1.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
2.
Bexhill-on-Sea
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Bexhill-on-Sea is a seaside town situated in the county of East Sussex in South East England. The first reference to Bexhill, or Bexelei as it was called, was in a charter granted by King Offa of Mercia in 772 AD. It is recorded that King Offa had defeated the men of Hastings in 771 AD, at this time, the term Hastings would have referred to this whole area rather than the town itself as it does today. In the charter, King Offa established a church and religious community in Bexhill, norman Conquest of 1066 it appears that Bexhill was largely destroyed. The Domesday survey of 1086 records that the manor was worth £20 before the conquest, was waste in 1066 and was worth £18 10s in 1086. King William I used the lands he had conquered to reward his knights and gave Bexhill manor to Robert, Count of Eu, with most of the Hastings area. Roberts grandson, John, Count of Eu, gave back the manor to the bishops of Chichester in 1148 and it is probable that the first manor house was built by the bishops at this time. The later manor house, the ruins of which can still be seen at the Manor Gardens in Bexhill Old Town, was built about 1250, probably on the instructions of St. Richard, Bishop of Chichester. The Manor House was the easternmost residence owned by the bishops, there were often disputes between the Bishops of Chichester and the Abbots of Battle Abbey, usually about land ownership in this area. In 1276 a large portion of Bexhill was made into a park for hunting, in 1561 Queen Elizabeth I took possession of Bexhill Manor and three years later she gave it to Sir Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset. The Earls, later Dukes, of Dorset owned Bexhill until the mid 19th century and their main residences were Buckhurst Place in Sussex and Knole House in Kent. In 1804 soldiers of the Kings German Legion were stationed in barracks at Bexhill and these troops were Hanoverians who had escaped when their country was overrun by Napoleons French Army. As King George III was also the Elector of Hanover, he welcomed them, at about this time, defensive Martello Towers were built along the south east coast, some near Bexhill, in order to repel any French invasion. In 1814 the soldiers of the Kings German Legion left Bexhill, the German troops had been here to protect Bexhill from the French. However, many of the people were actively trading with the enemy by way of smuggling. The best known of the smugglers were in the Little Common Gang. In 1813 Elizabeth Sackville had married the 5th Earl De La Warr, and it was the 7th Earl De La Warr who decided to transform the small rural village of Bexhill into an exclusive seaside resort. He contracted the builder, John Webb, to construct the first sea wall, Webb, in part payment for his work, was given all the land extending from Sea Road to the Polegrove, south of the railway line
3.
East Sussex
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East Sussex /ˈsʌsᵻks/ is a county in South East England. It is bordered by the counties of Kent to the north and east, Surrey to the north west and West Sussex to the west, archaeological remains are plentiful, especially in the upland areas. The areas position on the coast has also meant that there were invaders, including the Romans. Earlier industries have included fishing, iron-making, and the trade, all of which have declined. Sussex is traditionally sub-divided into six rapes, from the 12th century the three eastern rapes together and the three western rapes together had separate quarter sessions, with the county town of the three eastern rapes being Lewes. This situation was formalised by Parliament in 1865, and the two parts were made into administrative counties, each with distinct elected county councils in 1889 under the Local Government Act 1888, in East Sussex there were also three self-administered county boroughs, Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings. In 1974 East Sussex was made a non-metropolitan and ceremonial county, at the same time the western boundary was altered, so that the Mid Sussex region was transferred to the county of West Sussex. In 1997, Brighton and Hove became a unitary authority, it was granted city status in 2000. East Sussex is divided into five local government districts, three are larger, rural, districts are, Lewes, Wealden, and Rother. Eastbourne and Hastings are mainly urban areas, the rural districts are further subdivided into civil parishes. To the north lie parallel valleys and ridges, the highest of which is the Weald itself, the sandstones and clays meet the sea at Hastings, the Downs, at Beachy Head. East Sussex, like most counties by the south coast, has an average total of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year. This is much higher than the UKs average of about 1,340 hours of sunshine a year, the relief of the county reflects the geology. The chalk uplands of the South Downs occupies the coastal strip between Brighton and Eastbourne, there are two river gaps, the Rivers Ouse and Cuckmere. The Seven Sisters, where the Downs meet the sea, are the remnants of dry valleys cut into the chalk, to the east of Beachy Head lie the marshlands of the Pevensey Levels, formerly flooded by the sea but now enclosed within a deposited beach. At Bexhill the land begins to rise again where the sands and clays of the Weald meet the sea, further east are the Pett Levels, more marshland, beyond which is the estuary of the River Rother. On the far side of the estuary are the dunes of Camber Sands, the highest point of the Downs within the county is Ditchling Beacon, at 814 feet, it is termed a Marilyn. The Weald occupies the northern borderlands of the county, between the Downs and Weald is a narrow stretch of lower lying land, many of the rivers and streams occupying this area originate in the Weald
4.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
5.
Art Deco
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Art Deco, sometimes simply referred to as Deco, is a style of visual arts, architecture and design that first appeared in France just before World War I. It took its name, short for Arts Decorators, from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes held in Paris in 1925 and it combined modernist styles with fine craftsmanship and rich materials. During its heyday, Art Deco represented luxury, glamour, exuberance, Art Deco was a pastiche of many different styles, sometimes contradictory, united by a desire to be modern. It featured rare and expensive materials such as ebony and ivory, the Chrysler Building and other skyscrapers of New York were the most visible monuments of the new style. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the became more subdued. New materials arrived, including chrome plating, stainless steel and plastic, a more sleek form of the style, called Streamline Moderne, appeared in the 1930s, it featured curving forms and smooth, polished surfaces. Art Deco became one of the first truly international architectural styles, with examples found in European cities, the style came to an end with the beginning of World War II. Deco was replaced as the dominant global style by the functional and unadorned styles of modernism. The term arts décoratifs was first used in France in 1858, in 1868, Le Figaro newspaper used the term art décoratifs with respect to objects for stage scenery created for the Théâtre de lOpéra. In 1875, furniture designers, textile, jewelry and glass designers and it took its present name of ENSAD in 1927. The term Art déco was then used in a 1966 newspaper article by Hillary Gelson in the Times, describing the different styles at the exhibit. Art Deco gained currency as a broadly applied stylistic label in 1968 when historian Bevis Hillier published the first major book on the style. Hillier noted that the term was already being used by art dealers and cites The Times, in 1971, Hillier organized an exhibition at the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, which he details in his book about it, The World of Art Deco. The emergence of Art Deco was closely connected with the rise in status of decorative artists, the term arts décoratifs had been invented in 1875, giving the designers of furniture, textiles, and other decoration official status. The Société des artistes décorateurs, or SAD, was founded in 1901, a similar movement developed in Italy. The first international exhibition devoted entirely to the arts, the Esposizione international dArte decorative moderna, was held in Turin in 1902. Several new magazines devoted to decorative arts were founded in Paris, including Arts et décoration, Decorative arts sections were introduced into the annual salons of the Sociéte des artistes français, and later in the Salon dautomne. French nationalism also played a part in the resurgence of decorative arts, in 1911 the SAD proposed the holding of a major new international exposition of decorative arts in 1912
6.
International Style (architecture)
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A visually weightless quality engendered by the use of cantilever construction. Glass and steel, in combination with usually less visible reinforced concrete, are the materials of the construction. Commissioned in 1931 by the director of the Museum of Modern Art, Alfred H. Barr Jr. The original exhibition catalogue was then followed up immediately by the book titled The International Style, the aesthetics-based definition of The International Style identified, categorized and expanded upon characteristics said to be common to Modernism across the world and its stylistic aspects. Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles, the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on rather than preconceived symmetry. The aim of Hitchcock and Johnson was to define a style that would encapsulate this modern architecture, all the works in the 1932 Museum of Modern Art exhibition were carefully selected, only displaying those that strictly followed these rules. Many Modernists disliked the term, believing that they had arrived at an approach to architecture that transcended style, the British architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner commented, To me what had been achieved in 1914 was the style of the century. It never occurred to me to look beyond, here was the one and only style which fitted all those aspects which mattered, aspects of economics and sociology, of materials and function. It seems folly to think anybody would wish to abandon it. The exhibition Modern Architecture, International Exhibition opened on February 9,1932, at the Museum of Modern Art, in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Room B was a section titled Housing, presenting the need for a new domestic environment” as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood and Richard Neutra, among these works was shown Alvar Aaltos Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland. The exhibition is significant for its approach to the architectural exhibition. Highly curated in nature, the 1932 exhibition was driven by a desire to promote and consolidate the theory of international modernism, as such, the exhibition featured prominently the work of the core of the modernist group. With Van Der Rohe, Corbusier, Oud, and Gropius at the forefront, moMAs then director Alfred H. Barr hired art historians Philip Johnson and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to curate the museums first architectural exhibition. In 1929, Johnson attended the ceremony of his sister in Wellesley College, where he met Barr. In one month, Barr would be interviewed by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller for the position of the director of the MOMA, Barr added Johnson to MOMAs Junior Advisory Committee. Hitchcock graduated in 1924 after having completed his studies in three years and spending his senior year in architecture
7.
