1.
Jacques Piccard
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Jacques Piccard was a Swiss oceanographer and engineer, known for having developed underwater vehicles for studying ocean currents. In the Challenger Deep, he and Lt. Jacques Piccard was born in Brussels, Belgium to Auguste Piccard, Jacques father Auguste twice beat the record for reaching the highest altitude in a balloon, during 1931–1932. The Piccard family thus had the distinction of breaking world records for both the highest flight and the deepest dive. During that period Piccard also completed a diploma at the Graduate Institute of International Studies in Geneva, together, Piccard and his father built three bathyscaphes between 1948 and 1955, which reached record depths of 4,600 feet and 10,000 feet. With this success, the younger Piccard abandoned economics to collaborate with his father on further improving the bathyscaphe and demonstrating its practicality for exploration, jacquess son Bertrand Piccard is continuing his family traditions. He commanded the first non-stop balloon flight around the world in March 1999, Jacques sought financial help from the U. S. Navy, which at that time was exploring various ways of designing submarines for underwater research. Jacques was welcomed to the U. S. to demonstrate his bathyscaphe, impressed by his designs, the U. S. Navy bought the vessel and hired Piccard as a consultant. Recognizing the strategic value of a workable submersible for submarine salvage and rescue, with his Trieste able to reach depths of 24,000 feet, Piccard and his colleagues planned on an even greater challenge—a voyage to the bottom of the sea. On 23 January 1960, Piccard and Lt. Don Walsh reached the floor of the Mariana Trench located in the western North Pacific Ocean. The depth of the descent was measured at 10,916 meters, later, more accurate, the descent took almost five hours. The bathyscaphe carried no scientific equipment and no experiments were conducted, the descent progressed without incident until 30,000 feet, when the crew heard a loud crack. They continued the dive, however, finally touching down in snuff-colored ooze at 35,800 feet, when they reached the featureless seabed, they saw a flat fish as well as a new type of shrimp. Marine biologists later disputed their observations, claiming that no fish could survive the 17,000 psi pressure at such depths, upon discovering cracks in the viewing windows, Piccard cut the voyage short. The historic dive received worldwide attention, and Piccard wrote an account of it, Seven Miles Down, with Robert Deitz, a planned return expedition, however, never occurred. The Trieste was expensive to maintain and operate and it was incapable of collecting samples and could not take photographs and so had little scientific data to show for its voyages. The original vessel was retired in 1961, although a version later located the remains of two lost U. S. Navy nuclear submarines, the Thresher and the Scorpion. Grumman selected a Navy submariner named Don Kazimir to be captain, the sixth man was Chet May from NASA. His specialty was man working in space and he appointed May as a NASA observer to accompany the mission and study the effects of prolonged isolation on the human crew
2.
Don Walsh
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Don Walsh is an American oceanographer, explorer and marine policy specialist. He and Jacques Piccard were aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste when it made a maximum descent into the Mariana Trench on January 23,1960. The depth was measured at 35,813 feet, but later, Walsh has been associated with ocean science, engineering, and marine policy for more than 50 years. He was commissioned as an officer in the United States Navy upon graduation from the United States Naval Academy in 1954 and he attained the rank of captain by the time he retired. He spent 15 years at sea, mostly in submarines, and was a submarine commander and he worked with ocean-related research and development for the navy. A marine maneuvering and auxiliary propulsion manufacture in nearby Santa Fe Springs, in 1989 his company, International Maritime Incorporated, contracted a joint venture with the P. P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology to establish a maintenance company, Soyuz Marine Service. Walsh continues to support ocean sciences in his work on the Ocean Sciences Board at the National Academy of Sciences, in 2001, Walsh was elected to the National Academy of Engineering. Walsh holds a faculty appointment at Oregon State University in the College of Earth, Ocean, Walsh was named one of the worlds great explorers by Life magazine. In the MIR submersible, he dived on the RMS Titanic, the German battleship Bismarck, and he has spent more than five decades traveling the world conducting research in, on, and around the oceans. On April 14,2010, The National Geographic Society bestowed its greatest honor, the U. S. Navy awarded Walsh its Distinguished Public Service Award. Walsh lives with his wife Joan near Coquille, Oregon and he has managed a marine consulting business since 1976, and conducts about 5 deep-sea expeditions per year. He remains active with the National Academy of Sciences, the Ocean Elders and it was reported in 2010 that Walsh visited the deep-sea submersible Jiaolong and its makers at the China Ship Scientific Research Center.35 miles, in 2012. Walsh joined the team oversaw the dive of the Deepsea Challenger mission where James Cameron dove solo to the bottom of the Mariana Trench on March 26,2012. Walsh was the inspiration for Chris Wrights 2015 book No More Worlds to Conquer, the book - about moving on from the defining moment in ones life - was inspired by Walshs answer to Wrights question, what came next after the Trieste dive. Walsh responded, Well, a lot of people think I died, over the Top, Sailing the Northeast Passage. United States Department of the Navy, archived from the original on 2002-04-18. Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence, the Explorers Club Northern California Chapter
3.
