1.
Regular polygon
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In Euclidean geometry, a regular polygon is a polygon that is equiangular and equilateral. Regular polygons may be convex or star, in the limit, a sequence of regular polygons with an increasing number of sides becomes a circle, if the perimeter is fixed, or a regular apeirogon, if the edge length is fixed. These properties apply to all regular polygons, whether convex or star, a regular n-sided polygon has rotational symmetry of order n. All vertices of a regular polygon lie on a common circle and that is, a regular polygon is a cyclic polygon. Together with the property of equal-length sides, this implies that every regular polygon also has a circle or incircle that is tangent to every side at the midpoint. Thus a regular polygon is a tangential polygon, a regular n-sided polygon can be constructed with compass and straightedge if and only if the odd prime factors of n are distinct Fermat primes. The symmetry group of a regular polygon is dihedral group Dn, D2, D3. It consists of the rotations in Cn, together with reflection symmetry in n axes that pass through the center, if n is even then half of these axes pass through two opposite vertices, and the other half through the midpoint of opposite sides. If n is odd then all pass through a vertex. All regular simple polygons are convex and those having the same number of sides are also similar. An n-sided convex regular polygon is denoted by its Schläfli symbol, for n <3 we have two degenerate cases, Monogon, degenerate in ordinary space. Digon, a line segment, degenerate in ordinary space. In certain contexts all the polygons considered will be regular, in such circumstances it is customary to drop the prefix regular. For instance, all the faces of uniform polyhedra must be regular, for n >2 the number of diagonals is n 2, i. e.0,2,5,9. for a triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon. The diagonals divide the polygon into 1,4,11,24, for a regular n-gon inscribed in a unit-radius circle, the product of the distances from a given vertex to all other vertices equals n. For a regular simple n-gon with circumradius R and distances di from a point in the plane to the vertices. For a regular n-gon, the sum of the distances from any interior point to the n sides is n times the apothem. This is a generalization of Vivianis theorem for the n=3 case, the sum of the perpendiculars from a regular n-gons vertices to any line tangent to the circumcircle equals n times the circumradius
2.
Edge (geometry)
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For edge in graph theory, see Edge In geometry, an edge is a particular type of line segment joining two vertices in a polygon, polyhedron, or higher-dimensional polytope. In a polygon, an edge is a segment on the boundary. In a polyhedron or more generally a polytope, an edge is a segment where two faces meet. A segment joining two vertices while passing through the interior or exterior is not an edge but instead is called a diagonal. In graph theory, an edge is an abstract object connecting two vertices, unlike polygon and polyhedron edges which have a concrete geometric representation as a line segment. However, any polyhedron can be represented by its skeleton or edge-skeleton, conversely, the graphs that are skeletons of three-dimensional polyhedra can be characterized by Steinitzs theorem as being exactly the 3-vertex-connected planar graphs. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of edges is 2 less than the sum of the numbers of vertices and faces, for example, a cube has 8 vertices and 6 faces, and hence 12 edges. In a polygon, two edges meet at each vertex, more generally, by Balinskis theorem, at least d edges meet at every vertex of a convex polytope. Similarly, in a polyhedron, exactly two faces meet at every edge, while in higher dimensional polytopes three or more two-dimensional faces meet at every edge. Thus, the edges of a polygon are its facets, the edges of a 3-dimensional convex polyhedron are its ridges, archived from the original on 4 February 2007
3.
Vertex (geometry)
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In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
4.
Dihedral group
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In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, which includes rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry. The notation for the group of order n differs in geometry. In geometry, Dn or Dihn refers to the symmetries of the n-gon, in abstract algebra, Dn refers to the dihedral group of order n. The geometric convention is used in this article, a regular polygon with n sides has 2 n different symmetries, n rotational symmetries and n reflection symmetries. Usually, we take n ≥3 here. The associated rotations and reflections make up the dihedral group D n, if n is odd, each axis of symmetry connects the midpoint of one side to the opposite vertex. If n is even, there are n/2 axes of symmetry connecting the midpoints of opposite sides, in either case, there are n axes of symmetry and 2 n elements in the symmetry group. Reflecting in one axis of symmetry followed by reflecting in another axis of symmetry produces a rotation through twice the angle between the axes, as with any geometric object, the composition of two symmetries of a regular polygon is again a symmetry of this object. With composition of symmetries to produce another as the binary operation, the following Cayley table shows the effect of composition in the group D3. R0 denotes the identity, r1 and r2 denote counterclockwise rotations by 120° and 240° respectively, for example, s2s1 = r1, because the reflection s1 followed by the reflection s2 results in a rotation of 120°. The order of elements denoting the composition is right to left, the composition operation is not commutative. In all cases, addition and subtraction of subscripts are to be performed using modular arithmetic with modulus n, if we center the regular polygon at the origin, then elements of the dihedral group act as linear transformations of the plane. This lets us represent elements of Dn as matrices, with composition being matrix multiplication and this is an example of a group representation. For example, the elements of the group D4 can be represented by the eight matrices. In general, the matrices for elements of Dn have the following form, rk is a rotation matrix, expressing a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of 2πk/n. Sk is a reflection across a line makes an angle of πk/n with the x-axis. Further equivalent definitions of Dn are, D1 is isomorphic to Z2, D2 is isomorphic to K4, the Klein four-group. D1 and D2 are exceptional in that, D1 and D2 are the only abelian dihedral groups, Dn is a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn for n ≥3
5.
Internal and external angles
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In geometry, an angle of a polygon is formed by two sides of the polygon that share an endpoint. For a simple polygon, regardless of whether it is convex or non-convex, a polygon has exactly one internal angle per vertex. If every internal angle of a polygon is less than 180°. In contrast, an angle is an angle formed by one side of a simple polygon. The sum of the angle and the external angle on the same vertex is 180°. The sum of all the angles of a simple polygon is 180° where n is the number of sides. The formula can be proved using induction and starting with a triangle for which the angle sum is 180°. The sum of the angles of any simple convex or non-convex polygon is 360°. The interior angle concept can be extended in a consistent way to crossed polygons such as star polygons by using the concept of directed angles, in other words, 360k° represents the sum of all the exterior angles. For example, for convex and concave polygons k =1, since the exterior angle sum is 360°
6.
Degree (angle)
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A degree, usually denoted by °, is a measurement of a plane angle, defined so that a full rotation is 360 degrees. It is not an SI unit, as the SI unit of measure is the radian. Because a full rotation equals 2π radians, one degree is equivalent to π/180 radians, the original motivation for choosing the degree as a unit of rotations and angles is unknown. One theory states that it is related to the fact that 360 is approximately the number of days in a year. Ancient astronomers noticed that the sun, which follows through the path over the course of the year. Some ancient calendars, such as the Persian calendar, used 360 days for a year, the use of a calendar with 360 days may be related to the use of sexagesimal numbers. The earliest trigonometry, used by the Babylonian astronomers and their Greek successors, was based on chords of a circle, a chord of length equal to the radius made a natural base quantity. One sixtieth of this, using their standard sexagesimal divisions, was a degree, Aristarchus of Samos and Hipparchus seem to have been among the first Greek scientists to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Timocharis, Aristarchus, Aristillus, Archimedes, and Hipparchus were the first Greeks known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes, eratosthenes used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts. Furthermore, it is divisible by every number from 1 to 10 except 7 and this property has many useful applications, such as dividing the world into 24 time zones, each of which is nominally 15° of longitude, to correlate with the established 24-hour day convention. Finally, it may be the case more than one of these factors has come into play. For many practical purposes, a degree is a small enough angle that whole degrees provide sufficient precision. When this is not the case, as in astronomy or for geographic coordinates, degree measurements may be written using decimal degrees, with the symbol behind the decimals. Alternatively, the sexagesimal unit subdivisions can be used. One degree is divided into 60 minutes, and one minute into 60 seconds, use of degrees-minutes-seconds is also called DMS notation. These subdivisions, also called the arcminute and arcsecond, are represented by a single and double prime. For example,40. 1875° = 40° 11′ 15″, or, using quotation mark characters, additional precision can be provided using decimals for the arcseconds component. The older system of thirds, fourths, etc. which continues the sexagesimal unit subdivision, was used by al-Kashi and other ancient astronomers, but is rarely used today
7.
Dual polygon
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In geometry, polygons are associated into pairs called duals, where the vertices of one correspond to the edges of the other. The dual of a polygon is an isotoxal polygon. For example, the rectangle and rhombus are duals, in a cyclic polygon, longer sides correspond to larger exterior angles in the dual, and shorter sides to smaller angles. Further, congruent sides in the original polygon yields congruent angles in the dual, for example, the dual of a highly acute isosceles triangle is an obtuse isosceles triangle. In the Dorman Luke construction, each face of a polyhedron is the dual polygon of the corresponding vertex figure. As an example of the duality of polygons we compare properties of the cyclic. This duality is perhaps more clear when comparing an isosceles trapezoid to a kite. The simplest qualitative construction of a polygon is a rectification operation. New edges are formed between these new vertices and that is, the polygon generated by applying it twice is in general not similar to the original polygon. As with dual polyhedra, one can take a circle and perform polar reciprocation in it. Combinatorially, one can define a polygon as a set of vertices, a set of edges, then the dual polygon is obtained by simply switching the vertices and edges. Thus for the triangle with vertices and edges, the triangle has vertices, and edges, where B connects AB & BC. This is not a particularly fruitful avenue, as combinatorially, there is a family of polygons, geometric duality of polygons is more varied. Dual curve Dual polyhedron Self-dual polygon Dual Polygon Applet by Don Hatch
8.