Erich Mendelsohn
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Mendelsohn is a pioneer of the Art Deco and Streamline Moderne architecture, notably with his 1921 Mossehaus design. Erich Mendelsohn was born in Allenstein, East Prussia and his birthplace was at the former Oberstrasse 21, now no.10 Staromiejska street. A plaque embedded on the wall on the side of Barbara street commemorates his place of birth and he was the fifth of six children, his mother was Emma Esther, a hatmaker and his father David was a shopkeeper. He attended a humanist Gymnasium in Allenstein and continued with commercial training in Berlin, in 1906 he took up the study of national economics at the University of Munich. In 1908 he began studying architecture at the Technical University of Berlin, from 1912 to 1914 he worked as an independent architect in Munich. In 1915 he married the cellist Luise Maas, through his wife, he met the cello-playing astrophysicist Erwin Finlay Freundlich. Freundlich was the brother of Herbert Freundlich, the deputy director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, Freundlich wished to build a suitable astronomical observatory to experimentally confirm Einsteins Theory of Relativity. Through his relationship with Freundlich, Mendelsohn had the opportunity to design and this relationship and also the family friendship with the Luckenwalde hat manufacturers Salomon and Gustav Herrmann helped Mendelsohn to an early success. The 2011 documentary film by Duki Dror titled Incessant Visions is about Erich Mendelsohn and his wife, in which Dror animates the memoirs of Louise, at the end of 1918, upon his return from World War I, he settled his practice in Berlin. The Einsteinturm and the hat factory in Luckenwalde established his reputation, the Hat Factory was commissioned in 1921, Mendelsohns design included four production halls, a boiler, a turbine house, two gatehouses and a dyeing hall. The dyeing hall became a feature of the factory, the building was shaped with a modern. The structure even ironically resembled a hat, as early as 1924 Wasmuths Monatshefte für Baukunst produced a booklet about his work. In that same year, along with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius and his practice employed as many as forty people, among them, as a trainee, Julius Posener, later an architectural historian. Mendelsohns work encapsulated the consumerism of the Weimar Republic, most particularly in his shops, nonetheless he was also interested in the socialist experiments being made in the USSR, where he designed the Red Banner Textile Factory in 1926. His Mossehaus newspaper offices and Universum cinema were also influential on art deco. In 1926, he bought an old villa, and in 1928, he designed Rupenhorn, nearly 4000 m², with an expensive publication about his new home, illustrated by Amédée Ozenfant among others, Mendelsohn became the subject of envy. In the spring of 1933, in the wake of growing antisemitism and his fortune was seized by the Nazis, his name struck from the list of the German Architects Union, and he was excluded from the Prussian Academy of Arts. In England he began a partnership with Serge Chermayeff, which continued until the end of 1936
8.
Serge Chermayeff
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Serge Ivan Chermayeff was a Russian-born British architect, industrial designer, writer, and co-founder of several architectural societies, including the American Society of Planners and Architects. From 1922 to 1925, he received training at schools in Germany, Austria, France. During this period, he supported himself as a journalist for the Amalgamated Press before becoming chief designer at E. Williams, in 1928, he became a British citizen. That year he and the French designer Paul Follot were placed in charge of the arts department of Waring & Gillow. After practicing architecture for three years, he and the German architect Erich Mendelsohn briefly partnered in 1933 to form their own architectural firm. He was also responsible for Shann House in Rugby, Warwickshire, and Gilbey House and these are all now Listed Buildings, being designated Grade I, Grade II* and Grade II respectively. They were members of the MARS Group, during the 1930s, Chermayeff designed a number of bakelite radio cabinets for the British company EKCO. In 1940, Chermayeff emigrated to the United States where he joined Clarence W. W. Mayhew as associate architect, helping Mayhew design his own residence. Chermayeff taught in 1940 and 1941 at the California School of Fine Arts before moving to Brooklyn College, from 1941 until his death, he maintained his principal residence in Wellfleet, Massachusetts. In 1946, he was recommended by Walter Gropius to become the president of the Institute of Design in Chicago, there, he was a close friend, beginning in 1949, he oversaw the Institutes merger with the Illinois Institute of Technology before ultimately stepping down in 1951. Following his retirement, he taught at Harvard again in 1974. He wrote several books, including Community and Privacy with Christopher Alexander in 1964 and he died in 1996 in Wellfleet. In 1980 he was awarded the Sir Misha Black award and was added to the College of Medallists and his son Ivan Chermayeff is a prominent graphic designer and a founding partner of New York-based design studio Chermayeff & Geismar. Cape Cod Modern House Trust Blum, Betty J. Oral history of Serge Chermayeff, Chicago, The Art Institute of Chicago. Chicago Architects Oral History Project, The Art Institute of Chicago
9.
Modernism
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Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
10.
Willem Marinus Dudok
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Willem Marinus Dudok was a Dutch modernist architect. He became City Architect for the town of Hilversum in 1928 where he was best known for the brick Hilversum Town Hall, not only did he design the building, but also the interior including the carpets, furniture and even the mayors meeting hammer. He also designed and built about 75 houses, public buildings, Dudok initially chose to pursue a military career. At the military academy of Breda he studied engineering and was allowed to assist in designing military buildings. Influenced by other Dutch architects, such as Berlage, he rapidly proved able to adapt his own ideas and he was appointed Assistant Director of Public Works in Leiden in 1913 and Director of Public Works in Hilversum in 1915. He was appointed Hilversums Municipal Architect in 1928, the same year he was assigned the task of expanding the city, which involved designing housing estates, schools, swimming pools and parks and gardens. The City Hall is regarded as his masterpiece and manages to merge the requirements of being both a symbol of the city and an efficient administrative building and it is indicative of the garden-city character of Hilversum. Indeed, Dudok was clearly influenced by Ebenezer Howard and Raymond Unwin, Dudok continued to produce progressive, Dutch modernist structures in Hilversum for decades, through the 1960s, and had international influence. Amongst school designers in the Netherlands, his schools in Hilversum became particularly celebrated, Dudok received the RIBA Gold Medal in 1935 and the AIA Gold Medal in 1955. He also designed buildings in Paris, the Collège néerlandais in the Cité Universitaire, a centre in Baghdad. One of the buildings he designed in Rotterdam now houses a cafe-restaurant named after him and he drew up plans for the rebuilding of The Hague after WW2. This involved a new district for 150,000 people in the southwest of the city and he died, aged 89, in Hilversum
11.
Hornsey Town Hall
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Hornsey Town Hall is a public building in Crouch End area of Hornsey, London. Completed in 1935, it was the first major UK building to be constructed in the Modernist style and it has Grade II* Listed status. The building was used by Hornsey Borough Council as its headquarters until 1966, when the former area of the Municipal Borough of Hornsey became part of the London Borough of Haringey most of the administrative functions were re-located at Wood Green. As a result, the building has fallen into disrepair, although steps are being taken to find a new use for the building and it is often used as a location for films and TV. Hornsey became a parish in around 1300 and this heavily wooded area contained farms and villas, one of which was Crouch Hall, probably built in 1681 at the crossroads of what came to be known as Crouch End. By 1808 the present Town Hall site housed the non-conformist Broadway Chapel, in 1827 the pond by the roadside was filled in. The buildings in front of Lake Villa gradually became shops, the 1835 Municipal Corporations Act had created 178 corporate boroughs in England and Wales. Corporations were to be elected directly by ratepayers, hold open council meetings and this eventually led to the construction of significant Town Halls in industrial cities like Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and Leeds. The Metropolis Management Act of 1855 began a process changed the way London was administered. Hornsey was a government district in south east Middlesex from 1867 to 1965. In 1867 a Local Board was formed for part of the parish of Hornsey. The rest of the parish was already under South Hornsey Local Board formed in 1865, Hornsey Local Board was based at Southwood Lane, Highgate, from 1868 onwards. The railway was to change Hornsey significantly, Hornsey remained rural until around 1880, probably because of the lack of adequate sewerage. Large parts of Hornsey remained in ownership, inhibiting development. Finsbury Park, the first public space, opened in 1869. By 1887 Hornsey had seven railway stations, Crouch End was to become a prosperous middle-class suburb due to an influx of mainly clerical workers who could easily commute to the city. Public parks were opened at Highgate wood, Clissold and Waterlow, Crouch End playing fields opened in 1892. A number of new roads and avenues, such as Elder Avenue, Crouch and Topsfield Halls were replaced by Topsfield Parade and Broadway Parade
12.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
13.