Challenger Deep
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The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point in the Earths seabed hydrosphere, with a depth of 10,898 to 10,916 m by direct measurement from submersibles, and slightly more by sonar bathymetry. It is in the Pacific Ocean, at the end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group. The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench and its bottom is about 11 km long and 1.6 km wide, with gently sloping sides. The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island,287 km southwest and it is located in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia,1.6 km from its border with ocean territory associated with Guam. The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger, according to the August 2011 version of the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names, the location and depth of the Challenger Deep are 11°22. 4′N 142°35. 5′E and 10,920 m ±10 m. June 2009 sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the Simrad EM120 aboard the RV Kilo Moana indicated a depth of 10,971 metres, only four descents have ever been achieved. The first descent by any vehicle was by the manned bathyscaphe Trieste in 1960 and this was followed by the unmanned ROVs Kaikō in 1995 and Nereus in 2009. In March 2012 a manned solo descent was made by the deep-submergence vehicle Deepsea Challenger and these expeditions measured very similar depths of 10,898 to 10,916 metres. Over many years, the search for the point of maximum depth has involved many different vessels, the HMS Challenger expedition first sounded the depths now known as the Challenger Deep. This first sounding was made on 23 March 1875 at station 225, the reported depth was 4,475 fathoms at 11°24′N 143°16′E, based on two separate soundings. A1912 book, The Depths of the Ocean by Sir John Murray, records the depth of the Challenger Deep as 31,614 ft, Murray was one of the expedition scientists. This survey recorded the deepest part of the trench using echo sounding, a depth of 5,960 fathoms was measured at 11°19′N 142°15′E. The maximum surveyed depth of the Challenger Deep was reported in 1957 by the Soviet Research vessel Vityaz recording a spot 11,034 metres ±50 m deep at 11°20. 9′N 142°11. 5′E. It was dubbed the Mariana Hollow and is listed in reference sources, including the Encyclopædia Britannica, articles in National Geographic. The pressure at depth is approximately 1,099 times that at the surface. In 1959, the US Navy research vessel RV Stranger using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m ±10 m at 11°20. 0′N 142°11. 8′E. In 1962, the US Navy research vessel RV Spencer F. Baird using a frequency-controlled depth recorder surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m ±10 m at 11°20. 0′N 142°11. 8′E. In 1975 and 1980, the US Navy research vessel RV Thomas Washington using a precision depth recorder with satellite positioning surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m ±10 m at 11°20. 0′N 142°11. 8′E
4.