Convex polygon
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A convex polygon is a simple polygon in which no line segment between two points on the boundary ever goes outside the polygon. Equivalently, it is a polygon whose interior is a convex set. In a convex polygon, all angles are less than or equal to 180 degrees. A simple polygon which is not convex is called concave, the following properties of a simple polygon are all equivalent to convexity, Every internal angle is less than or equal to 180 degrees. Every point on line segment between two points inside or on the boundary of the polygon remains inside or on the boundary. The polygon is contained in a closed half-plane defined by each of its edges. For each edge, the points are all on the same side of the line that the edge defines. The angle at each vertex contains all vertices in its edges. The polygon is the hull of its edges. Additional properties of convex polygons include, The intersection of two convex polygons is a convex polygon, a convex polygon may br triangulated in linear time through a fan triangulation, consisting in adding diagonals from one vertex to all other vertices. Hellys theorem, For every collection of at least three convex polygons, if the intersection of three of them is nonempty, then the whole collection has a nonempty intersection. Krein–Milman theorem, A convex polygon is the hull of its vertices. Thus it is defined by the set of its vertices. Hyperplane separation theorem, Any two convex polygons with no points in common have a separator line, if the polygons are closed and at least one of them is compact, then there are even two parallel separator lines. Inscribed triangle property, Of all triangles contained in a convex polygon, inscribing triangle property, every convex polygon with area A can be inscribed in a triangle of area at most equal to 2A. Equality holds for a parallelogram.5 × Area ≤ Area ≤2 × Area, the mean width of a convex polygon is equal to its perimeter divided by pi. So its width is the diameter of a circle with the perimeter as the polygon. Every polygon inscribed in a circle, if not self-intersecting, is convex, however, not every convex polygon can be inscribed in a circle
9.
Circumscribed circle
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In geometry, the circumscribed circle or circumcircle of a polygon is a circle which passes through all the vertices of the polygon. The center of circle is called the circumcenter and its radius is called the circumradius. A polygon which has a circle is called a cyclic polygon. All regular simple polygons, all isosceles trapezoids, all triangles, a related notion is the one of a minimum bounding circle, which is the smallest circle that completely contains the polygon within it. All triangles are cyclic, i. e. every triangle has a circumscribed circle and this can be proven on the grounds that the general equation for a circle with center and radius r in the Cartesian coordinate system is 2 +2 = r 2. Since this equation has three parameters only three points coordinate pairs are required to determine the equation of a circle, since a triangle is defined by its three vertices, and exactly three points are required to determine a circle, every triangle can be circumscribed. The circumcenter of a triangle can be constructed by drawing any two of the three perpendicular bisectors, the center is the point where the perpendicular bisectors intersect, and the radius is the length to any of the three vertices. This is because the circumcenter is equidistant from any pair of the triangles vertices, in coastal navigation, a triangles circumcircle is sometimes used as a way of obtaining a position line using a sextant when no compass is available. The horizontal angle between two landmarks defines the circumcircle upon which the observer lies, in the Euclidean plane, it is possible to give explicitly an equation of the circumcircle in terms of the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices of the inscribed triangle. Suppose that A = B = C = are the coordinates of points A, B, using the polarization identity, these equations reduce to the condition that the matrix has a nonzero kernel. Thus the circumcircle may alternatively be described as the locus of zeros of the determinant of this matrix, a similar approach allows one to deduce the equation of the circumsphere of a tetrahedron. A unit vector perpendicular to the containing the circle is given by n ^ = × | × |. An equation for the circumcircle in trilinear coordinates x, y, z is a/x + b/y + c/z =0, an equation for the circumcircle in barycentric coordinates x, y, z is a2/x + b2/y + c2/z =0. The isogonal conjugate of the circumcircle is the line at infinity, given in coordinates by ax + by + cz =0. Additionally, the circumcircle of a triangle embedded in d dimensions can be using a generalized method. Let A, B, and C be d-dimensional points, which form the vertices of a triangle and we start by transposing the system to place C at the origin, a = A − C, b = B − C. The circumcenter, p0, is given by p 0 = ×2 ∥ a × b ∥2 + C, the Cartesian coordinates of the circumcenter are U x =1 D U y =1 D with D =2. Without loss of generality this can be expressed in a form after translation of the vertex A to the origin of the Cartesian coordinate systems
10.
Equilateral polygon
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In geometry, three or more than three straight lines make a polygon and an equilateral polygon is a polygon which has all sides of the same length. Except in the case, it need not be equiangular. If the number of sides is at least five, an equilateral polygon need not be a convex polygon, all regular polygons and isotoxal polygons are equilateral. An equilateral triangle is a triangle with 60° internal angles. An equilateral quadrilateral is called a rhombus, an isotoxal polygon described by an angle α and it includes the square as a special case. A convex equilateral pentagon can be described by two angles α and β, which determine the other angles. Concave equilateral pentagons exist, as do concave equilateral polygons with any number of sides. An equilateral polygon which is cyclic is a regular polygon, a tangential polygon is equilateral if and only if the alternate angles are equal. Thus if the number of n is odd, a tangential polygon is equilateral if. The principal diagonals of a hexagon each divide the hexagon into quadrilaterals, in any convex equilateral hexagon with common side a, there exists a principal diagonal d1 such that d 1 a ≤2 and a principal diagonal d2 such that d 2 a >3. Triambi are equilateral hexagons with trigonal symmetry, Equilateral triangle With interactive animation A Property of Equiangular Polygons, a discussion of Vivianis theorem at Cut-the-knot
11.
Isogonal figure
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In geometry, a polytope is isogonal or vertex-transitive if, loosely speaking, all its vertices are equivalent. That implies that each vertex is surrounded by the kinds of face in the same or reverse order. Technically, we say that for any two vertices there exists a symmetry of the polytope mapping the first isometrically onto the second. Other ways of saying this are that the group of automorphisms of the polytope is transitive on its vertices, all vertices of a finite n-dimensional isogonal figure exist on an -sphere. The term isogonal has long used for polyhedra. Vertex-transitive is a synonym borrowed from modern ideas such as symmetry groups, all regular polygons, apeirogons and regular star polygons are isogonal. The dual of a polygon is an isotoxal polygon. Some even-sided polygons and apeirogons which alternate two edge lengths, for example a rectangle, are isogonal, all planar isogonal 2n-gons have dihedral symmetry with reflection lines across the mid-edge points. An isogonal polyhedron and 2D tiling has a kind of vertex. An isogonal polyhedron with all faces is also a uniform polyhedron. Geometrically distorted variations of uniform polyhedra and tilings can also be given the vertex configuration, isogonal polyhedra and 2D tilings may be further classified, Regular if it is also isohedral and isotoxal, this implies that every face is the same kind of regular polygon. Quasi-regular if it is also isotoxal but not isohedral, semi-regular if every face is a regular polygon but it is not isohedral or isotoxal. Uniform if every face is a polygon, i. e. it is regular, quasiregular or semi-regular. Noble if it is also isohedral and these definitions can be extended to higher-dimensional polytopes and tessellations. Most generally, all uniform polytopes are isogonal, for example, the dual of an isogonal polytope is called an isotope which is transitive on its facets. A polytope or tiling may be called if its vertices form k transitivity classes. A more restrictive term, k-uniform is defined as a figure constructed only from regular polygons. They can be represented visually with colors by different uniform colorings, edge-transitive Face-transitive Peter R. Cromwell, Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press 1997, ISBN 0-521-55432-2, p.369 Transitivity Grünbaum, Branko, Shephard, G. C
12.
Isotoxal figure
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In geometry, a polytope, or a tiling, is isotoxal or edge-transitive if its symmetries act transitively on its edges. The term isotoxal is derived from the Greek τοξον meaning arc, an isotoxal polygon is an equilateral polygon, but not all equilateral polygons are isotoxal. The duals of isotoxal polygons are isogonal polygons, in general, an isotoxal 2n-gon will have Dn dihedral symmetry. A rhombus is a polygon with D2 symmetry. All regular polygons are isotoxal, having double the symmetry order. A regular 2n-gon is a polygon and can be marked with alternately colored vertices. An isotoxal polyhedron or tiling must be either isogonal or isohedral or both, regular polyhedra are isohedral, isogonal and isotoxal. Quasiregular polyhedra are isogonal and isotoxal, but not isohedral, their duals are isohedral and isotoxal, not every polyhedron or 2-dimensional tessellation constructed from regular polygons is isotoxal. An isotoxal polyhedron has the dihedral angle for all edges. There are nine convex isotoxal polyhedra formed from the Platonic solids,8 formed by the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald, Longuet-Higgins, M. S. Miller, J. C. P. Uniform polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, mathematical and Physical Sciences,246, 401–450, doi,10. 1098/rsta.1954.0003, ISSN 0080-4614, JSTOR91532, MR0062446
13.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
14.
