1.
Jacques Piccard
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Jacques Piccard was a Swiss oceanographer and engineer, known for having developed underwater vehicles for studying ocean currents. In the Challenger Deep, he and Lt. Jacques Piccard was born in Brussels, Belgium to Auguste Piccard, Jacques father Auguste twice beat the record for reaching the highest altitude in a balloon, during 1931–1932. The Piccard family thus had the distinction of breaking world records for both the highest flight and the deepest dive. During that period Piccard also completed a diploma at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, together, Piccard and his father built three bathyscaphes between 1948 and 1955, which reached record depths of 4,600 feet and 10,000 feet. With this success, the younger Piccard abandoned economics to collaborate with his father on further improving the bathyscaphe and demonstrating its practicality for exploration, jacquess son Bertrand Piccard is continuing his family traditions. He commanded the first non-stop balloon flight around the world in March 1999, Jacques sought financial help from the U. S. Navy, which at that time was exploring various ways of designing submarines for underwater research. Jacques was welcomed to the U. S. to demonstrate his bathyscaphe, impressed by his designs, the U. S. Navy bought the vessel and hired Piccard as a consultant. Recognizing the strategic value of a workable submersible for submarine salvage and rescue, with his Trieste able to reach depths of 24,000 feet, Piccard and his colleagues planned on an even greater challenge—a voyage to the bottom of the sea. On 23 January 1960, Piccard and Lt. Don Walsh reached the floor of the Mariana Trench located in the western North Pacific Ocean. The depth of the descent was measured at 10,916 meters, later, more accurate, the descent took almost five hours. The bathyscaphe carried no scientific equipment and no experiments were conducted, the descent progressed without incident until 30,000 feet, when the crew heard a loud crack. They continued the dive, however, finally touching down in snuff-colored ooze at 35,800 feet, when they reached the featureless seabed, they saw a flat fish as well as a new type of shrimp. Marine biologists later disputed their observations, claiming that no fish could survive the 17,000 psi pressure at such depths, upon discovering cracks in the viewing windows, Piccard cut the voyage short. The historic dive received worldwide attention, and Piccard wrote an account of it, Seven Miles Down, with Robert Deitz, a planned return expedition, however, never occurred. The Trieste was expensive to maintain and operate and it was incapable of collecting samples and could not take photographs and so had little scientific data to show for its voyages. The original vessel was retired in 1961, although a version later located the remains of two lost U. S. Navy nuclear submarines, the Thresher and the Scorpion. Grumman selected a Navy submariner named Don Kazimir to be captain, the sixth man was Chet May from NASA. His specialty was man working in space and he appointed May as a NASA observer to accompany the mission and study the effects of prolonged isolation on the human crew
2.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
3.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
4.
Deep-submergence rescue vehicle
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A Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle is a type of Deep Submergence Vehicle used for rescue of downed submarines and clandestine missions. While DSRV is the term most often used by the United States Navy other nations have different designations for their vehicles, ASRV Remora was the Australian navys DSRV. It is based on a bell design. The Peoples Republic of China has three Dajiang class submarine rescue ships, each ship is equipped with two DSRV. The lead ship of the Dajiang class is the Changxingdao, france, Norway and the UK share the NATO Submarine Rescue System programme. Swedish Navy has submarine rescue ship HMS Belos which can carry Swedish submarine rescue vessel URF as well as British LR5, the submarine, modified as deployable about in year 2010, operates from the mother ship Anteo. SRV-300 replace MSM-1S/USEL, build by Cantieri Navali Breda, launched on 11.11.1978,13,2 t displacement, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force operate two DSRVs with dedicated mother ships. Chiyoda – Chiyoda Chihaya – Chihaya, the Korean navy operates a submarine rescue ship called Cheong Haejin. It has a mother ship. The model is based on a modified British design, russia is believed to have one vessel of the Bester class and five of the Priz class, which was involved in the failed attempt to rescue the crew of the Kursk. AS-28 – Project 1855 AS-34 – Project 1855 MV Swift Rescue, launched 29 November 2008, is Singapores first and it is equipped with a deep submergence rescue vehicle. The United Kingdom operates the LR5 submersible in a rescue role. It previously operated the Slingsby Engineering built LR3, the DSRVs were originally designed to work with USS Pigeon and USS Ortolan, but those two vessels have since been decommissioned and replaced by the Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System. DSRV-1 Mystic - Deactivation begun on 1 October 2008, replaced with remotely operated tethered SRDRS. DSRV-2 Avalon - currently at the Central Coast Maritime Museum, Morro Bay and their maximum operating depth is 1500 m. Power is provided by 2 large batteries, one fore, and one aft that power the electrical, hydraulic and life support systems. The DSRV uses mercury in a sealed system to allow themselves to match any angle in both pitch and roll so as to mate to a downed submarine that may be at an angle on the sea floor. The DSRV is capable of being transported by Air Force C-5 to anywhere in the world within 24 hours and it is then loaded onto a Mother Submarine
5.