Ocean
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An ocean is a body of saline water that composes much of a planets hydrosphere. On Earth, an ocean is one of the major divisions of the World Ocean. These are, in descending order by area, the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, the word sea is often used interchangeably with ocean in American English but, strictly speaking, a sea is a body of saline water partly or fully enclosed by land. The ocean contains 97% of Earths water, and oceanographers have stated that less than 5% of the World Ocean has been explored, the total volume is approximately 1.35 billion cubic kilometers with an average depth of nearly 3,700 meters. As the world ocean is the component of Earths hydrosphere, it is integral to all known life, forms part of the carbon cycle. The world ocean is the habitat of 230,000 known species, but because much of it is unexplored, the origin of Earths oceans remains unknown, oceans are thought to have formed in the Hadean period and may have been the impetus for the emergence of life. Extraterrestrial oceans may be composed of water or other elements and compounds, the only confirmed large stable bodies of extraterrestrial surface liquids are the lakes of Titan, although there is evidence for the existence of oceans elsewhere in the Solar System. Early in their histories, Mars and Venus are theorized to have had large water oceans. The Mars ocean hypothesis suggests that nearly a third of the surface of Mars was once covered by water, compounds such as salts and ammonia dissolved in water lower its freezing point so that water might exist in large quantities in extraterrestrial environments as brine or convecting ice. Unconfirmed oceans are speculated beneath the surface of many planets and natural satellites, notably. The Solar Systems giant planets are thought to have liquid atmospheric layers of yet to be confirmed compositions. Oceans may also exist on exoplanets and exomoons, including surface oceans of water within a circumstellar habitable zone. Ocean planets are a type of planet with a surface completely covered with liquid. The concept of Ōkeanós has an Indo-European connection, Greek Ōkeanós has been compared to the Vedic epithet ā-śáyāna-, predicated of the dragon Vṛtra-, who captured the cows/rivers. Related to this notion, the Okeanos is represented with a dragon-tail on some early Greek vases, though generally described as several separate oceans, these waters comprise one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography. The major oceanic divisions – listed below in descending order of area and volume – are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, Oceans are fringed by smaller, adjoining bodies of water such as seas, gulfs, bays, bights, and straits. The Mid-Oceanic Ridge of the World are connected and form the Ocean Ridge, the continuous mountain range is 65,000 km long, and the total length of the oceanic ridge system is 80,000 km long
5.
Bathyscaphe Trieste
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On 23 January 1960, Jacques Piccard and US Navy Lieutenant Don Walsh achieved the goal of Project Nekton. Trieste was the first manned vessel to have reached the bottom of the Challenger Deep, Trieste consisted of a float chamber filled with gasoline for buoyancy, with a separate pressure sphere to hold the crew. This configuration, allowed for a dive, rather than the previous bathysphere designs in which a sphere was lowered to depth. Trieste was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard and originally built in Italy and his pressure sphere, composed of two sections, was built by the company Acciaierie Terni. The upper part was manufactured by the company Cantieri Riuniti dellAdriatico, in the Free Territory of Trieste, the installation of the pressure sphere was done in the Cantiere navale di Castellammare di Stabia, near Naples. Trieste was launched on 26 August 1953 into the Mediterranean Sea near the Isle of Capri, the design was based on previous experience with the bathyscaphe FNRS-2. Trieste was operated by the French Navy, after several years of operation in the Mediterranean Sea, the Trieste was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for $250,000. At the time of Project Nekton, Trieste was more than 15 m long, the pressure sphere provided just enough room for two people. Trieste was subsequently fitted with a new sphere, manufactured by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany. To withstand the pressure of 1.25 metric tons per cm² at the bottom of Challenger Deep. The sphere weighed 14.25 metric tons in air and 8 metric tons in water, outside illumination for the craft was provided by quartz arc-light bulbs, which proved to be able to withstand the over 1,000 standard atmospheres of pressure without any modification. Trieste departed San Diego on 5 October 1959 for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, on 23 January 1960, she reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep, carrying Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh. This was the first time a vessel, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest known point of the Earths oceans, the descent to the ocean floor took 4 hours 47 minutes at a descent rate of 0.9 metres per second. After passing 9,000 metres, one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor. The temperature in the cabin was 7 °C at the time, while at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh unexpectedly regained the ability to communicate with the support ship, USS Wandank, using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system. While at the bottom, Piccard and Walsh observed a number of small sole and their claim the fish were swimming would prove at least some vertebrate life can withstand the extreme pressure at the oceans deepest point. They noted that the floor of the Challenger Deep consisted of diatomaceous ooze, the ascent took 3 hours and 15 minutes. Beginning in April 1963, Trieste was modified and used in the Atlantic Ocean to search for the missing submarine USS Thresher, Trieste was delivered to Boston Harbor by USS Point Defiance under the command of Captain H. H. Haisten
6.