Polygon
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In elementary geometry, a polygon /ˈpɒlɪɡɒn/ is a plane figure that is bounded by a finite chain of straight line segments closing in a loop to form a closed polygonal chain or circuit. These segments are called its edges or sides, and the points where two edges meet are the vertices or corners. The interior of the polygon is called its body. An n-gon is a polygon with n sides, for example, a polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. The basic geometrical notion of a polygon has been adapted in various ways to suit particular purposes, mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding closed polygonal chain and with simple polygons which do not self-intersect, and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to intersect itself, creating star polygons and these and other generalizations of polygons are described below. The word polygon derives from the Greek adjective πολύς much, many and it has been suggested that γόνυ knee may be the origin of “gon”. Polygons are primarily classified by the number of sides, Polygons may be characterized by their convexity or type of non-convexity, Convex, any line drawn through the polygon meets its boundary exactly twice. As a consequence, all its interior angles are less than 180°, equivalently, any line segment with endpoints on the boundary passes through only interior points between its endpoints. Non-convex, a line may be found which meets its boundary more than twice, equivalently, there exists a line segment between two boundary points that passes outside the polygon. Simple, the boundary of the polygon does not cross itself, there is at least one interior angle greater than 180°. Star-shaped, the interior is visible from at least one point. The polygon must be simple, and may be convex or concave, self-intersecting, the boundary of the polygon crosses itself. Branko Grünbaum calls these coptic, though this term does not seem to be widely used, star polygon, a polygon which self-intersects in a regular way. A polygon cannot be both a star and star-shaped, equiangular, all corner angles are equal. Cyclic, all lie on a single circle, called the circumcircle. Isogonal or vertex-transitive, all lie within the same symmetry orbit. The polygon is cyclic and equiangular
15.
Truncation (geometry)
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In geometry, a truncation is an operation in any dimension that cuts polytope vertices, creating a new facet in place of each vertex. The term originates from Keplers names for the Archimedean solids, in general any polyhedron can also be truncated with a degree of freedom as to how deep the cut is, as shown in Conway polyhedron notation truncation operation. A special kind of truncation, usually implied, is a uniform truncation, there are no degrees of freedom, and it represents a fixed geometric, just like the regular polyhedra. In general all single ringed uniform polytopes have a uniform truncation, for example, the icosidodecahedron, represented as Schläfli symbols r or, and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram or has a uniform truncation, the truncated icosidodecahedron, represented as tr or t. In the Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, the effect of a truncation is to ring all the adjacent to the ringed node. A truncated n-sided polygon will have 2n sides, a regular polygon uniformly truncated will become another regular polygon, t is. A complete truncation, r, is another regular polygon in its dual position, a regular polygon can also be represented by its Coxeter-Dynkin diagram, and its uniform truncation, and its complete truncation. Star polygons can also be truncated, a truncated pentagram will look like a pentagon, but is actually a double-covered decagon with two sets of overlapping vertices and edges. A truncated great heptagram gives a tetradecagram and this sequence shows an example of the truncation of a cube, using four steps of a continuous truncating process between a full cube and a rectified cube. The final polyhedron is a cuboctahedron, the middle image is the uniform truncated cube. It is represented by a Schläfli symbol t, a bitruncation is a deeper truncation, removing all the original edges, but leaving an interior part of the original faces. The truncated octahedron is a cube, 2t is an example. A complete bitruncation is called a birectification that reduces original faces to points, for polyhedra, this becomes the dual polyhedron. An octahedron is a birectification of the cube, = 2r is an example, another type of truncation is called cantellation, cuts edge and vertices, removing original edges and replacing them with rectangles. Higher dimensional polytopes have higher truncations, runcination cuts faces, edges, in 5-dimensions sterication cuts cells, faces, and edges. Edge-truncation is a beveling or chamfer for polyhedra, similar to cantellation but retains original vertices, in 4-polytopes edge-truncation replaces edges with elongated bipyramid cells. Alternation or partial truncation only removes some of the original vertices, a partial truncation or alternation - Half of the vertices and connecting edges are completely removed. The operation only applies to polytopes with even-sided faces, faces are reduced to half as many sides, and square faces degenerate into edges
16.
Pentagon
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In geometry, a pentagon is any five-sided polygon or 5-gon. The sum of the angles in a simple pentagon is 540°. A pentagon may be simple or self-intersecting, a self-intersecting regular pentagon is called a pentagram. A regular pentagon has Schläfli symbol and interior angles are 108°, a regular pentagon has five lines of reflectional symmetry, and rotational symmetry of order 5. The diagonals of a regular pentagon are in the golden ratio to its sides. The area of a regular convex pentagon with side length t is given by A = t 225 +1054 =5 t 2 tan 4 ≈1.720 t 2. A pentagram or pentangle is a regular star pentagon and its sides form the diagonals of a regular convex pentagon – in this arrangement the sides of the two pentagons are in the golden ratio. The area of any polygon is, A =12 P r where P is the perimeter of the polygon. Substituting the regular pentagons values for P and r gives the formula A =12 ×5 t × t tan 2 =5 t 2 tan 4 with side length t, like every regular convex polygon, the regular convex pentagon has an inscribed circle. The apothem, which is the r of the inscribed circle. Like every regular polygon, the regular convex pentagon has a circumscribed circle. For a regular pentagon with successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, the regular pentagon is constructible with compass and straightedge, as 5 is a Fermat prime. A variety of methods are known for constructing a regular pentagon, one method to construct a regular pentagon in a given circle is described by Richmond and further discussed in Cromwells Polyhedra. The top panel shows the construction used in Richmonds method to create the side of the inscribed pentagon, the circle defining the pentagon has unit radius. Its center is located at point C and a midpoint M is marked halfway along its radius and this point is joined to the periphery vertically above the center at point D. Angle CMD is bisected, and the bisector intersects the axis at point Q. A horizontal line through Q intersects the circle at point P, to determine the length of this side, the two right triangles DCM and QCM are depicted below the circle. Using Pythagoras theorem and two sides, the hypotenuse of the triangle is found as 5 /2
17.
Area
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Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a two-dimensional figure or shape, or planar lamina, in the plane. Surface area is its analog on the surface of a three-dimensional object. It is the analog of the length of a curve or the volume of a solid. The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size, in the International System of Units, the standard unit of area is the square metre, which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. A shape with an area of three square metres would have the area as three such squares. In mathematics, the square is defined to have area one. There are several formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles. Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles, for shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. Indeed, the problem of determining the area of plane figures was a motivation for the historical development of calculus. For a solid such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder. Formulas for the areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks. Area plays an important role in modern mathematics, in addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry. In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure, in general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions. Area can be defined through the use of axioms, defining it as a function of a collection of certain plane figures to the set of real numbers and it can be proved that such a function exists. An approach to defining what is meant by area is through axioms, area can be defined as a function from a collection M of special kind of plane figures to the set of real numbers which satisfies the following properties, For all S in M, a ≥0. If S and T are in M then so are S ∪ T and S ∩ T, if S and T are in M with S ⊆ T then T − S is in M and a = a − a. If a set S is in M and S is congruent to T then T is also in M, every rectangle R is in M. If the rectangle has length h and breadth k then a = hk, let Q be a set enclosed between two step regions S and T
18.
Apothem
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The apothem of a regular polygon is a line segment from the center to the midpoint of one of its sides. Equivalently, it is the line drawn from the center of the polygon that is perpendicular to one of its sides, the word apothem can also refer to the length of that line segment. Regular polygons are the polygons that have apothems. Because of this, all the apothems in a polygon will be congruent. For a regular pyramid, which is a pyramid base is a regular polygon, the apothem is the slant height of a lateral face, that is. For a truncated pyramid, the apothem is the height of a trapezoidal lateral face. An apothem of a polygon will always be a radius of the inscribed circle. It is also the distance between any side of the polygon and its center. A = p a 2 = r 2 = π r 2 The apothem of a regular polygon can be multiple ways. The apothem a of a regular n-sided polygon with side length s, or circumradius R, can be using the following formula. The apothem can also be found by a = s 2 tan and these formulae can still be used even if only the perimeter p and the number of sides n are known because s = p n. Circumradius of a regular polygon Sagitta Chord Apothem of a regular polygon With interactive animation Apothem of pyramid or truncated pyramid Pegg, Jr. Ed
19.
Inscribed figure
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In geometry, an inscribed planar shape or solid is one that is enclosed by and fits snugly inside another geometric shape or solid. To say that figure F is inscribed in figure G means precisely the same thing as figure G is circumscribed about figure F, a circle or ellipse inscribed in a convex polygon is tangent to every side or face of the outer figure. Familiar examples of inscribed figures include circles inscribed in triangles or regular polygons, a circle inscribed in any polygon is called its incircle, in which case the polygon is said to be a tangential polygon. A polygon inscribed in a circle is said to be a polygon. The inradius or filling radius of a given outer figure is the radius of the circle or sphere. The definition given above assumes that the objects concerned are embedded in two- or three-dimensional Euclidean space, but can easily be generalized to higher dimensions and other metric spaces. For an alternative usage of the term inscribed, see the inscribed square problem, every circle has an inscribed triangle with any three given angle measures, and every triangle can be inscribed in some circle. Every triangle has a circle, called the incircle. Every circle has a regular polygon of n sides, for any n≥3. Every regular polygon has a circle, and every circle can be inscribed in some regular polygon of n sides. Not every polygon with more than three sides has a circle, those polygons that do are called tangential polygons. Not every polygon with more than three sides is a polygon of a circle, those polygons that are so inscribed are called cyclic polygons. Every triangle can be inscribed in an ellipse, called its Steiner circumellipse or simply its Steiner ellipse, whose center is the triangles centroid, every triangle has an infinitude of inscribed ellipses. One of them is a circle, and one of them is the Steiner inellipse which is tangent to the triangle at the midpoints of the sides, every acute triangle has three inscribed squares. In a right triangle two of them are merged and coincide with other, so there are only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has an inscribed square, with one side coinciding with part of the triangles longest side. A Reuleaux triangle, or more generally any curve of constant width, circumconic and inconic Cyclic quadrilateral Inscribed and circumscribed figures
20.