Submarine communications cable
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A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean. The first submarine communications cables, laid in the 1850s, carried telegraphy traffic, subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic. Modern cables use optical technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet. Samuel Morse proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred hemp and India rubber, in the water of New York Harbor, the following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in Swansea Bay. A good insulator to cover the wire and prevent the current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. India rubber had been tried by Moritz von Jacobi, the Prussian electrical engineer, another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842. Gutta-percha, the juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, was introduced to Europe by William Montgomerie. Twenty years earlier, he had seen made of it in Singapore. It was tried on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne, walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a two-mile wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. It was simply a copper wire coated with gutta-percha, without any other protection, in 1853 further successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with Ireland, Belgium and the Netherlands, and crossing The Belts in Denmark. The British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between Portpatrick and Donaghadee using the collier William Hutt, the same ship was used for the link from Dover to Ostend in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company. Meanwhile, the Electric & International Telegraph Company completed two cables across the North Sea, from Orford Ness to Scheveningen, The Netherlands and they were laid by the Monarch, a paddle steamer which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment. In 1858 the Steamship Elba was used to lay a Telegraph cable from Jersey to Guernsey, on to Alderney, problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable laying operations, the first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by Cyrus West Field, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project, it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the worlds largest steamship, Great Eastern later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870. From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay, in terms of demand, Britains vast colonial empire led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government
6.
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
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A remotely operated underwater vehicle is a tethered underwater mobile device. This meaning is different from remote control vehicles operating on land or in the air, ROVs are unoccupied, highly maneuverable, and operated by a crew aboard a vessel. They are common in deep water industries such as offshore hydrocarbon extraction, the TMS is either a garage-like device which contains the ROV during lowering through the splash zone or, on larger work-class ROVs, a separate assembly which sits on top of the ROV. The purpose of the TMS is to lengthen and shorten the tether so the effect of cable drag where there are underwater currents is minimized. The umbilical cable is a cable that contains a group of electrical conductors and fiber optics that carry electric power, video. Where used, the TMS then relays the signals and power for the ROV down the tether cable, once at the ROV, the electric power is distributed between the components of the ROV. However, in applications, most of the electric power drives a high-power electric motor which drives a hydraulic pump. The pump is used for propulsion and to power equipment such as torque tools. Most ROVs are equipped with at least a camera and lights. Additional equipment is added to expand the vehicle’s capabilities. In the 1970s and 80s the Royal Navy used Cutlet, a remotely operated submersible, RCA maintained the Cutlet 02 System based at BUTEC ranges, whilst the 03 system was based at the submarine base on the Clyde and was operated and maintained by RN personnel. The U. S. Navy funded most of the early ROV technology development in the 1960s into what was named a Cable-Controlled Underwater Recovery Vehicle. This created the capability to perform deep-sea rescue operation and recover objects from the ocean floor, building on this technology base, the offshore oil & gas industry created the work-class ROVs to assist in the development of offshore oil fields. More than a decade after they were first introduced, ROVs became essential in the 1980s when much of the new offshore development exceeded the reach of human divers. During the mid-1980s the marine ROV industry suffered from serious stagnation in development caused in part by a drop in the price of oil. Since then, technological development in the ROV industry has accelerated and their tasks range from simple inspection of subsea structures, pipelines, and platforms, to connecting pipelines and placing underwater manifolds. They are used both in the initial construction of a sub-sea development and the subsequent repair and maintenance. Submersible ROVs have been used to locate many historic shipwrecks, including the RMS Titanic, the Bismarck, USS Yorktown, and SS Central America
7.