Auguste Piccard
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Piccard and his twin brother Jean Felix Piccard were born in Basel, Switzerland on 28 January 1884. He was a member of the Solvay Congress of 1922,1924,1927,1930 and 1933, supported by the Belgian Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique Piccard constructed his gondola. On 27 May 1931, Auguste Piccard and Paul Kipfer took off from Augsburg, Germany, during this flight, Piccard was able to gather substantial data on the upper atmosphere, as well as measure cosmic rays. An article in Popular Science in August 1931 described their journey, during the ascent, the aluminum ball began to leak. They plugged it desperately with vaseline and cotton waste, stopping the leak, in the first half hour, the balloon shot upward nine miles. Through portholes, the saw the earth through copper-colored, then bluish. It seemed a flat disk with upturned edge, at the ten mile level the sky appeared a deep, dark blue. With observations complete, the tried to descend, but couldnt. While their oxygen tanks emptied, they floated aimlessly over Germany, Austria, cool evening air contracted the balloons gas and brought them down on a glacier near Ober-Gurgl, Austria, with one hours supply of oxygen to spare. On 18 August 1932, launched from Dübendorf, Switzerland, Piccard and he ultimately made a total of twenty-seven balloon flights, setting a final record of 23,000 m. In the mid-1930s, Piccards interests shifted when he realized that a modification of his high-altitude balloon cockpit would allow descent into the deep ocean, by 1937, he had designed the bathyscaphe, a small steel gondola built to withstand great external pressure. Construction began, but was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II, resuming work in 1945, he completed the bubble-shaped cockpit that maintained normal air pressure for a person inside the capsule even as the water pressure outside increased to over 46 MPa. Above the heavy steel capsule, a large tank was attached and filled with a low density liquid for buoyancy. Liquids are relatively incompressible and can provide buoyancy that does not change as the pressure increases, and so, the huge tank was filled with gasoline, not as a fuel, but as flotation. To make the now floating craft sink, tons of iron were attached to the float with a mechanism to allow resurfacing. This craft was named FNRS-2 and made a number of unmanned dives in 1948 before being given to the French Navy in 1950, there, it was redesigned, and in 1954, it took a man safely down 4,176 m. He died on 24 March 1962 of an attack at his home in Lausanne, Switzerland. Piccard held an appointment in Brussels where Hergé spotted his unmistakable figure in the street
7.
Deep diving
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Deep diving has different meanings depending on the context. For some recreational diving agencies, Deep diving, or Deep diver may be a certification awarded to divers that have trained to dive to a specified depth range. In technical diving, a depth below about 60 metres where hypoxic breathing gas becomes necessary to avoid oxygen toxicity may be considered a deep dive, in professional diving, a depth that requires special equipment, procedures, or advanced training may be considered a deep dive. Deep diving can mean something else in the commercial diving field, for instance early experiments carried out by Comex S. A. using hydrox and trimix attained far greater depths than any recreational technical diving. One example being the Comex Janus IV open-sea dive to 501 metres in 1977 and these divers needed to breathe special gas mixtures because they were exposed to very high ambient pressure. An atmospheric diving suit allows very deep dives of up to 2,000 feet and these suits are capable of withstanding the pressure at great depth permitting the diver to remain at normal atmospheric pressure. This eliminates the problems associated with breathing high-pressure gases, Deep diving has more hazards and greater risk than basic open water diving. Nitrogen narcosis, the “narks” or “rapture of the deep”, starts with feelings of euphoria and over-confidence but then leads to numbness and memory impairment similar to alcohol intoxication. Decompression sickness, or the “bends”, can happen if a diver ascends too fast and these bubbles produce mechanical and biochemical effects that lead to the condition. The onset of symptoms depends on the severity of the gas loading and may develop during ascent in severe cases. Bone degeneration is caused by the bubbles forming inside the bones, most commonly the upper arm, Deep diving involves a much greater danger of all of these, and presents the additional risk of oxygen toxicity, which may lead to a convulsion underwater. Very deep diving using a helium–oxygen mixture carries a risk of high-pressure nervous syndrome, coping with the physical and physiological stresses of deep diving requires good physical conditioning. Using normal scuba equipment, breathing gas consumption is proportional to ambient pressure - so at 50 metres, where the pressure is 6 bar, the need to do decompression stops increases with depth. A diver at 6 metres may be able to dive for many hours without needing to do decompression stops, at depths greater than 40 metres, a diver may have only a few minutes at the deepest part of the dive before decompression stops are needed. In the event of an emergency the diver cannot make an ascent to the surface without risking decompression sickness. All of these result in the amount of breathing gas required for deep diving being much greater than for shallow open water diving. The diver needs a disciplined approach to planning and conducting dives to minimise these additional risks, both equipment and procedures can be adapted to deal with the problems of greater depth. Usually the two are combined, as the procedures must be adapted to suit the equipment, and in cases the equipment is needed to facilitate the procedures
8.