Diameter
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In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle, both definitions are also valid for the diameter of a sphere. In more modern usage, the length of a diameter is called the diameter. In this sense one speaks of the rather than a diameter, because all diameters of a circle or sphere have the same length. Both quantities can be calculated efficiently using rotating calipers, for a curve of constant width such as the Reuleaux triangle, the width and diameter are the same because all such pairs of parallel tangent lines have the same distance. For an ellipse, the terminology is different. A diameter of an ellipse is any chord passing through the midpoint of the ellipse, for example, conjugate diameters have the property that a tangent line to the ellipse at the endpoint of one of them is parallel to the other one. The longest diameter is called the major axis, the word diameter is derived from Greek διάμετρος, diameter of a circle, from διά, across, through and μέτρον, measure. It is often abbreviated DIA, dia, d, or ⌀, the definitions given above are only valid for circles, spheres and convex shapes. However, they are cases of a more general definition that is valid for any kind of n-dimensional convex or non-convex object. The diameter of a subset of a space is the least upper bound of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the subset. So, if A is the subset, the diameter is sup, if the distance function d is viewed here as having codomain R, this implies that the diameter of the empty set equals −∞. Some authors prefer to treat the empty set as a case, assigning it a diameter equal to 0. For any solid object or set of scattered points in n-dimensional Euclidean space, in medical parlance concerning a lesion or in geology concerning a rock, the diameter of an object is the supremum of the set of all distances between pairs of points in the object. In differential geometry, the diameter is an important global Riemannian invariant, the symbol or variable for diameter, ⌀, is similar in size and design to ø, the Latin small letter o with stroke. In Unicode it is defined as U+2300 ⌀ Diameter sign, on an Apple Macintosh, the diameter symbol can be entered via the character palette, where it can be found in the Technical Symbols category. The character will not display correctly, however, since many fonts do not include it. In many situations the letter ø is a substitute, which in Unicode is U+00F8 ø
21.
Trigonometry
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Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics that studies relationships involving lengths and angles of triangles. The field emerged in the Hellenistic world during the 3rd century BC from applications of geometry to astronomical studies, Trigonometry is also the foundation of surveying. Trigonometry is most simply associated with planar right-angle triangles, thus the majority of applications relate to right-angle triangles. One exception to this is spherical trigonometry, the study of triangles on spheres, surfaces of constant positive curvature, Trigonometry on surfaces of negative curvature is part of hyperbolic geometry. Trigonometry basics are often taught in schools, either as a course or as a part of a precalculus course. Sumerian astronomers studied angle measure, using a division of circles into 360 degrees, the ancient Nubians used a similar method. In 140 BC, Hipparchus gave the first tables of chords, analogous to modern tables of sine values, in the 2nd century AD, the Greco-Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy printed detailed trigonometric tables in Book 1, chapter 11 of his Almagest. Ptolemy used chord length to define his trigonometric functions, a difference from the sine convention we use today. The modern sine convention is first attested in the Surya Siddhanta and these Greek and Indian works were translated and expanded by medieval Islamic mathematicians. By the 10th century, Islamic mathematicians were using all six trigonometric functions, had tabulated their values, at about the same time, Chinese mathematicians developed trigonometry independently, although it was not a major field of study for them. At the same time, another translation of the Almagest from Greek into Latin was completed by the Cretan George of Trebizond, Trigonometry was still so little known in 16th-century northern Europe that Nicolaus Copernicus devoted two chapters of De revolutionibus orbium coelestium to explain its basic concepts. Driven by the demands of navigation and the growing need for maps of large geographic areas. Bartholomaeus Pitiscus was the first to use the word, publishing his Trigonometria in 1595, gemma Frisius described for the first time the method of triangulation still used today in surveying. It was Leonhard Euler who fully incorporated complex numbers into trigonometry, the works of the Scottish mathematicians James Gregory in the 17th century and Colin Maclaurin in the 18th century were influential in the development of trigonometric series. Also in the 18th century, Brook Taylor defined the general Taylor series, if one angle of a triangle is 90 degrees and one of the other angles is known, the third is thereby fixed, because the three angles of any triangle add up to 180 degrees. The two acute angles therefore add up to 90 degrees, they are complementary angles, the shape of a triangle is completely determined, except for similarity, by the angles. Once the angles are known, the ratios of the sides are determined, if the length of one of the sides is known, the other two are determined. Sin A = opposite hypotenuse = a c, Cosine function, defined as the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse
22.
Algebraic expression
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In mathematics, an algebraic expression is an expression built up from integer constants, variables, and the algebraic operations. For example,3 x 2 −2 x y + c is an algebraic expression, since taking the square root is the same as raising to the power 12,1 − x 21 + x 2 is also an algebraic expression. By contrast, transcendental numbers like π and e are not algebraic, a rational expression is an expression that may be rewritten to a rational fraction by using the properties of the arithmetic operations. In other words, an expression is an expression which may be constructed from the variables. Thus,3 x 2 −2 x y + c y 3 −1 is a rational expression, a rational equation is an equation in which two rational fractions of the form P Q are set equal to each other. These expressions obey the rules as fractions. The equations can be solved by cross-multiplying, division by zero is undefined, so that a solution causing formal division by zero is rejected. Such a solution of an equation is called an algebraic solution, but the Abel-Ruffini theorem states that algebraic solutions do not exist for all such equations if n ≥5. By convention, letters at the beginning of the alphabet are used to represent constants. They are usually written in italics, by convention, terms with the highest power, are written on the left, for example, x 2 is written to the left of x. When a coefficient is one, it is usually omitted, likewise when the exponent is one, and, when the exponent is zero, the result is always 1. The table below summarizes how algebraic expressions compare with other types of mathematical expressions by the type of elements they may contain. A rational algebraic expression is an expression that can be written as a quotient of polynomials. An irrational algebraic expression is one that is not rational, such as √x +4, Algebraic equation Algebraic function Analytical expression Arithmetic expression Closed-form expression Expression Polynomial Term James, Robert Clarke, James, Glenn
23.
Golden ratio
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In mathematics, two quantities are in the golden ratio if their ratio is the same as the ratio of their sum to the larger of the two quantities. The figure on the right illustrates the geometric relationship, expressed algebraically, for quantities a and b with a > b >0, a + b a = a b = def φ, where the Greek letter phi represents the golden ratio. Its value is, φ =1 +52 =1.6180339887 …, A001622 The golden ratio is also called the golden mean or golden section. Other names include extreme and mean ratio, medial section, divine proportion, divine section, golden proportion, golden cut, the golden ratio appears in some patterns in nature, including the spiral arrangement of leaves and other plant parts. The golden ratio has also used to analyze the proportions of natural objects as well as man-made systems such as financial markets. Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio φ if a + b a = a b = φ, one method for finding the value of φ is to start with the left fraction. Through simplifying the fraction and substituting in b/a = 1/φ, a + b a =1 + b a =1 +1 φ, multiplying by φ gives φ +1 = φ2 which can be rearranged to φ2 − φ −1 =0. First, the line segment A B ¯ is about doubled and then the semicircle with the radius A S ¯ around the point S is drawn, now the semicircle is drawn with the radius A B ¯ around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2 φ, next up, the perpendicular on the line segment A E ¯ from the point D will be establish. The subsequent parallel F S ¯ to the line segment C M ¯, produces, as it were and it is well recognizable, this triangle and the triangle M S C are similar to each other. The hypotenuse F S ¯ has due to the cathetuses S D ¯ =1 and D F ¯ =2 according the Pythagorean theorem, finally, the circle arc is drawn with the radius 5 around the point F. The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a fascination for at least 2,400 years. But the fascination with the Golden Ratio is not confined just to mathematicians, biologists, artists, musicians, historians, architects, psychologists, and even mystics have pondered and debated the basis of its ubiquity and appeal. In fact, it is fair to say that the Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of mathematics. Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry, the division of a line into extreme and mean ratio is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid explains a construction for cutting a line in extreme and mean ratio, throughout the Elements, several propositions and their proofs employ the golden ratio. The golden ratio is explored in Luca Paciolis book De divina proportione, since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter φ or less commonly by τ. Timeline according to Priya Hemenway, Phidias made the Parthenon statues that seem to embody the golden ratio, plato, in his Timaeus, describes five possible regular solids, some of which are related to the golden ratio
24.
Power of two
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In mathematics, a power of two means a number of the form 2n where n is an integer, i. e. the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer n as the exponent. In a context where only integers are considered, n is restricted to values, so we have 1,2. Because two is the base of the numeral system, powers of two are common in computer science. Written in binary, a power of two always has the form 100…000 or 0. 00…001, just like a power of ten in the decimal system, a word, interpreted as an unsigned integer, can represent values from 0 to 2n −1 inclusively. Corresponding signed integer values can be positive, negative and zero, either way, one less than a power of two is often the upper bound of an integer in binary computers. As a consequence, numbers of this show up frequently in computer software. For example, in the original Legend of Zelda the main character was limited to carrying 255 rupees at any time. Powers of two are used to measure computer memory. A byte is now considered eight bits (an octet, resulting in the possibility of 256 values, the prefix kilo, in conjunction with byte, may be, and has traditionally been, used, to mean 1,024. However, in general, the term kilo has been used in the International System of Units to mean 1,000, binary prefixes have been standardized, such as kibi meaning 1,024. Nearly all processor registers have sizes that are powers of two,32 or 64 being most common, powers of two occur in a range of other places as well. For many disk drives, at least one of the size, number of sectors per track. The logical block size is almost always a power of two. Numbers that are not powers of two occur in a number of situations, such as video resolutions, but they are often the sum or product of two or three powers of two, or powers of two minus one. For example,640 =512 +128 =128 ×5, put another way, they have fairly regular bit patterns. A prime number that is one less than a power of two is called a Mersenne prime, for example, the prime number 31 is a Mersenne prime because it is 1 less than 32. Similarly, a number that is one more than a positive power of two is called a Fermat prime—the exponent itself is a power of two. A fraction that has a power of two as its denominator is called a dyadic rational, the numbers that can be represented as sums of consecutive positive integers are called polite numbers, they are exactly the numbers that are not powers of two
25.