Stirling engine
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More specifically, the Stirling engine is a closed-cycle regenerative heat engine with a permanently gaseous working fluid. The inclusion of a regenerator differentiates the Stirling engine from other closed cycle hot air engines, originally conceived in 1816 as an industrial prime mover to rival the steam engine, its practical use was largely confined to low-power domestic applications for over a century. Stirling engines have a high efficiency compared to engines, being able to reach 50% efficiency. They are also capable of operation and can use almost any heat source. The heat energy source is generated external to the Stirling engine rather than by internal combustion as with the Otto cycle or Diesel cycle engines. This type of engine is generating interest as the core component of micro combined heat and power units, in which it is more efficient. However, it has a low ratio, rendering it more suitable for use in static installations where space. This contrasts with a combustion engine where heat input is by combustion of a fuel within the body of the working fluid. Most of the many possible implementations of the Stirling engine fall into the category of reciprocating piston engine, the Stirling engine was invented and patented by Robert Stirling in 1816. It followed earlier attempts at making an air engine but was probably the first put to use when, in 1818. The main subject of Stirlings original patent was a heat exchanger, the patent also described in detail the employment of one form of the economiser in his unique closed-cycle air engine design in which application it is now generally known as a regenerator. These generally operated at lower temperatures so as not to tax available materials and their selling point was that, unlike a steam engine, they could be operated safely by anybody capable of managing a fire. Several types remained in production beyond the end of the century, during the early part of the twentieth century the role of the Stirling engine as a domestic motor was gradually taken over by electric motors and small internal combustion engines. By the late 1930s, it was forgotten, only produced for toys. Around that time, Philips was seeking to expand sales of its radios into parts of the world where grid electricity and batteries were not consistently available. After a systematic comparison of various prime movers, the decided to go forward with the Stirling engine, citing its quiet operation. By 1951, the 180/200 W generator set designated MP1002CA was ready for production and a batch of 250 was planned. Additionally, the advent of transistor radios and their lower power requirements meant that the original rationale for the set was disappearing
8.
DSV Alvin
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Alvin is a manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The vehicle was built by General Mills Electronics Group in Minneapolis, named to honor the prime mover and creative inspiration for the vehicle, Allyn Vine, Alvin was commissioned on 5 June 1964. The submersible is launched from the deep submergence support vessel RV Atlantis, Research conducted by Alvin has been featured in nearly 2,000 scientific papers. Alvin was designed as a replacement for bathyscaphes and other less maneuverable oceanographic vehicles and its more nimble design was made possible in part by the development of syntactic foam, which is buoyant and yet strong enough to serve as a structural material at great depths. It allows for two scientists and one pilot to dive for up to nine hours at 4,500 meters, the submersible features two robotic arms and can be fitted with mission-specific sampling and experimental gear. The plug hatch of the vessel is 0.48 m in diameter and somewhat thicker than the 2-inch thick titanium pressure hull. In an emergency, if Alvin were stuck underwater with occupants inside, the titanium sphere would then rise to the surface uncontrolled. Harold E. Froehlich was one of the designers of the Alvin. Alvin, first of its class of deep submergence vehicle, was built to dive to 2,440 meters. Each of the Alvin-class DSVs have different depth capabilities, however Alvin is the only one seconded to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, with the others staying with the United States Navy. Alvins first deep sea tests took place off Andros Island, the Bahamas, on 20 July 1965 Alvin made its first 6, 000-foot manned dive for the Navy to obtain certification. On 17 March 1966, Alvin was used to locate a submerged 1. 45-megaton hydrogen bomb lost in a United States Air Force midair accident over Palomares, the bomb, found resting nearly 910 m deep, was raised intact on 7 April. On 6 July 1967, the Alvin was attacked by a swordfish during dive 202, the swordfish became trapped in the Alvins skin, and the Alvin was forced to make an emergency surface. The attack took place at 2,000 feet below the surface, the fish was recovered at the surface and cooked for dinner. Lulu, a vessel created from a pair of decommissioned U. S. Navy pontoon boats with a structure added on, was lowering Alvin over the side when two steel cables snapped. There were three crew members aboard Alvin at the time, and the hatch was open, situated between the pontoons with no deck underneath, Alvin hit the water and rapidly began to sink. Severe weather prevented the recovery of Alvin throughout late 1968, Alvin was found to be upright and appeared intact except for damage to the stern. It was decided to attempt recovery, although no object of Alvins size had ever recovered from a depth of 5,000 feet
9.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
10.