Submarine
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A submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operation underwater. It differs from a submersible, which has more limited underwater capability, the term most commonly refers to a large, crewed vessel. It is also used historically or colloquially to refer to remotely operated vehicles and robots, as well as medium-sized or smaller vessels, such as the midget submarine. The noun submarine evolved as a form of submarine boat, by naval tradition, submarines are usually referred to as boats rather than as ships. Although experimental submarines had been built before, submarine design took off during the 19th century, Submarines were first widely used during World War I, and now figure in many navies large and small. Civilian uses for submarines include marine science, salvage, exploration and facility inspection, Submarines can also be modified to perform more specialized functions such as search-and-rescue missions or undersea cable repair. Submarines are also used in tourism, and for undersea archaeology, most large submarines consist of a cylindrical body with hemispherical ends and a vertical structure, usually located amidships, which houses communications and sensing devices as well as periscopes. In modern submarines, this structure is the sail in American usage, a conning tower was a feature of earlier designs, a separate pressure hull above the main body of the boat that allowed the use of shorter periscopes. There is a propeller at the rear, and various hydrodynamic control fins, smaller, deep-diving and specialty submarines may deviate significantly from this traditional layout. Submarines use diving planes and also change the amount of water, Submarines have one of the widest ranges of types and capabilities of any vessel. Submarines can work at greater depths than are survivable or practical for human divers, modern deep-diving submarines derive from the bathyscaphe, which in turn evolved from the diving bell. In 1578, the English mathematician William Bourne recorded in his book Inventions or Devises one of the first plans for an underwater navigation vehicle and its unclear whether he ever carried out his idea. The first submersible of whose construction there exists reliable information was designed and built in 1620 by Cornelis Drebbel and it was propelled by means of oars. By the mid-18th century, over a dozen patents for submarines/submersible boats had been granted in England, in 1747, Nathaniel Symons patented and built the first known working example of the use of a ballast tank for submersion. His design used leather bags that could fill with water to submerge the craft, a mechanism was used to twist the water out of the bags and cause the boat to resurface. In 1749, the Gentlemens Magazine reported that a design had initially been proposed by Giovanni Borelli in 1680. By this point of development, further improvement in design stagnated for over a century, until new industrial technologies for propulsion. The first military submarine was the Turtle, a hand-powered acorn-shaped device designed by the American David Bushnell to accommodate a single person and it was the first verified submarine capable of independent underwater operation and movement, and the first to use screws for propulsion
9.
Deep-submergence rescue vehicle
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A Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle is a type of Deep Submergence Vehicle used for rescue of downed submarines and clandestine missions. While DSRV is the term most often used by the United States Navy other nations have different designations for their vehicles, ASRV Remora was the Australian navys DSRV. It is based on a bell design. The Peoples Republic of China has three Dajiang class submarine rescue ships, each ship is equipped with two DSRV. The lead ship of the Dajiang class is the Changxingdao, france, Norway and the UK share the NATO Submarine Rescue System programme. Swedish Navy has submarine rescue ship HMS Belos which can carry Swedish submarine rescue vessel URF as well as British LR5, the submarine, modified as deployable about in year 2010, operates from the mother ship Anteo. SRV-300 replace MSM-1S/USEL, build by Cantieri Navali Breda, launched on 11.11.1978,13,2 t displacement, the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force operate two DSRVs with dedicated mother ships. Chiyoda – Chiyoda Chihaya – Chihaya, the Korean navy operates a submarine rescue ship called Cheong Haejin. It has a mother ship. The model is based on a modified British design, russia is believed to have one vessel of the Bester class and five of the Priz class, which was involved in the failed attempt to rescue the crew of the Kursk. AS-28 – Project 1855 AS-34 – Project 1855 MV Swift Rescue, launched 29 November 2008, is Singapores first and it is equipped with a deep submergence rescue vehicle. The United Kingdom operates the LR5 submersible in a rescue role. It previously operated the Slingsby Engineering built LR3, the DSRVs were originally designed to work with USS Pigeon and USS Ortolan, but those two vessels have since been decommissioned and replaced by the Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System. DSRV-1 Mystic - Deactivation begun on 1 October 2008, replaced with remotely operated tethered SRDRS. DSRV-2 Avalon - currently at the Central Coast Maritime Museum, Morro Bay and their maximum operating depth is 1500 m. Power is provided by 2 large batteries, one fore, and one aft that power the electrical, hydraulic and life support systems. The DSRV uses mercury in a sealed system to allow themselves to match any angle in both pitch and roll so as to mate to a downed submarine that may be at an angle on the sea floor. The DSRV is capable of being transported by Air Force C-5 to anywhere in the world within 24 hours and it is then loaded onto a Mother Submarine
10.