Compass-and-straightedge construction
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The idealized ruler, known as a straightedge, is assumed to be infinite in length, and has no markings on it and only one edge. The compass is assumed to collapse when lifted from the page, more formally, the only permissible constructions are those granted by Euclids first three postulates. It turns out to be the case that every point constructible using straightedge, the ancient Greek mathematicians first conceived compass-and-straightedge constructions, and a number of ancient problems in plane geometry impose this restriction. The ancient Greeks developed many constructions, but in cases were unable to do so. Gauss showed that some polygons are constructible but that most are not, some of the most famous straightedge-and-compass problems were proven impossible by Pierre Wantzel in 1837, using the mathematical theory of fields. In spite of existing proofs of impossibility, some persist in trying to solve these problems, in terms of algebra, a length is constructible if and only if it represents a constructible number, and an angle is constructible if and only if its cosine is a constructible number. A number is constructible if and only if it can be using the four basic arithmetic operations. Circles can only be starting from two given points, the centre and a point on the circle. The compass may or may not collapse when its not drawing a circle, the straightedge is infinitely long, but it has no markings on it and has only one straight edge, unlike ordinary rulers. It can only be used to draw a segment between two points or to extend an existing segment. The modern compass generally does not collapse and several modern constructions use this feature and it would appear that the modern compass is a more powerful instrument than the ancient collapsing compass. However, by Proposition 2 of Book 1 of Euclids Elements, although the proposition is correct, its proofs have a long and checkered history. Eyeballing it and getting close does not count as a solution and that is, it must have a finite number of steps, and not be the limit of ever closer approximations. One of the purposes of Greek mathematics was to find exact constructions for various lengths, for example. The Greeks could not find constructions for these three problems, among others, Squaring the circle, Drawing a square the same area as a given circle, doubling the cube, Drawing a cube with twice the volume of a given cube. Trisecting the angle, Dividing a given angle into three smaller angles all of the same size, for 2000 years people tried to find constructions within the limits set above, and failed. All three have now been proven under mathematical rules to be generally impossible, the ancient Greek mathematicians first attempted compass-and-straightedge constructions, and they discovered how to construct sums, differences, products, ratios, and square roots of given lengths. They could also construct half of an angle, a square whose area is twice that of another square, a square having the same area as a given polygon
26.
Bisection
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In geometry, bisection is the division of something into two equal or congruent parts, usually by a line, which is then called a bisector. The most often considered types of bisectors are the segment bisector, in three-dimensional space, bisection is usually done by a plane, also called the bisector or bisecting plane. A line segment bisector passes through the midpoint of the segment, particularly important is the perpendicular bisector of a segment, which, according to its name, meets the segment at right angles. The perpendicular bisector of a segment also has the property that each of its points is equidistant from the segments endpoints, therefore, Voronoi diagram boundaries consist of segments of such lines or planes. In classical geometry, the bisection is a compass and straightedge construction, whose possibility depends on the ability to draw circles of equal radii. The segment is bisected by drawing intersecting circles of radius, whose centers are the endpoints of the segment. The line determined by the points of intersection of the two circles is the bisector of the segment, since it crosses the segment at its center. Brahmaguptas theorem states that if a cyclic quadrilateral is orthodiagonal, then the perpendicular to a side from the point of intersection of the diagonals bisects the opposite side. An angle bisector divides the angle into two angles with equal measures, an angle only has one bisector. Each point of an angle bisector is equidistant from the sides of the angle, the interior or internal bisector of an angle is the line, half-line, or line segment that divides an angle of less than 180° into two equal angles. The exterior or external bisector is the line divides the supplementary angle, formed by one side forming the original angle. To bisect an angle with straightedge and compass, one draws a circle whose center is the vertex, the circle meets the angle at two points, one on each leg. Using each of these points as a center, draw two circles of the same size, the intersection of the circles determines a line that is the angle bisector. The proof of the correctness of this construction is fairly intuitive and it is interesting to note that the trisection of an angle cannot be achieved with the compass and ruler alone. The internal and external bisectors of an angle are perpendicular, the interior angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent in a point called the incenter of the triangle, as seen in the diagram at right. The bisectors of two angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent. Three intersection points, each of an angle bisector with the opposite extended side, are collinear. Three intersection points, two of them between an angle bisector and the opposite side, and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended, are collinear
27.
Circle
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A circle is a simple closed shape in Euclidean geometry. The distance between any of the points and the centre is called the radius, a circle is a simple closed curve which divides the plane into two regions, an interior and an exterior. Annulus, the object, the region bounded by two concentric circles. Arc, any connected part of the circle, centre, the point equidistant from the points on the circle. Chord, a segment whose endpoints lie on the circle. Circumference, the length of one circuit along the circle, or the distance around the circle and it is a special case of a chord, namely the longest chord, and it is twice the radius. Disc, the region of the bounded by a circle. Lens, the intersection of two discs, passant, a coplanar straight line that does not touch the circle. Radius, a line segment joining the centre of the circle to any point on the circle itself, or the length of such a segment, sector, a region bounded by two radii and an arc lying between the radii. Segment, a region, not containing the centre, bounded by a chord, secant, an extended chord, a coplanar straight line cutting the circle at two points. Semicircle, an arc that extends from one of a diameters endpoints to the other, in non-technical common usage it may mean the diameter, arc, and its interior, a two dimensional region, that is technically called a half-disc. A half-disc is a case of a segment, namely the largest one. Tangent, a straight line that touches the circle at a single point. The word circle derives from the Greek κίρκος/κύκλος, itself a metathesis of the Homeric Greek κρίκος, the origins of the words circus and circuit are closely related. The circle has been known since before the beginning of recorded history, natural circles would have been observed, such as the Moon, Sun, and a short plant stalk blowing in the wind on sand, which forms a circle shape in the sand. The circle is the basis for the wheel, which, with related inventions such as gears, in mathematics, the study of the circle has helped inspire the development of geometry, astronomy and calculus. Some highlights in the history of the circle are,1700 BCE – The Rhind papyrus gives a method to find the area of a circular field. The result corresponds to 256/81 as a value of π.300 BCE – Book 3 of Euclids Elements deals with the properties of circles
28.
Cyclic group
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In algebra, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group that is generated by a single element. Each element can be written as a power of g in multiplicative notation and this element g is called a generator of the group. Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to the group of Z. Every finite cyclic group of n is isomorphic to the additive group of Z/nZ. Every cyclic group is a group, and every finitely generated abelian group is a direct product of cyclic groups. A group G is called if there exists an element g in G such that G = ⟨g⟩ =. Since any group generated by an element in a group is a subgroup of that group, for example, if G = is a group of order 6, then g6 = g0, and G is cyclic. In fact, G is essentially the same as the set with addition modulo 6, for example,1 +2 ≡3 corresponds to g1 · g2 = g3, and 2 +5 ≡1 corresponds to g2 · g5 = g7 = g1, and so on. One can use the isomorphism χ defined by χ = i, the name cyclic may be misleading, it is possible to generate infinitely many elements and not form any literal cycles, that is, every gn is distinct. A group generated in this way is called a cyclic group. The French mathematicians known as Nicolas Bourbaki referred to a group as a monogenous group. The set of integers, with the operation of addition, forms a group and it is an infinite cyclic group, because all integers can be written as a finite sum or difference of copies of the number 1. In this group,1 and −1 are the only generators, every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to this group. For every positive n, the set of integers modulo n, again with the operation of addition, forms a finite cyclic group. An element g is a generator of this group if g is relatively prime to n, thus, the number of different generators is φ, where φ is the Euler totient function, the function that counts the number of numbers modulo n that are relatively prime to n. Every finite cyclic group is isomorphic to a group Z/n, where n is the order of the group, the integer and modular addition operations, used to define the cyclic groups, are both the addition operations of commutative rings, also denoted Z and Z/n. If p is a prime, then Z/p is a finite field, every field with p elements is isomorphic to this one. For every positive n, the subset of the integers modulo n that are relatively prime to n, with the operation of multiplication
29.