Architects' Journal
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The Architects Journal is a weekly architectural magazine published in London by Ascential. The first edition was produced in 1896, in June 2012, the magazine had a circulation of 6,714. Three years later, this figure had risen slightly to 6,817
14.
Royal Institute of British Architects
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After the grant of the royal charter it had become known as the Royal Institute of British Architects in London, eventually dropping the reference to London in 1892. In 1934, it moved to its current headquarters on Portland Place, with the building being opened by King George V and it was granted its Royal Charter in 1837 under King William IV. Supplemental Charters of 1887,1909 and 1925 were replaced by a single Charter in 1971, any revisions to the Charter or Byelaws require the Privy Councils approval. The design of the Institutes Mycenean lions medal and the motto ‘Usui civium, decori urbium has been attributed to Thomas Leverton Donaldson and it was again redesigned in 1931 by Eric Gill and in 1960 by Joan Hassall. His School, Liverpool, was one of the twenty schools named for the purpose of constituting the statutory Board of Architectural Education when the 1931 Act was passed. The RIBA Guide to its Archive and History has a section on the Statutory registration of architects with an extending from a draft bill of 1887 to one of 1969. This led to proposals for reconstituting ARCUK, eventually, in the 1990s, before proceeding, the government issued a consultation paper Reform of Architects Registration. RIBA Visiting Boards continue to assess courses for exemption from the RIBAs examinations in architecture, under arrangements made in 2011 the validation criteria are jointly held by the RIBA and the Architects Registration Board, but unlike the ARB, the RIBA also validates courses outside the UK. The RIBA is an organisation, with 44,000 members. Chartered Members are entitled to call themselves chartered architects and to append the post-nominals RIBA after their name, formerly, fellowships of the institute were granted, although no longer, those who continue to hold this title instead add FRIBA. Members gain access to all the services and receive its monthly magazine. The RIBA has been recognised as a business Superbrand since 2008, RIBA is based at 66 Portland Place, London—a 1930s Grade II* listed building designed by architect George Grey Wornum with sculptures by Edward Bainbridge Copnall and James Woodford. Parts of the London building are open to the public, including the Library and it has a large architectural bookshop, a café, restaurant and lecture theatres. Rooms are hired out for events, the Institute also maintains a dozen regional offices around the United Kingdom, it opened its first regional office for the East of England at Cambridge in 1966. It employs over 250 staff, approximately 180 of whom are based in Newcastle and its services include RIBA Insight, RIBA Appointments, and RIBA Publishing. It publishes the RIBA Product Selector and RIBA Journal, in Newcastle is the NBS, the National Building Specification, which has 130 staff and deals with the building regulations and the Construction Information Service. RIBA Bookshops, which operates online and at 66 Portland Place, is part of RIBA Enterprises. The British Architectural Library, sometimes referred to as the RIBA Library, was established in 1834 upon the founding of the institute with donations from members
15.
Aesthetics
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Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that explores the nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty. It is more defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgements of sentiment. More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as critical reflection on art, in modern English, the term aesthetic can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art movement or theory, one speaks, for example, of the Cubist aesthetic. The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός, which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι, for some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object, philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but has also to give a definition of what art is. Art is an entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics, art as knowledge or art as action, any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. Western aesthetics usually refers to Greek philosophers as the earliest source of aesthetic considerations. Plato believed in beauty as a form in which beautiful objects partake and he felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the elements of beauty were order, symmetry. From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western aesthetics underwent a revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasized beauty as the key component of art and of the aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at absolute beauty. For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the experiences, a younger sister of logic. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, however, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature, for Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now to be the name for the philosophy of art, Friedrich von Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800. For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, Art is the first stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather than subjective revelation of beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to fight the suffering, the British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps
16.
George VI
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George VI was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India and the first Head of the Commonwealth, known as Albert until his accession, George VI was born in the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria, and was named after his great-grandfather Albert, Prince Consort. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his life in the shadow of his elder brother. He attended naval college as a teenager, and served in the Royal Navy, in 1920, he was made Duke of York. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret, in the mid-1920s, he had speech therapy for a stammer, which he never fully overcame. Georges elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII upon the death of their father in 1936, however, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry a divorced woman, Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During Georges reign, the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated, the parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the countrys constitution on the day of his accession. The following year, a new Irish constitution changed the name of the state to Ireland, from 1939, the Empire and Commonwealth – except Ireland – was at war with Nazi Germany. War with Italy and Japan followed in 1940 and 1941, respectively, though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious in 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained king of countries, but relinquished the title of Emperor of India in June 1948. Ireland formally declared itself a republic and left the Commonwealth in 1949, George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by problems in the later years of his reign. He was succeeded by his eldest daughter, Elizabeth II, George was born at York Cottage, on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria. His father was Prince George, Duke of York, the second and eldest-surviving son of the Prince and his mother was the Duchess of York, the eldest child and only daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. His birthday was the 34th anniversary of the death of his great-grandfather, Albert, uncertain of how the Prince Consorts widow, Queen Victoria, would take the news of the birth, the Prince of Wales wrote to the Duke of York that the Queen had been rather distressed. Two days later, he again, I really think it would gratify her if you yourself proposed the name Albert to her. Consequently, he was baptised Albert Frederick Arthur George at St. Mary Magdalenes Church near Sandringham three months later, within the family, he was known informally as Bertie
17.
Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother
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Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the wife of King George VI and the mother of Queen Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon. She was the last Empress consort of India, born into a family of British nobility, she came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. The couple and their daughters embodied traditional ideas of family and public service and she undertook a variety of public engagements and became known as the Smiling Duchess because of her consistent public expression. In 1936, her husband became king when his brother, Edward VIII. She accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II, during the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British interests, after the war, her husbands health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51. Her elder daughter, aged 25, became the new queen, on the death of Queen Mary in 1953, Elizabeth became the most senior member of the British royal family after the sovereign, and was viewed as the family matriarch. In her later years, she was a popular member of the family. She continued a public life until just a few months before her death at the age of 101, seven weeks after the death of her younger daughter. Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon was the youngest daughter and the ninth of ten children of Claude Bowes-Lyon, Lord Glamis, other possible locations include Forbes House in Ham, London, the home of her maternal grandmother, Louisa Scott. Her birth was registered at Hitchin, Hertfordshire, near the Strathmores English country house, St Pauls Walden Bury, which was also given as her birthplace in the census the following year. She was christened there on 23 September 1900, in the parish church, All Saints. She spent much of her childhood at St Pauls Walden and at Glamis Castle and she was educated at home by a governess until the age of eight, and was fond of field sports, ponies and dogs. When she started school in London, she astonished her teachers by precociously beginning an essay with two Greek words from Xenophons Anabasis and her best subjects were literature and scripture. After returning to education under a German Jewish governess, Käthe Kübler. On her fourteenth birthday, Britain declared war on Germany, four of her brothers served in the army. Her elder brother, Fergus, an officer in the Black Watch Regiment, was killed in action at the Battle of Loos in 1915, another brother, Michael, was reported missing in action on 28 April 1917. Three weeks later, the family discovered he had captured after being wounded
18.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
19.
Sussex
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Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Brighton and Hove was created as an authority in 1997. Until then, Chichester was Sussexs only city, Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the south-west is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain, North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald. The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, in 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europes earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, in 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a territory and cultural region. It has had a police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the rich culture. Based on the emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the existence of Englands 39 historic counties. The name Sussex is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means of the South Saxons, the South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons is in a charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong, the New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map. Three United States counties, and a former division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex. The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a background, blazoned as Azure. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons
20.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
21.
