fishes that have similar markings on the head and tail, so they can confuse other creatures. Pilots remain skeptical of this feature, asserting that if the enemy is close enough to see the marking, on many high-performance military aircraft, the canopy is an integral part of the ejection seat system. The pilot cannot be ejected from the aircraft until the canopy is no longer in the path of the ejection seat, in most ejection seat equipped aircraft, the canopy is blown upwards and rearwards by explosive charges. The relative wind then blows the canopy away from the ejection path, in that situation, the pilot could possibly impact the canopy when ejecting. To overcome that possibility, some aircraft have a cord of plastic explosive zig-zagging across the canopy over the pilots head. In the event of an ejection, the cord is activated first. Then the ejection seat are launched through the shattered canopy, a technician must meet the qualifications of E-6 in rank. Most modern acrylic canopies are vacuum formed, a sheet of acrylic is secured to a female mould, then the entire assembly is heated in an oven until the acrylic is pliable. The air is removed from the mould and the acrylic sheet is drawn into it. The acrylic is then trimmed to the shape and attached to an aluminum or composite frame
Aircraft canopy
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The
bubble canopy of a
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
Aircraft canopy
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The raised canopy of a
Van's Aircraft RV-7
Aircraft canopy
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CF-18 Hornet of the
RCAF displaying a false canopy
Aircraft canopy
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A
BAE Hawk showing the explosive cord in the canopy
40.
Aviator
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A pilot or aviator is a person who controls the flight of an aircraft by operating its directional flight controls. Other aircrew members such as attendants, mechanics and ground crew, are not classified as aviators. In recognition of the qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines worldwide award aviator badges to their pilots. The first recorded use of the aviator was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis. The term aviatrix, now archaic, was used for a female aviator. These terms were used more in the days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers first airplane, The weight, the Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The absolute authority given to the pilot in command derives from that of a ships captain, when flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain. While the flight decks of U. S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting. Pilots licensing in Canada is similar to the United States, the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for pilots in Canada. Retirement age is provided by each airline with some set to age 60, in 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation. Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a retirement age of 65. Military pilots fly with the forces of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements, military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, military pilots also serve as flight crews on aircraft for government personnel, such as Air Force One and Air Force Two in the United States. Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots and this is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, the person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have limited their use in controlled airspace, UAVs have mostly been limited to military
Aviator
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U.S. Army test pilot
Lt. F.W. "Mike" Hunter wearing a
flight suit in October 1942
Aviator
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Hot air balloon pilot and passenger in basket
Aviator
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Pilots landing a
Boeing 777
Aviator
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F-16 pilot in flight
41.
Fabric
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
Fabric
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Sunday textile market on the sidewalks of
Karachi, Pakistan
Fabric
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Simple textile (magnified)
Fabric
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A small fabric shop in
Al-Mukalla, Yemen
Fabric
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Late antique textile,
Egyptian, now in the
Dumbarton Oaks collection
42.
Flight control surface
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An aircraft flight control surface is an aerodynamic device allowing a pilot to adjust and control the aircrafts flight attitude. Development of a set of flight control surfaces was a critical advance in the development of aircraft. The development of flight controls is what allowed stable flight. This article describes the control surfaces used on an aircraft of conventional design. Other fixed-wing aircraft configurations may use different control surfaces but the principles remain. The controls for rotary wing aircraft accomplish the same motions about the three axes of rotation, but manipulate the flight controls in a completely different manner. The Wright brothers are credited with developing the first practical control surfaces and it is a main part of their patent on flying. Unlike modern control surfaces, they used wing warping, in an attempt to circumvent the Wright patent, Glenn Curtiss made hinged control surfaces, the same type of concept first patented some four decades earlier in the United Kingdom. Hinged control surfaces have the advantage of not causing stresses that are a problem of wing warping and are easier to build into structures, an aircraft is free to rotate around three axes that are perpendicular to each other and intersect at its center of gravity. To control position and direction a pilot must be able to control rotation about each of them, the lateral axis, also known as transverse axis, passes through an aircraft from wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch, pitch changes the vertical direction that the aircrafts nose is pointing. The elevators are the control surfaces for pitch. The longitudinal axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail, rotation about this axis is called roll. The angular displacement about this axis is called bank, the pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the other. This differential lift causes rotation around the longitudinal axis, the ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has an effect on bank. The vertical axis passes through an aircraft from top to bottom, rotation about this axis is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircrafts nose is pointing, left or right, the primary control of yaw is with the rudder
Flight control surface
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KLM Fokker 70, showing position of flap and liftdumpers flight controls. The liftdumpers are the lifted cream-coloured panels on the wing upper surface (in this picture there are five on the right wing). The flaps are the large drooped surfaces on the trailing edge of the wing.
Flight control surface
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Basic aircraft control surfaces and motion.
Flight control surface
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Air brakes on the rear fuselage of a
Eurowings BAe 146-300
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