John Horton Conway
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John Horton Conway FRS is an English mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He has also contributed to many branches of mathematics, notably the invention of the cellular automaton called the Game of Life. Conway is currently Professor Emeritus of Mathematics at Princeton University in New Jersey, Conway was born in Liverpool, the son of Cyril Horton Conway and Agnes Boyce. He became interested in mathematics at an early age, his mother has recalled that he could recite the powers of two when he was four years old. By the age of eleven his ambition was to become a mathematician, after leaving secondary school, Conway entered Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge to study mathematics. Conway, who was a terribly introverted adolescent in school, interpreted his admission to Cambridge as an opportunity to transform himself into a new person and he was awarded his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1959 and began to undertake research in number theory supervised by Harold Davenport. Having solved the problem posed by Davenport on writing numbers as the sums of fifth powers. It appears that his interest in games began during his years studying the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos and he was awarded his doctorate in 1964 and was appointed as College Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. After leaving Cambridge in 1986, he took up the appointment to the John von Neumann Chair of Mathematics at Princeton University, Conway is especially known for the invention of the Game of Life, one of the early examples of a cellular automaton. His initial experiments in that field were done with pen and paper, since the game was introduced by Martin Gardner in Scientific American in 1970, it has spawned hundreds of computer programs, web sites, and articles. It is a staple of recreational mathematics, there is an extensive wiki devoted to curating and cataloging the various aspects of the game. From the earliest days it has been a favorite in computer labs, at times Conway has said he hates the game of life–largely because it has come to overshadow some of the other deeper and more important things he has done. Nevertheless, the game did help launch a new branch of mathematics, the Game of Life is now known to be Turing complete. Conways career is intertwined with mathematics popularizer and Scientific American columnist Martin Gardner, when Gardner featured Conways Game of Life in his Mathematical Games column in October 1970, it became the most widely read of all his columns and made Conway an instant celebrity. Gardner and Conway had first corresponded in the late 1950s, for instance, he discussed Conways game of Sprouts, Hackenbush, and his angel and devil problem. In the September 1976 column he reviewed Conways book On Numbers and Games, Conway is widely known for his contributions to combinatorial game theory, a theory of partisan games. This he developed with Elwyn Berlekamp and Richard Guy, and with them also co-authored the book Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays and he also wrote the book On Numbers and Games which lays out the mathematical foundations of CGT. He is also one of the inventors of sprouts, as well as philosophers football and he developed detailed analyses of many other games and puzzles, such as the Soma cube, peg solitaire, and Conways soldiers
30.
Directed graph
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In mathematics, and more specifically in graph theory, a directed graph is a graph that is a set of vertices connected by edges, where the edges have a direction associated with them. It differs from an ordinary or undirected graph, in that the latter is defined in terms of unordered pairs of vertices, more specifically, these entities are addressed as directed multigraphs. On the other hand, the definition allows a directed graph to have loops. More specifically, directed graphs without loops are addressed as directed graphs. Symmetric directed graphs are directed graphs where all edges are bidirected, simple directed graphs are directed graphs that have no loops and no multiple arrows with same source and target nodes. As already introduced, in case of arrows the entity is usually addressed as directed multigraph. Some authors describe digraphs with loops as loop-digraphs. Complete directed graphs are directed graphs where each pair of vertices is joined by a symmetric pair of directed arrows. It follows that a complete digraph is symmetric, oriented graphs are directed graphs having no bidirected edges. It follows that a graph is an oriented graph iff it hasnt any 2-cycle. Tournaments are oriented graphs obtained by choosing a direction for each edge in undirected complete graphs. Directed acyclic graphs are directed graphs with no directed cycles, multitrees are DAGs in which no two directed paths from a single starting vertex meet back at the same ending vertex. Oriented trees or polytrees are DAGs formed by orienting the edges of undirected acyclic graphs, rooted trees are oriented trees in which all edges of the underlying undirected tree are directed away from the roots. Rooted directed graphs are digraphs in which a vertex has been distinguished as the root, control flow graphs are rooted digraphs used in computer science as a representation of the paths that might be traversed through a program during its execution. Signal-flow graphs are directed graphs in which nodes represent system variables and branches represent functional connections between pairs of nodes, flow graphs are digraphs associated with a set of linear algebraic or differential equations. State diagrams are directed multigraphs that represent finite state machines, representations of a quiver label its vertices with vector spaces and its edges compatibly with linear transformations between them, and transform via natural transformations. If a path leads from x to y, then y is said to be a successor of x and reachable from x, the arrow is called the inverted arrow of. The adjacency matrix of a graph is unique up to identical permutation of rows. Another matrix representation for a graph is its incidence matrix. For a vertex, the number of head ends adjacent to a vertex is called the indegree of the vertex, the indegree of v is denoted deg− and its outdegree is denoted deg+
31.
10-cube
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In geometry, a 10-cube is a ten-dimensional hypercube. It can be named by its Schläfli symbol, being composed of 3 9-cubes around each 8-face and it is a part of an infinite family of polytopes, called hypercubes. The dual of a dekeract can be called a 10-orthoplex or decacross, cartesian coordinates for the vertices of a dekeract centered at the origin and edge length 2 are while the interior of the same consists of all points with −1 < xi <1. Applying an alternation operation, deleting alternating vertices of the dekeract, creates another uniform polytope, called a 10-demicube, which has 20 demienneractic and 512 enneazettonic facets. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, three regular polytopes in n-dimensions H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, 3rd Edition, Dover New York,1973, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 10D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o3o3o3o3o3o4x - deker. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007, multi-dimensional Glossary, hypercube Garrett Jones Sloanes A135289, Hypercubes, 10-cube. The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
32.
Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter
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Harold Scott MacDonald Donald Coxeter, FRS, FRSC, CC was a British-born Canadian geometer. Coxeter is regarded as one of the greatest geometers of the 20th century and he was born in London but spent most of his adult life in Canada. He was always called Donald, from his third name MacDonald, in his youth, Coxeter composed music and was an accomplished pianist at the age of 10. He felt that mathematics and music were intimately related, outlining his ideas in a 1962 article on Mathematics and he worked for 60 years at the University of Toronto and published twelve books. He was most noted for his work on regular polytopes and higher-dimensional geometries and he was a champion of the classical approach to geometry, in a period when the tendency was to approach geometry more and more via algebra. Coxeter went up to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1926 to read mathematics, there he earned his BA in 1928, and his doctorate in 1931. In 1932 he went to Princeton University for a year as a Rockefeller Fellow, where he worked with Hermann Weyl, Oswald Veblen, returning to Trinity for a year, he attended Ludwig Wittgensteins seminars on the philosophy of mathematics. In 1934 he spent a year at Princeton as a Procter Fellow. In 1936 Coxeter moved to the University of Toronto, flather, and John Flinders Petrie published The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra with University of Toronto Press. In 1940 Coxeter edited the eleventh edition of Mathematical Recreations and Essays and he was elevated to professor in 1948. Coxeter was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1948 and he also inspired some of the innovations of Buckminster Fuller. Coxeter, M. S. Longuet-Higgins and J. C. P. Miller were the first to publish the full list of uniform polyhedra, since 1978, the Canadian Mathematical Society have awarded the Coxeter–James Prize in his honor. He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1950, in 1990, he became a Foreign Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and in 1997 was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1973 he got the Jeffery–Williams Prize,1940, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes I, Mathematische Zeitschrift 46, 380-407, MR2,10 doi,10. 1007/BF011814491942, Non-Euclidean Geometry, University of Toronto Press, MAA. 1954, Uniform Polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A246, arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson and Asia Ivić Weiss, editors, Kaleidoscopes — Selected Writings of H. S. M. John Wiley and Sons ISBN 0-471-01003-01999, The Beauty of Geometry, Twelve Essays, Dover Publications, LCCN 99-35678, ISBN 0-486-40919-8 Davis, Chandler, Ellers, Erich W, the Coxeter Legacy, Reflections and Projections. King of Infinite Space, Donald Coxeter, the Man Who Saved Geometry, www. donaldcoxeter. com www. math. yorku. ca/dcoxeter webpages dedicated to him Jarons World, Shapes in Other Dimensions, Discover mag. Apr 2007 The Mathematics in the Art of M. C, escher video of a lecture by H. S. M
33.
Petrie polygon
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In geometry, a Petrie polygon for a regular polytope of n dimensions is a skew polygon such that every consecutive sides belong to one of the facets. The Petrie polygon of a polygon is the regular polygon itself. For every regular polytope there exists an orthogonal projection onto a plane such that one Petrie polygon becomes a regular polygon with the remainder of the interior to it. The plane in question is the Coxeter plane of the group of the polygon. These polygons and projected graphs are useful in visualizing symmetric structure of the regular polytopes. John Flinders Petrie was the son of Egyptologist Flinders Petrie. He was born in 1907 and as a schoolboy showed remarkable promise of mathematical ability, in periods of intense concentration he could answer questions about complicated four-dimensional objects by visualizing them. He first noted the importance of the skew polygons which appear on the surface of regular polyhedra. When my incredulity had begun to subside, he described them to me, one consisting of squares, six at each vertex, in 1938 Petrie collaborated with Coxeter, Patrick du Val, and H. T. Flather to produce The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra for publication, realizing the geometric facility of the skew polygons used by Petrie, Coxeter named them after his friend when he wrote Regular Polytopes. In 1972, a few months after his retirement, Petrie was killed by a car attempting to cross a motorway near his home in Surrey. The idea of Petrie polygons was later extended to semiregular polytopes, the Petrie polygon of the regular polyhedron has h sides, where h+2=24/. The regular duals, and, are contained within the same projected Petrie polygon, three of the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra have hexagonal, and decagrammic, petrie polygons. The Petrie polygon projections are most useful for visualization of polytopes of dimension four and this table represents Petrie polygon projections of 3 regular families, and the exceptional Lie group En which generate semiregular and uniform polytopes for dimensions 4 to 8. Coxeter, H. S. M. Regular Polytopes, 3rd ed, Section 4.3 Flags and Orthoschemes, Section 11.3 Petrie polygons Ball, W. W. R. and H. S. M. Coxeter Mathematical Recreations and Essays, 13th ed. The Beauty of Geometry, Twelve Essays, Dover Publications LCCN 99-35678 Peter McMullen, Egon Schulte Abstract Regular Polytopes, ISBN 0-521-81496-0 Steinberg, Robert, ON THE NUMBER OF SIDES OF A PETRIE POLYGON Weisstein, Eric W. Petrie polygon. Weisstein, Eric W. Cross polytope graphs, Weisstein, Eric W. Gosset graph 3_21
34.