Operation Sea Lion
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Operation Sea Lion was Nazi Germanys code name for the plan for an invasion of the United Kingdom during the Battle of Britain in the Second World War. A large number of barges were gathered together on the Channel coast, Adolf Hitler hoped for a negotiated peace with the UK, and made no preparations for amphibious assault on Britain until the Fall of France. At the time, the forces with experience of, or modern equipment for naval landings were the Japanese. In September 1939, the German invasion of Poland was a success, on 9 October, Hitlers Directive No. Reinicke spent five days on this study and set forth the following prerequisites, Eliminating or sealing off Royal Navy forces from the landing, destroying all Royal Navy units in the coastal zone. Preventing British submarine action against the landing fleet, the OKW considered the options and Hitlers 29 November Directive No. This directive remained in force in the first phase of the Battle of Britain, in December 1939, the German Army issued its own study paper and solicited opinions and input from both the Kriegsmarine and Luftwaffe. The paper outlined an assault on Englands eastern coast between The Wash and the River Thames by troops crossing the North Sea from ports in the Low Countries. The Kriegsmarine response was focused on pointing out the difficulties to be surmounted if invading England was to be a viable option. It could not envisage taking on the Royal Navy Home Fleet, Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, responded with a single-page letter in which he stated, combined operation having the objective of landing in England must be rejected. It could only be the act of an already victorious war against Britain as otherwise the preconditions for success of a combined operation would not be met. Germanys swift and successful occupation of France and the Low Countries gained control of the Channel coast, on 21 May 1940 Raeder met Hitler and raised the topic of invasion, but warned of the risks and expressed a preference for blockade by air, submarines and surface raiders. British parliamentarians still arguing for peace negotiations were defeated in the May 1940 War Cabinet Crisis, in a report presented on 30 June, the OKW Chief of Staff Alfred Jodl reviewed options to increase pressure on Britain to agree to a negotiated peace. The first priority was to eliminate the Royal Air Force and gain air supremacy, Intensified air attacks against shipping and the economy could affect food supplies and civilian morale in the long term. Reprisal attacks of terror bombing had the potential to cause quicker capitulation, at a meeting that day, OKW Chief of Staff General Franz Halder heard from Secretary of State Ernst von Weizsäcker that Hitler had turned his attention to Russia. On 1 July Halder met Admiral Otto Schniewind, and they shared views without understanding each others position, both thought that air superiority was needed first, and could make the invasion unnecessary. They agreed that minefields and U-boats could limit the threat posed by the Royal Navy, a Luftwaffe report presented to the OKW at a meeting on 11 July said that it would take 14 to 28 days to achieve air superiority. The meeting also heard that England was discussing an agreement with Russia, Hitler agreed with him that invasion would be a last resort
22.
Spike Milligan
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Terence Alan Milligan KBE was a British-Irish comedian, writer, musician, poet, playwright and actor. The son of an Irish father and an English mother, his life was spent in India where he was born. The majority of his life was spent in the United Kingdom. He disliked his first name and began to call himself Spike after hearing a band on Radio Luxembourg called Spike Jones and his City Slickers. Milligan was the co-creator, main writer and a principal cast member of The Goon Show, performing a range of roles including the popular Eccles and Minnie Bannister characters. He is also noted as a writer of comical verse, much of his poetry was written for children. He was the earliest born, longest lived and last surviving member of the Goons. Milligan was born in Ahmednagar, India, on 16 April 1918, the son of an Irish father, Captain Leo Alphonso Milligan, MSM, RA and his mother, Florence Mary Winifred Kettleband, was British. He spent his childhood in Pune and later in Rangoon, capital of British Burma and he was educated at the Convent of Jesus and Mary, Poona, and later at St Pauls High School, Rangoon. On leaving school he played the cornet and discovered jazz and he also joined the Young Communist League in opposition of Oswald Mosleys British Union of Fascists, who were gaining support near his home in south London. After returning from Burma, Milligan lived most of his life in the United Kingdom apart from overseas service in the British Army in the Royal Artillery during the Second World War. During the Second World War, Milligan served as a signaller in the 56th Heavy Regiment Royal Artillery, D Battery, the unit was equipped with the obsolete First World War era BL9. 2-inch howitzer and based in Bexhill on the south coast of England. The unit was later re-equipped with the BL7. 2-inch howitzer and saw action as part of the First Army in the North African campaign and then in the succeeding Italian campaign. Milligan was appointed lance bombardier and was about to be promoted to bombardier, subsequently hospitalised for a mortar wound to the right leg and shell shock, he was demoted by an unsympathetic commanding officer back to Gunner. After hospitalisation, Milligan drifted through a number of military jobs in Italy, eventually becoming a full-time entertainer. He played the guitar with a jazz and comedy group called The Bill Hall Trio, after being demobilised, Milligan remained in Italy playing with the trio but returned to Britain soon after. Milligan returned to jazz in the late 1940s and made a living with the Hall trio. He was also trying to break into the world of radio and his first success in radio was as writer for comedian Derek Roys show
23.
Bomber
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A bomber is a combat aircraft designed to attack ground and sea targets by dropping air-to-ground weaponry, firing torpedoes or deploying air-launched cruise missiles. In 1912, during the First Balkan War, Bulgarian Air Force pilot Christo Toprakchiev suggested the use of aircraft to drop bombs on Turkish positions, captain Simeon Petrov developed the idea and created several prototypes by adapting different types of grenades and increasing their payload. This is deemed to be the first use of an aircraft as a bomber, the first heavier-than-air aircraft purposely designed for bombing were the Italian Caproni Ca 30 and British Bristol T. B.8, both of 1913. The Bristol T. B.8 was an early British single engined biplane built by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, under the command of Charles Rumney Samson, a bombing attack on German gun batteries at Middelkerke, Belgium was executed on 25 November 1914. The dirigible, or airship, was developed in the early 20th century, early airships were prone to disaster, but slowly the airship became more dependable, with a more rigid structure and stronger skin. Prior to the outbreak of war, Zeppelins, a larger and these were the first long range, strategic bombers. Although the German air arm was strong, with a total of 123 airships by the end of the war, they were vulnerable to attack and engine failure, German airships inflicted little damage on all 51 raids, with 557 Britons killed and 1,358 injured. The German Navy lost 53 of its 73 airships, and the German Army lost 26 of its 50 ships, the Caproni Ca 30 was built by Gianni Caproni in Italy. It was a biplane with three 67 kW Gnome rotary engines and first flew in October 1914. Test flights revealed power to be insufficient and the engine layout unworkable, the improved design was bought by the Italian Army and it was delivered in quantity from August 1915. Bombing raids and interdiction operations were carried out by French. Sustained attacks with a view to interrupting the enemys railway communications, in conjunction with the main operations of the Allied Armies. The most important bombers used in World War I were the French Breguet 14, British de Havilland DH-4, German Albatros C. III, the Russian Sikorsky Ilya Muromets, was the first four-engine bomber to equip a dedicated strategic bombing unit during World War I. This heavy bomber was unrivaled in the stages of the war. With engine power as a limitation, combined with the desire for accuracy and other operational factors. By the start of the war included, dive bomber — specially strengthened for vertical diving attacks for greater accuracy. Light bomber, medium bomber and heavy bomber — subjective definitions based on size, torpedo bomber — specialized aircraft armed with torpedoes. Ground attack aircraft — aircraft used against targets on a such as troop or tank concentrations
24.
Rother
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Rother is a local government district in East Sussex, England. The district is named after the River Rother which flows within its boundaries, the District of Rother was formed on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by the merger of the Municipal Borough of Bexhill, the Municipal Borough of Rye and Battle Rural District. It is one of three districts within the county borough status and is the easternmost one, the other two being Lewes to the west, and Wealden in the centre. The Borough of Hastings lies surrounded by Rother, Rother District Council is elected every four years, with currently 38 councillors being elected at each election. Since 1983 the Conservatives have had a majority on the council, as of the last election in 2015 the council was composed of the following councillors, - Rother District Council offices are based in Bexhill-on-Sea. Bexhill has nine wards, the councillors represent the other 11 wards. Playden has a Parish Council whilst East Guldeford holds a Parish Meeting, for much of the course of the main river it constitutes the boundary between East Sussex and Kent, and is given the alternative title of the ’’Kent Ditch’’. Tributaries of the include the Rivers Dudwell, Tillingham and Brede. The district reaches the coast in the vicinity of Bexhill, Climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is Cfb, there are several main roads crossing the district. The major trunk road is the A21, London to Hastings road, it is joined by the A28 road from Ashford road near Hastings, long-distance footpaths include the Sussex Border Path, and the Saxon Shore Way, which links with the 1066 Country Walk. Major landmarks include Bodiam and Camber Castles, and Battle Abbey
25.