Deepsea Challenger
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Deepsea Challenger is a 7. 3-metre deep-diving submersible designed to reach the bottom of Challenger Deep, the deepest-known point on Earth. On 26 March 2012, Canadian film director James Cameron piloted the craft to accomplish this goal in the second manned dive reaching the Challenger Deep. Deepsea Challenger was secretly built in Australia, in partnership with the National Geographic Society and with support from Rolex, the construction of the submersible was headed by Australian engineer Ron Allum. Many of the developer team members hail from Sydneys cave-diving fraternity including Allum himself with many years cave-diving experience. The foam is composed of small hollow glass spheres suspended in an epoxy resin. The foam supersedes gasoline-filled tanks for flotation as used in the historic submarine, Allum also built many innovations, necessary to overcome the limitations of existing products. Allum gained much of his developing the electronic communication used in Camerons Titanic dives in filming Ghosts of the Abyss, Bismarck. Power systems for the submarine were supplied by batteries that were housed within the foam. The lithium battery charging systems were designed by Ron Allum, the submersible contains over 180 onboard systems, including batteries, thrusters, life support, 3D cameras, and LED lighting. These interconnected systems are monitored and controlled by a programmable automation controller from Temecula, the crucial structural elements, such as the backbone and pilot sphere that carried Cameron, were engineered by the Tasmanian company Finite Elements. The submersible features a pilot sphere measuring 1.1 metres in diameter, the sphere, with steel walls 64 mm thick, was tested for its ability to withstand the required 114 megapascals of pressure in a pressure chamber at Pennsylvania State University. The sphere sits at the base of the 11. 8-tonne vehicle, the vehicle operates in a vertical attitude, and carries 500 kg of ballast weight that allows it to both sink to the bottom, and when released, rise to the surface. In late January 2012, to test systems, Cameron spent three hours in the submersible while submerged just below the surface in Australias Sydney Naval Yard. On 21 February 2012, a test dive intended to reach a depth of over 1,000 m was aborted after only an hour because of problems with cameras and life support systems. On 28 February 2012, during a dive, Cameron spent six hours in the submersible at a depth of 3,700 m. Power system fluctuations and unforeseen currents presented unexpected challenges, on 4 March 2012, a record-setting dive to more than 7,260 m stopped short of the bottom of the New Britain Trench when problems with the vertical thrusters led Cameron to return to the surface. Days later, with the problem solved, Cameron successfully took the submersible to the bottom of the New Britain Trench. There, he found a plain of loose sediment, anemones, jellyfish
11.
USNS Indomitable (T-AGOS-7)
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USNS Indomitable was a United States Navy Stalwart class ocean surveillance ship in service from 1985 to 2002. From 2003 until 18 June 2014, she was in commission in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as the research ship NOAAS McArthur II. Indomitable was laid down by the Tacoma Boatbuilding Company at Tacoma, Washington on 26 January 1985 and she was delivered to the U. S. Navy on 26 November 1985. Stalwart-class ships were designed to collect underwater acoustical data in support of Cold War anti-submarine warfare operations, accordingly, Indomitable employed Surveillance Towed Array Sensor System equipment on Cold War underwater surveillance duties during the final years of the Cold War. After the Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in late December 1991, in 1993, Indomitables SURTASS gear was removed, and she received an AN/SPS-49 radar for use in counternarcotics surveillance. In her new role for counter narcotics patrol she deployed for two missions per year starting September 1993, as well as her civilian crew, she embarked 18 Navy personal to operate her sensors and coordinate with authorities. For her first five missions she averaged 300 days underway per year operating in the Caribbean Sea, due to her extended at Sea times, she operated a Civilian Ham Radio station from 1994-1995 for the crew to maintain contact with their families. Stateside operators freely cooperated making long distance calls for the grateful crew, the Navy retired Indomitable from service on 2 December 2002 and struck her from the Naval Vessel Register the same day. On 9 December 2002, Indomitable was transferred to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA converted her into an oceanographic research ship. She was commissioned in the NOAA fleet as NOAAS McArthur II on 20 May 2003, replacing the NOAA survey ship NOAAS McArthur and she can seat 16 people at a time in her crews mess. McArthur II has a wet laboratory freezer, a dry laboratory freezer, on deck, she has a 2. 3-ton-capacity deck crane with a boom that extends to 46 feet, two oceanographic winches, a movable A-frame, and a movable J-frame. She carries one 24-foot and one 21-foot Zodiac rigid-hulled inflatable boats, McArthur II was an active member of the NOAA Pacific Fleet with her home port at Seattle, Washington. She departed Seattle on her maiden NOAA cruise on 1 June 2003. S, McArthur II was retired by NOAA on 18 June 2014. She had been inactive since 2011, the Naval Institute Guide to Combat Fleets of the World, 15th Edition, Their Ships, Aircraft, and Systems. Annapolis, Maryland, United States Naval Institute Press,2007 and this article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain. The entry can be found Naval Vessel Register, Indomitable here, navSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive T-AGOS-7 Indomitable NOAA MacArthur II NOAA Marine Operations NOAA Ship McArthur II
12.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
Bathyscaphe Trieste – 11,000 m
Deepsea Challenger – 11,000 m
Archimède – 9,500 m
DSV Limiting Factor – 8.500 m
Jiaolong – 7,500 m
DSV Shinkai 6500 – 6,500 m
Konsul – 6,500 m