5-cube
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In five-dimensional geometry, a 5-cube is a name for a five-dimensional hypercube with 32 vertices,80 edges,80 square faces,40 cubic cells, and 10 tesseract 4-faces. It is represented by Schläfli symbol or, constructed as 3 tesseracts and it can be called a penteract, a portmanteau of tesseract and pente for five in Greek. It can also be called a regular deca-5-tope or decateron, being a 5-dimensional polytope constructed from 10 regular facets and it is a part of an infinite hypercube family. The dual of a 5-cube is the 5-orthoplex, of the family of orthoplexes. The 5-cube can be seen as an order-3 tesseractic honeycomb on a 4-sphere and it is related to the Euclidean 4-space tesseractic honeycomb and paracompact hyperbolic honeycomb order-5 tesseractic honeycomb. This polytope is one of 31 uniform 5-polytopes generated from the regular 5-cube or 5-orthoplex. Coxeter, Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8, p.296, Table I, Regular Polytopes, Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C. Thompson, Asia Ivic Weiss, Wiley-Interscience Publication,1995, ISBN 978-0-471-01003-6 H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi Regular Polytopes I, H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes II, H. S. M, Coxeter, Regular and Semi-Regular Polytopes III, Norman Johnson Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph. D, 5D uniform polytopes o3o3o3o4x - pent. Archived from the original on 4 February 2007
35.
Rhombic triacontahedron
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In geometry, the rhombic triacontahedron, sometimes simply called the triacontahedron as it is the most common thirty-faced polyhedron, is a convex polyhedron with 30 rhombic faces. It has 60 edges and 32 vertices of two types and it is a Catalan solid, and the dual polyhedron of the icosidodecahedron. The ratio of the diagonal to the short diagonal of each face is exactly equal to the golden ratio, φ, so that the acute angles on each face measure 2 tan−1 = tan−1. A rhombus so obtained is called a golden rhombus, being the dual of an Archimedean solid, the rhombic triacontahedron is face-transitive, meaning the symmetry group of the solid acts transitively on the set of faces. This means that for any two faces, A and B, there is a rotation or reflection of the solid that leaves it occupying the region of space while moving face A to face B. The rhombic triacontahedron is also interesting in that its vertices include the arrangement of four Platonic solids and it contains ten tetrahedra, five cubes, an icosahedron and a dodecahedron. The centers of the faces contain five octahedra, the plane of each face is perpendicular to the center of the rhombic triacontahedron, and is located at the same distance. Using one of the three golden rectangles drawn into the inscribed icosahedron we can easily deduce the distance between the center of the solid and the center of its rhombic face. The rhombic triacontahedron can be dissected into 20 golden rhombohedra,10 acute ones and 10 flat ones, danish designer Holger Strøm used the rhombic triacontahedron as a basis for the design of his buildable lamp IQ-light. Woodworker Jane Kostick builds boxes in the shape of a rhombic triacontahedron, the simple construction is based on the less than obvious relationship between the rhombic triacontahedron and the cube. Roger von Oechs Ball of Whacks comes in the shape of a rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic triacontahedron is used as the d30 thirty-sided die, sometimes useful in some roleplaying games or other places. The rhombic triacontahedron has three positions, two centered on vertices, and one mid-edge. Embedded in projection 10 are the fat rhombus and skinny rhombus which tile together to produce the non-periodic tessellation often referred to as Penrose tiling, the rhombic triacontahedron has over 227 stellations. This polyhedron is a part of a sequence of rhombic polyhedra, the cube can be seen as a rhombic hexahedron where the rhombi are also rectangles. The rhombic triacontahedron forms the hull of one projection of a 6-cube to 3 dimensions. Truncated rhombic triacontahedron Rhombille tiling Golden rhombus Williams, Robert, the Geometrical Foundation of Natural Structure, A Source Book of Design
36.
On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences
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The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, also cited simply as Sloanes, is an online database of integer sequences. It was created and maintained by Neil Sloane while a researcher at AT&T Labs, Sloane continues to be involved in the OEIS in his role as President of the OEIS Foundation. OEIS records information on integer sequences of interest to professional mathematicians and amateurs, and is widely cited. As of 30 December 2016 it contains nearly 280,000 sequences, the database is searchable by keyword and by subsequence. Neil Sloane started collecting integer sequences as a student in 1965 to support his work in combinatorics. The database was at first stored on punched cards and he published selections from the database in book form twice, A Handbook of Integer Sequences, containing 2,372 sequences in lexicographic order and assigned numbers from 1 to 2372. The Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences with Simon Plouffe, containing 5,488 sequences and these books were well received and, especially after the second publication, mathematicians supplied Sloane with a steady flow of new sequences. The collection became unmanageable in book form, and when the database had reached 16,000 entries Sloane decided to go online—first as an e-mail service, as a spin-off from the database work, Sloane founded the Journal of Integer Sequences in 1998. The database continues to grow at a rate of some 10,000 entries a year, Sloane has personally managed his sequences for almost 40 years, but starting in 2002, a board of associate editors and volunteers has helped maintain the database. In 2004, Sloane celebrated the addition of the 100, 000th sequence to the database, A100000, in 2006, the user interface was overhauled and more advanced search capabilities were added. In 2010 an OEIS wiki at OEIS. org was created to simplify the collaboration of the OEIS editors and contributors, besides integer sequences, the OEIS also catalogs sequences of fractions, the digits of transcendental numbers, complex numbers and so on by transforming them into integer sequences. Sequences of rationals are represented by two sequences, the sequence of numerators and the sequence of denominators, important irrational numbers such as π =3.1415926535897. are catalogued under representative integer sequences such as decimal expansions, binary expansions, or continued fraction expansions. The OEIS was limited to plain ASCII text until 2011, yet it still uses a form of conventional mathematical notation. Greek letters are represented by their full names, e. g. mu for μ. Every sequence is identified by the letter A followed by six digits, sometimes referred to without the leading zeros, individual terms of sequences are separated by commas. Digit groups are not separated by commas, periods, or spaces, a represents the nth term of the sequence. Zero is often used to represent non-existent sequence elements, for example, A104157 enumerates the smallest prime of n² consecutive primes to form an n×n magic square of least magic constant, or 0 if no such magic square exists. The value of a is 2, a is 1480028129, but there is no such 2×2 magic square, so a is 0
37.
Pentagonal antiprism
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In geometry, the pentagonal antiprism is the third in an infinite set of antiprisms formed by an even-numbered sequence of triangle sides closed by two polygon caps. It consists of two joined to each other by a ring of 10 triangles for a total of 12 faces. Hence, it is a non-regular dodecahedron, if the faces of the pentagonal antiprism are all regular, it is a semiregular polyhedron. The two pentagonal faces of either shape can be augmented with pyramids to form the icosahedron, the pentagonal antiprism occurs as a constituent element in some higher-dimensional polytopes. Two rings of 10 pentagonal antiprisms each bound the hypersurface of the 4-dimensional grand antiprism, if these antiprisms are augmented with pentagonal prism pyramids and linked with rings of 5 tetrahedra each, the 600-cell is obtained. The pentagonal antiprism can be truncated and alternated to form a snub antiprism, Weisstein, pentagonal Antiprism, Interactive Polyhedron Model Virtual Reality Polyhedra www. georgehart. com, The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra VRML model Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try, A5
38.
Pentagrammic antiprism
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In geometry, the pentagrammic antiprism is one in an infinite set of nonconvex antiprisms formed by triangle sides and two regular star polygon caps, in this case two pentagrams. This polyhedron is identified with the indexed name U79 as a uniform polyhedron, an alternative representation with hollow centers to the pentagrams. Net, Prismatic uniform polyhedron Pentagrammic prism Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism Weisstein, Eric W. Pentagrammic antiprism
39.
Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism
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In geometry, the pentagrammic crossed-antiprism is one in an infinite set of nonconvex antiprisms formed by triangle sides and two regular star polygon caps, in this case two pentagrams. It differs from the pentagrammic antiprism by having opposite orientations on the two pentagrams and this polyhedron is identified with the indexed name U80 as a uniform polyhedron. The pentagrammic crossed-antiprism may be inscribed within an icosahedron, and has ten triangular faces in common with the great icosahedron and it has the same vertex arrangement as the pentagonal antiprism. In fact, it may be considered as a great icosahedron. Prismatic uniform polyhedron Weisstein, Eric W. Pentagrammic crossed antiprism
40.