Car boot sale
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Car boot sales or boot fairs are a form of market in which private individuals come together to sell household and garden goods. They are popular in the United Kingdom, where they are referred to simply as car boots. The term refers to the selling of items from a cars boot, although a small proportion of sellers are professional traders selling goods, or indeed browsing for items to buy, most of the goods on sale are used personal possessions. Car boot sales are a way of attracting a group of people in one place to recycle useful. Car boot sales take place in the summer months. However, in a trend, indoor boot sales and all year hard-standing outdoor boot sales are now appearing in some parts of the UK. Items for sale are extremely varied, including for example antiques and collectables, car boot sales are also very popular in parts of Australia, and have a growing presence in mainland Europe. Car boot sales are held in a variety of locations, including the grounds of schools and other community buildings, usually they take place at a weekend, often on a Sunday. Sellers will typically pay a fee for their pitch. Usually the items are then unpacked onto folding trestle tables, a blanket or tarpaulin, entry to the general public is usually free, although sometimes a small admission charge is made. However, no source for this has been verified and the story continues to perpetuate. There are now large numbers of car boot sales across the UK. In the 2000s, various car boot sales websites have been established and these tend to be popular in winter when there are fewer normal outdoor car boot sales. In 2008, a charter, Real Deal, Working Together For Fake-Free Markets, was launched by the Trading Standards Institute in England. It is intended to help local authority Trading Standards staff, market operators, Trading Standards will, in return, commit to support the market operator and provide information to them in relation to the sale of infringing products. Guarantees are rarely sought or given at car boot sales and electrical items can rarely be tested at the sale site, although tracing a seller can be difficult, in the UK they are still obliged to abide by the Trade Descriptions Act. Garage sale Flea market Jumble sale Bazaar Give-away shop The Freecycle Network
26.
Heritage Lottery Fund
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The Heritage Lottery Fund was established in the United Kingdom under the National Lottery etc. The Fund opened for applications in 1994, although HLF is branded as though a body in its own right, it is administered by a pre-existing non-departmental public body – the Board of Trustees of the National Heritage Memorial Fund. The turnover of HLF is considerably larger than the work of the NHMF. Decisions about policies and large applications are made by the Trustees of the NHMF, there are also decision-making committees in the English regions, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Head office is in London, with offices in nine English regions and in Scotland, Wales. The Heritage Lottery Fund offers a range of different grant programmes from £3,000 to over £5 million
27.
Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library
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The Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library is a library located in Avery Hall on the Morningside Heights campus of Columbia University in the New York City. It is the largest architecture library in the world, the architectural, fine arts, and archival collections are non-circulating. The Ware Collection, mainly books on planning and real estate development. Avery Library is named for New York architect Henry Ogden Avery, a friend of William Robert Ware, soon after Averys death in 1890, his parents, Samuel Putnam Avery and Mary Ogden Avery, established the library as a memorial to their son. The Library now holds more than 400,000 volumes and receives approximately 900 periodicals, the librarys historic first-level reading room is a significant example of work by the New York architectural firm McKim, Mead, and White. The library building itself, also designed by McKim, Mead, in 2012, Avery, in partnership with the Museum of Modern Art, acquired the entire archive of Frank Lloyd Wright. Art Properties oversees the collection of art and cultural artifacts owned by Columbia University, more than 90% of the collection comes from donations and bequests by alumni, faculty, administrators, and students. Comprising more than 10,000 works of art in all media, displayed in buildings at each campus and held in storage, the art collection reflects all cultures and time periods. Among the larger collections of works by artists are photographs and prints by Andy Warhol and the largest collection of paintings, drawings. Works from the collection are available for consultation and curricular use. Art Properties also is responsible for the permanent installation of Chinese art in the Sackler Gallery, Low Library 207, proposed donations of works of art to the collection should be submitted to the Curator of Art Properties and will be reviewed by the Committee on Art Properties. Avery Classics is the book department of Avery Library. It contains approximately 40,000 printed volumes published over seven centuries, from Leon Battista Alberti’s De re aedificatoria to the recent limited edition volume, while an appointment is necessary, Avery Classics is open to the general public for research. Averys Drawings & Archives department is among the largest and most significant architectural archives in the world, the department also has major archives of architectural photography, including works by C. D. Arnold, George Cserna, Samuel H. Gottscho, and Joseph W. Molitor. Lastly, the department holds Antonio Lafreri’s Speculum Romanae Magnificentiae, Avery Library is also home to the Avery Index to Architectural Periodicals. The Index also includes a body of obituaries of architects. Until July 1,2009, the Getty Information Institute and later GRI co-produced the index, on that date, GRI transferred the database back to Columbia University, which continues to maintain it
28.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
29.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
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Barbarian
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A barbarian is a human who is perceived to be either uncivilized or primitive. Alternatively, they may instead be admired and romanticised as noble savages, in idiomatic or figurative usage, a barbarian may also be an individual reference to a brutal, cruel, warlike, insensitive person. The term originates from the Greek, βάρβαρος, in ancient times, the Greeks used it mostly for people of different cultures, but there are examples where one Greek city or state would use the word to attack another. In the early period and sometimes later, Greeks used it for the Turks. Comparable notions are found in non-European civilizations, notably China and Japan, during the Roman Empire, the Romans used the word barbarian for many people, such as the Germanics, Celts, Gauls, Iberians, Thracians, Parthians and Sarmatians. The Ancient Greek name βάρβαρος, barbarian, was an antonym for πολίτης, the earliest attested form of the word is the Mycenaean Greek
31.
Civilization
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Historically, a civilization was a so-called advanced culture in contrast to more supposedly primitive cultures. As an uncountable noun, civilization also refers to the process of a society developing into a centralized, urbanized, stratified structure, Civilization concentrates power, extending human control over the rest of nature, including over other human beings. The earlier neolithic technology and lifestyle was established first in the Middle East, and later in the Yangtze and Yellow River basins in China, similar pre-civilized neolithic revolutions also began independently from 7,000 BCE in such places as northwestern South America and Mesoamerica. These were among the six civilizations worldwide that arose independently, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BCE, with civilizations developing from 6,500 years ago. Towards the end of the Neolithic period, various elitist Chalcolithic civilizations began to rise in various cradles from around 3300 BCE. Chalcolithic civilizations, as defined above, also developed in Pre-Columbian Americas and, despite an early start in Egypt, Axum and Kush, the English word civilization comes from the 16th-century French civilisé, from Latin civilis, related to civis and civitas. The fundamental treatise is Norbert Eliass The Civilizing Process, which traces social mores from medieval courtly society to the Early Modern period, in The Philosophy of Civilization, Albert Schweitzer outlines two opinions, one purely material and the other material and ethical. Adjectives like civility developed in the mid-16th century, the abstract noun civilization, meaning civilized condition, came in the 1760s, again from French. The word was therefore opposed to barbarism or rudeness, in the pursuit of progress characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, during the French revolution, civilization was used in the singular, never in the plural and this is still the case in French. The use of civilizations as a noun was in occasional use in the 19th century. Only in this sense does it become possible to speak of a medieval civilization. Already in the 18th century, civilization was not always seen as an improvement, one historically important distinction between culture and civilization is from the writings of Rousseau, particularly his work about education, Emile. From this, a new approach was developed, especially in Germany, first by Johann Gottfried Herder and this sees cultures as natural organisms, not defined by conscious, rational, deliberative acts, but a kind of pre-rational folk spirit. Civilization, in contrast, though more rational and more successful in material progress, is unnatural and leads to vices of social life such as guile, hypocrisy, envy and avarice. In World War II, Leo Strauss, having fled Germany, argued in New York that this opinion of civilization was behind Nazism, Social scientists such as V. Gordon Childe have named a number of traits that distinguish a civilization from other kinds of society. Andrew Nikiforuk argues that civilizations relied on shackled human muscle and it took the energy of slaves to plant crops, clothe emperors, and build cities and considers slavery to be a common feature of pre-modern civilizations. All civilizations have depended on agriculture for subsistence, grain farms can result in accumulated storage and a surplus of food, particularly when people use intensive agricultural techniques such as artificial fertilization, irrigation and crop rotation
32.
George Bernard Shaw
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He wrote more than sixty plays, including major works such as Man and Superman, Pygmalion and Saint Joan. With a range incorporating both contemporary satire and historical allegory, Shaw became the leading dramatist of his generation, born in Dublin, Shaw moved to London in 1873, where he established himself as a writer and novelist. By the mid-1880s he was a theatre and music critic. Following a political awakening, he joined the gradualist Fabian Society, Shaw had been writing plays for years before his first public success, 1894s Arms and the Man. Influenced by Henrik Ibsen, he sought to introduce a new realism into English-language drama, using his plays as vehicles to disseminate his political, social and religious ideas. By the early twentieth century his reputation as a dramatist was secured with a series of critical and popular successes that included Major Barbara, The Doctors Dilemma and Caesar, Shaws expressed views were often contentious, he promoted eugenics and alphabet reform while opposing vaccination and organised religion. He courted unpopularity by denouncing both sides in the First World War as equally culpable and he castigated British policy on Ireland in the postwar period, and became a citizen of the Irish Free State in 1934, maintaining dual citizenship. He was prolific, finishing during the years a series of often ambitious plays which achieved varying degrees of popular success. Since Shaws death, opinion has varied about his works and he has at times been rated as second only to William Shakespeare among English-language dramatists, analysts recognise his extensive influence on generations of playwrights. The word Shavian has entered the language as encapsulating Shaws ideas, Shaw was born at 3 Upper Synge Street in Portobello, a lower-middle-class part of Dublin. He was the youngest child and only son of George Carr Shaw and his elder siblings were Lucinda Frances and Elinor Agnes. The Shaw family was of English descent and belonged to the dominant Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland, George Carr Shaw and his relatives secured him a sinecure in the civil service, from which he was pensioned off in the early 1850s, thereafter he worked irregularly as a corn merchant. In 1852 he married Bessie Gurly, in the view of Shaws biographer Michael Holroyd she married to escape a tyrannical great-aunt, if, as Holroyd and others surmise, Georges motives were mercenary, then he was disappointed, as Bessie brought him little of her familys money. She came to despise her ineffectual and often drunken husband, with whom she shared what their son later described as a life of shabby-genteel poverty. By the time of Shaws birth, his mother had become close to George John Lee, Shaw retained a lifelong obsession that Lee might have been his biological father, there is no consensus among Shavian scholars on the likelihood of this. The young Shaw suffered no harshness from his mother, but he recalled that her indifference. He found solace in the music that abounded in the house, Lee was a conductor and teacher of singing, Bessie had a fine mezzo-soprano voice and was much influenced by Lees unorthodox method of vocal production. The Shaws house was filled with music, with frequent gatherings of singers and players
33.
Hugh Casson
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Sir Hugh Maxwell Casson CH KCVO PRA RDI was a British architect, interior designer, artist, and writer and broadcaster on 20th-century design. He was the director of architecture at the 1951 Festival of Britain on Londons South Bank and he was the nephew of actor, Sir Lewis Casson. Casson studied at Eastbourne College in East Sussex, then St Johns College, Cambridge, before the Second World War, he divided his time between teaching at the Cambridge School of Architecture and working in the London office of his Cambridge tutor, architect Christopher Nicholson. He wrote the book New Sights of London in 1938 for London Transport, championing modern architecture within reach of London and he does not mince his words, commented the Architect and Building News on the cover. During the war, he worked in the Camouflage Service of the Air Ministry, for example, the Modernist design of the Royal Festival Hall was led by a 39-year-old, Leslie Martin. Cassons Festival achievements led to his being knighted in 1952, after the war, and alongside his Festival work, Casson went into partnership with young architect Neville Conder. This latter project lasted some 30 years, a close friend of the British royal family, Casson designed the interior of the royal yacht Britannia and is also credited with having taught Charles, Prince of Wales to paint in watercolours. He was elected to the Royal Academy in 1970, and was its President from 1976 to 1984, in 1978, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Corresponding member. In the 1980s Casson became a presenter, with his own series, Personal Pleasures with Sir Hugh Casson. Casson supplied watercolour illustrations for a new edition of Sir John Betjemans verse autobiography Summoned by Bells, in the 1985 New Years Honours List, Casson was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour. The Victoria & Albert Museum houses Cassons archives, and materials can be consulted at Blythe House,23 Blythe Road, the Royal Academy awards The Hugh Casson Drawing Prize annually for an original work on paper in any medium, where the emphasis is clearly on drawing. Casson is commemorated by Private Eye′s Sir Hugh Casson Award, recognising the Worst New Building of the Year in the Nooks, eulogy, Hugh Casson 1910–1999 by Peter Davey, in Architectural Review, October 1999. Archives of Sir Hugh Casson and Margaret Macdonald Casson, official website for Sir Hugh Casson Works by Sir Hugh Casson at Thompsons Gallery
34.
John Betjeman
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Sir John Betjeman, CBE was an English poet, writer, and broadcaster who described himself in Whos Who as a poet and hack. He was Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom from 1972 until his death and he was a founding member of the Victorian Society and a passionate defender of Victorian architecture. He began his career as a journalist and ended it as one of the most popular British Poets Laureate and his parents, Mabel and Ernest Betjemann, had a family firm at 34–42 Pentonville Road which manufactured the kind of ornamental household furniture and gadgets distinctive to Victorians. The family name was changed to the less German-looking Betjeman during the First World War, Betjeman was baptised at St Annes Church, Highgate Rise, a 19th-century church at the foot of Highgate West Hill. The family lived at Parliament Hill Mansions in the Lissenden Gardens private estate in Highgate in north London, in 1909, the Betjemanns moved half a mile north to more opulent Highgate. Betjemans early schooling was at the local Byron House and Highgate School, after this, he boarded at the Dragon School preparatory school in North Oxford and Marlborough College, a public school in Wiltshire. In his penultimate year, he joined the secret Society of Amici in which he was a contemporary of both Louis MacNeice and Graham Shepard and he founded The Heretick, a satirical magazine that lampooned Marlboroughs obsession with sport. While at school, his exposure to the works of Arthur Machen won him over to High Church Anglicanism, Betjeman entered the University of Oxford with difficulty, having failed the mathematics portion of the universitys matriculation exam, Responsions. He was, however, admitted as a commoner at Magdalen College and entered the newly created School of English Language, at Oxford, Betjeman made little use of the academic opportunities. His tutor, a young C. S. Lewis, regarded him as an idle prig and Betjeman in turn considered Lewis unfriendly, demanding, at Oxford he was a friend of Maurice Bowra, later to be Warden of Wadham. Betjeman had a poem published in Isis, the university magazine and his first book of poems was privately printed with the help of fellow student Edward James. Much of this period of his life is recorded in his verse autobiography Summoned by Bells published in 1960. In Hilary term 1928, Betjeman failed Divinity for the second time and he had to leave the university for the Trinity term to prepare for a retake of the exam, he was then allowed to return in October. Betjeman then wrote to the Secretary of the Tutorial Board at Magdalen, lee, asking to be entered for the Pass School, a set of examinations taken on rare occasions by undergraduates who are deemed unlikely to achieve an honours degree. Permission to sit the Pass School was granted, Betjeman famously decided to offer a paper in Welsh. Osbert Lancaster tells the story that a tutor came by train twice a week from Aberystwyth to teach Betjeman, however, Jesus College had a number of Welsh tutors who more probably would have taught him. Betjeman finally had to leave at the end of the Michaelmas term,1928, Betjeman did pass his Divinity examination on his third try but was sent down after failing the Pass School. He had achieved a result in only one of the three required papers
35.
Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall
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Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, GCVO, CSM, PC, is the second wife of Charles, Prince of Wales, who is the eldest child and heir apparent of Queen Elizabeth II. Instead of using the title of Princess of Wales, she uses the title Duchess of Cornwall, in Scotland, she is known as the Duchess of Rothesay. Camilla was born into a family as the eldest child of Major Bruce Shand and his wife, the Honourable Rosalind Cubitt. She was raised in East Sussex and South Kensington, and was educated in England, Switzerland, subsequently, she worked for different firms based in central London, most notably the decorating firm Sibyl Colefax & John Fowler. In 1973, Camilla married British Army officer Andrew Parker Bowles, for many years, Camilla was in a relationship with the Prince of Wales before and after their former marriages. The relationship became highly publicised in the media and attracted worldwide scrutiny, as the Duchess of Cornwall, Camilla assists the Prince of Wales on his official duties. She is also the patron, president and a member of numerous charities, since 1994, she has taken action on osteoporosis, which has earned her honours and awards. She has also raised awareness in areas including rape and sexual abuse, literacy and poverty, Camilla Rosemary Shand was born at Kings College Hospital, London, on 17 July 1947 at 7,00 am. She grew up in the Laines, a house located in Plumpton, East Sussex. Her parents were British Army officer turned businessman Major Bruce Shand and his wife, the Hon. Rosalind and she has one younger sister, Annabel Elliot, and had a younger brother, Mark Shand. Her maternal great-grandmother, Alice Keppel, was a mistress of King Edward VII from 1898 to 1910, on 1 November 1947, Camilla was baptised at Firle Church, Sussex. Her godparents were Hon. Henry Cubitt, Major Neil Speke, Mrs Heathcoat-Amory, Mrs Lombard Hobson, Camillas mother worked for an adoption agency, while her father had different business interests after retiring from the army. He was most notably a partner in Block, Grey and Block, during her childhood years, Camilla became an avid reader due to the influence of her father, who read to her frequently. She grew up with dogs and cats, and, at a young age, according to her, childhood was perfect in every way. Biographer Gyles Brandreth describes her background and childhood, Camilla is often described as having had an Enid Blyton sort of Childhood, in fact, it was much grander than that. The Shands had position and they had help—help in the house, help in the garden and they opened their garden for the local Conservative Party Association summer fête. At the age of five, Camilla was sent to Dumbrells and she left Dumbrells aged ten to attend Queens Gate School in Queens Gate, South Kensington. Her classmates at Queens Gate knew her as Milla, her pupils included the singer Twinkle
36.