Skew polygon
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In geometry, a skew polygon is a polygon whose vertices are not all coplanar. Skew polygons must have at least 4 vertices, the interior surface of such a polygon is not uniquely defined. Skew infinite polygons have vertices which are not all collinear, a zig-zag skew polygon or antiprismatic polygon has vertices which alternate on two parallel planes, and thus must be even-sided. Regular skew polygon in 3 dimensions are always zig-zag, a regular skew polygon is isogonal with equal edge lengths. In 3 dimensions a regular polygon is a zig-zag skew. The sides of an n-antiprism can define a regular skew 2n-gons, a regular skew n-gonal can be given a symbol # as a blend of a regular polygon, and an orthogonal line segment. The symmetry operation between sequential vertices is glide reflection, examples are shown on the uniform square and pentagon antiprisms. The star antiprisms also generate regular skew polygons with different connection order of the top, the filled top and bottom polygons are drawn for structural clarity, and are not part of the skew polygons. A regular compound skew 2n-gon can be constructed by adding a second skew polygon by a rotation. These shares the same vertices as the compound of antiprisms. Petrie polygons are regular skew polygons defined within regular polyhedra and polytopes, for example, the 5 Platonic solids have 4,6, and 10-sided regular skew polygons, as seen in these orthogonal projections with red edges around the projective envelope. The tetrahedron and octahedron include all the vertices in the zig-zag skew polygon and can be seen as a digonal, the regular skew polyhedron have regular faces, and regular skew polygon vertex figures. Three are infinite space-filling in 3-space and others exist in 4-space, an isogonal skew polygon is a skew polygon with one type of vertex, connected by two types of edges. Isogonal skew polygons with equal edge lengths can also be considered quasiregular and it is similar to a zig-zag skew polygon, existing on two planes, except allowing one edge to cross to the opposite plane, and the other edge to stay on the same plane. Isogonal skew polygons can be defined on even-sided n-gonal prisms, alternatingly following an edge of one side polygon, for example, on the vertices of a cube. Vertices alternate between top and bottom squares with red edges between sides, and blue edges along each side, in 4 dimensions a regular skew polygon can have vertices on a Clifford torus and related by a Clifford displacement. Unlike zig-zag skew polygons, skew polygons on double rotations can include an odd-number of sides, the petrie polygons of the regular 4-polytope define regular skew polygons. The Coxeter number for each coxeter group symmetry expresses how many sides a petrie polygon has and this is 5 sides for a 5-cell,8 sides for a tesseract and 16-cell,12 sides for a 24-cell, and 30 sides for a 120-cell and 600-cell
41.
Icosahedral symmetry
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A regular icosahedron has 60 rotational symmetries, and a symmetry order of 120 including transformations that combine a reflection and a rotation. A regular dodecahedron has the set of symmetries, since it is the dual of the icosahedron. The set of orientation-preserving symmetries forms a group referred to as A5, the latter group is also known as the Coxeter group H3, and is also represented by Coxeter notation, and Coxeter diagram. Icosahedral symmetry is not compatible with translational symmetry, so there are no associated crystallographic point groups or space groups. Presentations corresponding to the above are, I, ⟨ s, t ∣ s 2, t 3,5 ⟩ I h, ⟨ s, t ∣ s 3 −2, t 5 −2 ⟩ and these correspond to the icosahedral groups being the triangle groups. The first presentation was given by William Rowan Hamilton in 1856, note that other presentations are possible, for instance as an alternating group. The icosahedral rotation group I is of order 60, the group I is isomorphic to A5, the alternating group of even permutations of five objects. This isomorphism can be realized by I acting on various compounds, notably the compound of five cubes, the group contains 5 versions of Th with 20 versions of D3, and 6 versions of D5. The full icosahedral group Ih has order 120 and it has I as normal subgroup of index 2. The group Ih is isomorphic to I × Z2, or A5 × Z2, with the inversion in the corresponding to element. Ih acts on the compound of five cubes and the compound of five octahedra and it acts on the compound of ten tetrahedra, I acts on the two chiral halves, and −1 interchanges the two halves. Notably, it does not act as S5, and these groups are not isomorphic, the group contains 10 versions of D3d and 6 versions of D5d. I is also isomorphic to PSL2, but Ih is not isomorphic to SL2, all of these classes of subgroups are conjugate, and admit geometric interpretations. Note that the stabilizer of a vertex/edge/face/polyhedron and its opposite are equal, stabilizers of an opposite pair of vertices can be interpreted as stabilizers of the axis they generate. Stabilizers of a pair of edges in Ih give Z2 × Z2 × Z2, there are 5 of these, stabilizers of an opposite pair of faces can be interpreted as stabilizers of the anti-prism they generate. g. Flattening selected subsets of faces to combine each subset into one face, or replacing each face by multiple faces, in aluminum, the icosahedral structure was discovered experimentally three years after this by Dan Shechtman, which earned him the Nobel Prize in 2011. Icosahedral symmetry is equivalently the projective linear group PSL, and is the symmetry group of the modular curve X. The modular curve X is geometrically a dodecahedron with a cusp at the center of each polygonal face, similar geometries occur for PSL and more general groups for other modular curves
42.
Dodecahedron
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In geometry, a dodecahedron is any polyhedron with twelve flat faces. The most familiar dodecahedron is the dodecahedron, which is a Platonic solid. There are also three regular star dodecahedra, which are constructed as stellations of the convex form, all of these have icosahedral symmetry, order 120. The pyritohedron is a pentagonal dodecahedron, having the same topology as the regular one. The rhombic dodecahedron, seen as a case of the pyritohedron has octahedral symmetry. The elongated dodecahedron and trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron variations, along with the rhombic dodecahedra are space-filling, there are a large number of other dodecahedra. The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids, the dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve pentagonal faces. However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes. Note that the regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals with icosahedral symmetry. Its name comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite, the one being the cube. The coordinates of the eight vertices of the cube are, The coordinates of the 12 vertices of the cross-edges are. When h =1, the six cross-edges degenerate to points, when h =0, the cross-edges are absorbed in the facets of the cube, and the pyritohedron reduces to a cube. When h = √5 − 1/2, the inverse of the golden ratio, a reflected pyritohedron is made by swapping the nonzero coordinates above. The two pyritohedra can be superimposed to give the compound of two dodecahedra as seen in the image here, the regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal. A tetartoid is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry, like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes, although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does
43.
Icosahedron
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In geometry, an icosahedron is a polyhedron with 20 faces. The name comes from Greek εἴκοσι, meaning twenty, and ἕδρα, the plural can be either icosahedra or icosahedrons. There are many kinds of icosahedra, with some being more symmetrical than others, the best known is the Platonic, convex regular icosahedron. There are two objects, one convex and one concave, that can both be called regular icosahedra, each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. The term regular icosahedron generally refers to the variety, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex. The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra, like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges and its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron, having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex. Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron and it is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure. In their book The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra, Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron, of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them, other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are referred to as such. A regular icosahedron can be distorted or marked up as a lower symmetry, and is called a snub octahedron, snub tetratetrahedron, snub tetrahedron. This can be seen as a truncated octahedron. If all the triangles are equilateral, the symmetry can also be distinguished by colouring the 8 and 12 triangle sets differently, pyritohedral symmetry has the symbol, with order 24. Tetrahedral symmetry has the symbol, +, with order 12 and these lower symmetries allow geometric distortions from 20 equilateral triangular faces, instead having 8 equilateral triangles and 12 congruent isosceles triangles. These symmetries offer Coxeter diagrams, and respectively, each representing the lower symmetry to the regular icosahedron, the coordinates of the 12 vertices can be defined by the vectors defined by all the possible cyclic permutations and sign-flips of coordinates of the form. These coordinates represent the truncated octahedron with alternated vertices deleted and this construction is called a snub tetrahedron in its regular icosahedron form, generated by the same operations carried out starting with the vector, where ϕ is the golden ratio
44.
Icosidodecahedron
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In geometry, an icosidodecahedron is a polyhedron with twenty triangular faces and twelve pentagonal faces. An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon. As such it is one of the Archimedean solids and more particularly and its dual polyhedron is the rhombic triacontahedron. An icosidodecahedron can be split along any of six planes to form a pair of pentagonal rotundae, the icosidodecahedron can be considered a pentagonal gyrobirotunda, as a combination of two rotundae. In this form its symmetry is D5d, order 20, the wire-frame figure of the icosidodecahedron consists of six flat regular decagons, meeting in pairs at each of the 30 vertices. Convenient Cartesian coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron with unit edges are given by the permutations of. The icosidodecahedron has four special orthogonal projections, centered on a vertex, an edge, a face. The last two correspond to the A2 and H2 Coxeter planes, the icosidodecahedron can also be represented as a spherical tiling, and projected onto the plane via a stereographic projection. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. The icosidodecahedron is a dodecahedron and also a rectified icosahedron. With orbifold notation symmetry of all of these tilings are wythoff construction within a fundamental domain of symmetry. The icosidodecahedron is related to the Johnson solid called a pentagonal orthobirotunda created by two pentagonal rotunda connected as mirror images, the icosidodecahedron can therefore be called a pentagonal gyrobirotunda with the gyration between top and bottom halves. Eight uniform star polyhedra share the same vertex arrangement, of these, two also share the same edge arrangement, the small icosihemidodecahedron, and the small dodecahemidodecahedron. The vertex arrangement is shared with the compounds of five octahedra. In four-dimensional geometry the icosidodecahedron appears in the regular 600-cell as the slice that belongs to the vertex-first passage of the 600-cell through 3D space. In other words, the 30 vertices of the 600-cell which lie at arc distances of 90 degrees on its circumscribed hypersphere from a pair of vertices, are the vertices of an icosidodecahedron. The wire frame figure of the 600-cell consists of 72 flat regular decagons, six of these are the equatorial decagons to a pair of opposite vertices. They are precisely the six decagons which form the wire frame figure of the icosidodecahedron, in the mathematical field of graph theory, a icosidodecahedral graph is the graph of vertices and edges of the icosidodecahedron, one of the Archimedean solids
A006245 defines the number of solutions as 62, with 2 orientations for the first symmetric form, and 10 orientations for the other 6.