Earl De La Warr
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Earl De La Warr /ˈdɛləwɛər/ is a title in the Peerage of Great Britain. It was created in 1761 for John West, 7th Baron De La Warr. The barony De La Warr is of the creation, however, it bears the precedence of the first creation,1299. The family seat is Buckhurst Park, near Withyham, Sussex, the name de La Warr is from Sussex and of Anglo-Norman origin. It came probably from La Guerre, a Norman lieu-dit and this toponymic could derive from the Latin word ager, from the Breton gwern or from the Late Latin warectum. The toponyms Gara, Gaire also appear in old texts cited by Lucien Musset and it could also be linked with a patronymic from the Old Norse verr. The barony and earldom are both pronounced De La Ware, as in the American state of Delaware. The barony De La Warr is of the creation, however, it bears the precedence of the first creation,1299. The precise legal situation concerning the creation is murky. This is such a case, because William West was heir male, because the original barony was created by writ, descent is presumed to be to the heir general, and therefore it fell into abeyance between the daughters of Sir Owen West. The second creation has been viewed in at least three ways, As a means of placing beyond dispute an inheritance that should have gone to the male in the first place. The act concerning precedence is understood as rectifying the side effect this had of altering the precedence, accordingly, some writers ignore the second creation when numbering, thus Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr, is sometimes called the 12th Baron De La Warr. As an extraordinary act resolving an important estate that should not be left in abeyance, in this case, the previous barony was intended to be extinguished and the act altering precedence is difficult to understand other than as political expediency. As a part of an effort to solve complex problems of inheritance case by case. In United States history books, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr is often named simply as Lord Delaware and he served as governor of the Jamestown Colony in Virginia, and the Delaware Bay was named after him. The state of Delaware, the Delaware River, and the Delaware Indian tribe were so called after the bay, many other American counties, townships, and the like derive their names directly or indirectly from this connection. Notable descendants of George Sackville-West, 5th Earl De La Warr include the authors Lady Margaret Sackville, Vita Sackville-West, another member of the West family was William Cornwallis-West, who was the grandson of the Hon. Frederick West, youngest son of the second Earl. Cornwallis-West was the father of George Cornwallis-West, Daisy, Princess of Pless, the heir apparents heir apparent is his son Hon. William Lionel Robert Sackville
37.
Eddie Izzard
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Edward John Eddie Izzard is an English stand-up comedian, actor, writer and political activist. His comedic style takes the form of rambling, whimsical monologue and he has also worked as a voice actor in The Wild, Igor, The Chronicles of Narnia, Prince Caspian, and Cars 2. Izzard has cited his main role model as Monty Python. In 2009, he completed 43 marathons in 51 days for Sport Relief despite having no history of long-distance running. He has won awards including a Primetime Emmy Award for Individual Performance in a Variety or Music Program for his comedy special Dress to Kill. Izzards website won the Yahoo Peoples Choice Award and earned the Webby Award, Izzard was born on 7 February 1962, in the Colony of Aden, the younger son of English parents. His mother, Dorothy Ella, was a midwife and nurse, his father, a year after Izzards birth, the family moved to Bangor, County Down, and lived there until he was five. The family then moved to Skewen, West Glamorgan, where his mother died of cancer when Izzard was six and his brother, Izzard and his brother built a model railway to occupy their time while their mother was ill, it was donated to the Bexhill Museum in 2016. The Izzard family name is of French Huguenot descent, following his mothers death, Izzard attended boarding schools such as St Johns School in Porthcawl, Mid Glamorgan, as well as St Bedes Prep School and Eastbourne College in East Sussex. He said that he knew he was a person at the age of four, after watching another boy being forced to wear a dress by his sisters. Izzard began to toy with comedy at the University of Sheffield, after leaving his accountancy degree course, he and Ballard took their act to the streets, often in Covent Garden. After his split with Ballard, Izzard spent a deal of the early 1980s working as a street performer in Europe. He then moved his act into the stand-up comedy venues of Britain and his first gig was at the Banana Cabaret in Balham, London. In 1987, he made his first stage appearance at the Comedy Store in London and he refined his material throughout the 1980s, and in the early 1990s he finally began earning some measure of recognition through his improvisation, in part at his own club Raging Bull in Soho. Izzard has performed stand-up in French, as well as German, Spanish, Russian and Arabic, in 1994, Izzard made his West End drama debut as the lead in the world premiere of David Mamets The Cryptogram with Lindsay Duncan, in the production at Londons Comedy Theatre. The success of that led to his second starring role in David Beairds black comedy 900 Oneonta. In 1995, he portrayed the character in Christopher Marlowes Edward II. In 1998 Izzard appeared briefly on stage with the Monty Python team in The American Film Institutes Tribute to Monty Python
38.
Antony Gormley
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Sir Antony Mark David Gormley, OBE is a British sculptor. In 2008 The Daily Telegraph ranked Gormley number 4 in their list of the 100 most powerful people in British culture, Gormley grew up in a Roman Catholic family living in Hampstead Garden Suburb. He attended Ampleforth College a Benedictine boarding school in Yorkshire, before reading archaeology, anthropology and he travelled to India and Sri Lanka to learn more about Buddhism between 1971 and 1974. While at the Slade, he met Vicken Parsons, who was to become his assistant and, in 1980, his wife, Gormley said of her, For the first 15 years she was my primary assistant. She did all of the body moulding, I think there are a lot of myths that art is made by, usually, lone men. I just feel so lucky and so blessed really, that I have such a supporter, and lover. The couple have three children, a daughter and two sons, Gormleys career began with a solo exhibition at the Whitechapel Art Gallery in 1981. Almost all his work takes the body as its subject. Gormley describes his work as an attempt to materialise the place at the side of appearance where we all live. Many of his works are based on moulds taken from his own body, or the closest experience of matter that I will ever have and the only part of the material world that I live inside. His work attempts to treat the body not as an object but a place, the work is not symbolic but indexical – a trace of a real event of a real body in time. The 2006 Sydney Biennale featured Gormleys Asian Field, an installation of 180,000 small clay figurines crafted by 350 Chinese villagers in five days from 100 tons of red clay, the appropriation of others works caused minor controversy and some of the figurines were stolen in protest. Also in 2006, the burning of Gormleys 25-metre high The Waste Man formed the zenith of the Margate Exodus, in this process of looking and finding, or looking and seeking, one perhaps re-assess ones own position in the world and becomes aware of ones status of embedment. In July 2009, Gormley presented One & Other, a Fourth Plinth commission and this living art happening initially attracted much media attention. It even became a topic of discussion on the long-running BBC radio drama series The Archers, in 2012, Gormley began making sculptures that could be termed as digital-cubism. Through solid steel cubes the human form is rendered into an array of different postures and poses, in March 2014 Gormley appeared in the BBC Four series What Do Artists Do All Day. In an episode which followed him and his team in their Kings Cross studio, the work was shown at the Zentrum Paul Klee in Bern. In May 2015 five life-sized sculptures, Land, were placed near the centre and they are at Lowsonford, Lundy, Saddell Bay, the Martello Tower, and Clavell Tower
39.
Chermayeff & Geismar & Haviv
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Chermayeff & Geismar & Haviv is a New York-based branding and graphic design firm. It was founded in 1957 by Yale graduates Ivan Chermayeff and Tom Geismar, Ivan Chermayeff and Thomas Geismar were awarded the AIGA Medal in 1979. In 2006, designer Sagi Haviv became the partner at the firm. In 2013 Havivs name was added to the masthead and the became known as Chermayeff & Geismar & Haviv. Designer Mackey Saturday joined the firm as a principal in 2016, in 2008, Haviv, Chermayeff and Geismar released a new identity for the Library of Congress, and in 2009 redesigned the logo of the fashion brand Armani Exchange. In 2008, the new Star-Spangled Banner exhibit designed by the firm opened at the Smithsonian National Museum of American History in Washington, D. C. In 2011 Sagi Haviv, Tom Geismar and Ivan Chermayeff co-authored the book Identify, the book was published by Print magazines book imprint. In October 2014 the National Design Award for Lifetime Achievement was awarded to Tom Geismar and Ivan Chermayeff by the Smithsonian’s Cooper-Hewitt, list of AIGA medalists Serge Chermayeff Robert Brownjohn Peter Chermayeff LLC Chermayeff & Geismar & Haviv official website Excerpt of Identify in Fast Co
40.
Saltdean Lido
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Saltdean Lido at Saltdean Park Road, Saltdean, in the city of Brighton and Hove, is an Art Deco Lido designed by architect R. W. H. Originally listed at Grade II by English Heritage for its architectural and historical importance, the Art Deco design has been described by The Daily Telegraph as particularly glorious, with its elegant, curved lines – rather like a stately ocean liner. The pool measures 140 by 66 feet and can accommodate 500 bathers, after an extensive campaign by local residents, the Save Saltdean Lido Campaign successfully lobbied the freeholders of the site to stop housing development and take back the lease on the site. Following a 9 month procurement process the Saltdean Lido Community Interest Company will take ownership of a 60-year lease in 2014, the lido was built in 1937-38 to designs by the architect Richard Jones, and was hailed as the most innovative design of its type in Britain. With its tea terrace, sun deck, café, perched on the roof and distinctive curved wings at either end. In 1958, Butlins attempted to buy the derelict lido for development, in 1998, the lido was reopened by Sports Minister Tony Banks. The restoration was achieved through a public and private sector partnership costing £2 million, Banks revealed he had a personal link to the Grade II listed building through his mother, who used to visit it during the Second World War. He said, Open air sites are not able to attract National Lottery funding, the reopening ceremony came two days after the lido let in its first visitors for three years. Such buildings are defined as being particularly important, on 30 May 2012, it was announced that the ownership of the Lido would be handed back by leaseholder Dennis Audley to Brighton & Hove City Council after legal discussions. Grade II* listed buildings in Brighton and Hove The De La Warr Pavilion Art Deco Tom Dyckhoff and its summer, Take me to your lido. Liquid assets, the lidos and open air swimming pools of Britain
41.
Embassy Court
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Embassy Court is an 11-storey block of luxury flats on the seafront in Brighton, part of the English city of Brighton and Hove. It has been listed at Grade II* by English Heritage and its fortunes changed dramatically from the 1970s, though, as a succession of complex court cases set leaseholders, freeholders and landlords against each other while the building rotted. By the start of the 21st century it was an embarrassing eyesore which was close to being demolished, proposals to refurbish the block came to nothing until the court cases concluded in 2004 and Sir Terence Conrans architectural practice was brought in. Owners included Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor and the drag king Vesta Tilley, in 1930 the site was chosen for redevelopment and the building and its grounds were demolished. Nothing took its place immediately, though, except for a temporary racetrack, Embassy Court was completed in 1935. These occupied the top floor, the other ten storeys had seven flats each, each flat was all-electric, including the space heating in the form of ceiling panels. A constant hot water supply was achieved by generating and storing it in an energy storage system in the basement. Coates commented, Old ideas have been discarded and a new building has arisen to greet a new age that thinks of happiness in terms of health. Writing in 1935, in a piece accompanied by an illustration of Embassy Court-style buildings along Kings Road. Has shown us the way to build for the new age, along our waterfront new buildings such as this must come. All 72 flats were rented out rather than sold to owner-occupiers. Rents varied between £150 and £500 per year—expensive for that time, and similar to the cost of a house in Brighton, the ground-floor bank branch lasted until February 1948, when it was converted into a restaurant, this was only in use for five years. Major renovations were carried out in the 1960s, new doors, windows. The buildings high-class status declined from the 1970s when the freehold changed hands frequently, many leaseholders built up long-term rent arrears, and lack of clarity over ownership made raising money for refurbishment difficult. Embassy Court gradually fell into disrepair, the freeholder until 1997 was a company called Portvale, it was put into liquidation when a court case resulted in a demand to spend £1.5 million on maintenance. The Crown Estate Commissioners then took possession of the freehold, but Embassy Courts leaseholders established a company, Bluestorm Ltd, to buy it, the first plans for refurbishing the building were announced in April 1998. The leaseholders association commissioned local architects Alan Phillips and Matthew Lloyd to undertake design work and Ove Arup, work was expected to cost £3 million to £4 million, of which a grant from the Governments Single Regeneration Budget would have covered £1.4 million. The project depended on the Sanctuary Housing Association acquiring the leases to 26 flats, the proposed work was described as a complete refurbishment and would have lasted until 2000
42.
BBC News
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BBC News is an operational business division of the British Broadcasting Corporation responsible for the gathering and broadcasting of news and current affairs. The department is the worlds largest broadcast news organisation and generates about 120 hours of radio and television output each day, the service maintains 50 foreign news bureaux with more than 250 correspondents around the world. James Harding has been Director of News and Current Affairs since April 2013, the departments annual budget is in excess of £350 million, it has 3,500 staff,2,000 of whom are journalists. BBC News domestic, global and online news divisions are housed within the largest live newsroom in Europe, parliamentary coverage is produced and broadcast from studios in Millbank in London. Through the BBC English Regions, the BBC also has regional centres across England, as well as national news centres in Northern Ireland, Scotland, all nations and English regions produce their own local news programmes and other current affairs and sport programmes. As with all media outlets, though, it has been accused of political bias from across the political spectrum. The British Broadcasting Company broadcast its first radio bulletin from radio station 2LO on 14 November 1922, on Easter weekend in 1930, this reliance on newspaper wire services left the radio news service with no information to report. The BBC gradually gained the right to edit the copy and, in 1934, however, it could not broadcast news before 6 PM until World War II. Gaumont British and Movietone cinema newsreels had been broadcast on the TV service since 1936, a weekly Childrens Newsreel was inaugurated on 23 April 1950, to around 350,000 receivers. The network began simulcasting its radio news on television in 1946, televised bulletins began on 5 July 1954, broadcast from leased studios within Alexandra Palace in London. The publics interest in television and live events was stimulated by Elizabeth IIs coronation in 1953 and it is estimated that up to 27 million people viewed the programme in the UK, overtaking radios audience of 12 million for the first time. Those live pictures were fed from 21 cameras in central London to Alexandra Palace for transmission and that year, there were around two million TV Licences held in the UK, rising to over three million the following year, and four and a half million by 1955. This was then followed by the customary Television Newsreel with a commentary by John Snagge. It was revealed that this had been due to producers fearing a newsreader with visible facial movements would distract the viewer from the story. On-screen newsreaders were finally introduced a year later in 1955 – Kenneth Kendall, Robert Dougall, mainstream television production had started to move out of Alexandra Palace in 1950 to larger premises – mainly at Lime Grove Studios in Shepherds Bush, west London – taking Current Affairs with it. It was from here that the first Panorama, a new programme, was transmitted on 11 November 1953. On 28 October 1957, the Today programme, a radio programme, was launched in central London on the Home Service. In 1958, Hugh Carleton Greene became head of News and Current Affairs and he set up a BBC study group whose findings, published in 1959, were critical of what the television news operation had become under his predecessor, Tahu Hole
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The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
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Deyan Sudjic
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Deyan Sudjic, OBE is a British writer and broadcaster. He is the director of the Design Museum, London and he grew up in Acton, London, his parents spoke Serbo-Croat at home. His father worked for the BBC World Service, in 1970 he contributed to Schoolkids OZ, the subject of an obscenity trial the following year. Sudjic was educated at Latymer Upper School, at the time a Direct Grant Grammar School, based in Hammersmith in West London, followed by the University of Edinburgh. In 1983, he co-founded, with Peter Murray and Simon Esterson, Blueprint, from 2000-04, he was the editor of Domus. He was the director of Glasgows UK City of Architecture and Design program in 1999, and he was also a juror for the design of London Aquatics Centre, which was designed and built for the 2012 Olympics by architect Dame Zaha Hadid. Sudjic took up his post as director of the Design Museum in 2006, in 2012, Sudjic was awarded an honorary degree from the University for the Creative Arts. An act that is questioned that if it comes from the architect or from the powerful people, during the analysis, Sudjic asks himself, why all the great projects are distribute between a small groups of architects, with out being necessarily submitted in competitions and public opinion. Such historical description goes through some politicians who construct buildings with political order, the façade that is constructed, is just a staging made by clients who wants us to believe that buildings are from the architect itself. Their work depends on their engagement with the context of the world. And how all the projects are subjected by all the majesties, in order to remain in the collective imaginary throughout time, cult Heroes, How To Be Famous For More Than Fifteen Minutes. Norman Foster and the British Museum, the Edifice Complex, How the Rich and Powerful Shape the World. The Language of Things, Understanding the World of Desirable Objects, norman Foster, A Life in Architecture. Ettore Sottsass and the Poetry of Things, studio Banana TV interview Deyan Sudjic Deyan Sudjic on modernism Book Review by Amanda Levete Deyan Sudjic OBE, Doctor of Letters