Telephone tapping
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Telephone tapping is the monitoring of telephone and Internet conversations by a third party, often by covert means. The wire tap received its name because, historically, the connection was an actual electrical tap on the telephone line. Legal wiretapping by a government agency is also called lawful interception, passive wiretapping monitors or records the traffic, while active wiretapping alters or otherwise affects it. Lawful interception is officially controlled in many countries to safeguard privacy. Illegal or unauthorized telephone tapping is often a criminal offense, however, the telephone recording laws in most U. S. states require only one party to be aware of the recording, while 12 states require both parties to be aware. It is considered better practice to announce at the beginning of a call that the conversation is being recorded, in Canadian law, police are allowed to wiretap without the authorization from a court when there is the risk for imminent harm, such as kidnapping or a bomb threat. They must believe that the interception is immediately necessary to prevent an act that could cause serious harm to any person or to property. This was introduced by Rob Nicholson on February 11,2013, the Supreme Court gave Parliament twelve months to rewrite a new law. Bill C-51 was then released, which transformed the Canadian Security Intelligence Agency from an intelligence gathering agency, legal protection extends to private communications where the participants would not expect unintended persons to learn the content of the communication. A single participant can legally, and covertly record a conversation, otherwise police normally need a judicial warrant based upon probable grounds to record a conversation they are not a part of. The government has set up the Centralized Monitoring System to automate the process of lawful interception, the government of India on 2015 December 2 in a reply to parliament question no. The contracts or licenses by which the state telephone companies often require that the companies must provide access to tapping lines to law enforcement. When telephone exchanges were mechanical, a tap had to be installed by technicians, now that many exchanges have been converted to digital technology, tapping is far simpler and can be ordered remotely by computer. Telephone services provided by cable TV companies also use digital switching technology, a well-designed tap installed on a phone wire can be difficult to detect. In some instances some law enforcement may be able to access a mobile phones internal microphone even while it isnt actively being used on a phone call. The noises that some believe to be telephone taps are simply crosstalk created by the coupling of signals from other phone lines. Data on the calling and called number, time of call and duration, will generally be collected automatically on all calls and these data can be accessed by security services, often with fewer legal restrictions than for a tap. This information used to be collected using special equipment known as pen registers and trap and trace devices, today, a list of all calls to a specific number can be obtained by sorting billing records
11.
Submarine communications cable
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A submarine communications cable is a cable laid on the sea bed between land-based stations to carry telecommunication signals across stretches of ocean. The first submarine communications cables, laid in the 1850s, carried telegraphy traffic, subsequent generations of cables carried telephone traffic, then data communications traffic. Modern cables use optical technology to carry digital data, which includes telephone, Internet. Samuel Morse proclaimed his faith in it as early as 1840, and in 1842, he submerged a wire, insulated with tarred hemp and India rubber, in the water of New York Harbor, the following autumn, Wheatstone performed a similar experiment in Swansea Bay. A good insulator to cover the wire and prevent the current from leaking into the water was necessary for the success of a long submarine line. India rubber had been tried by Moritz von Jacobi, the Prussian electrical engineer, another insulating gum which could be melted by heat and readily applied to wire made its appearance in 1842. Gutta-percha, the juice of the Palaquium gutta tree, was introduced to Europe by William Montgomerie. Twenty years earlier, he had seen made of it in Singapore. It was tried on a wire laid across the Rhine between Deutz and Cologne, walker, electrician to the South Eastern Railway, submerged a two-mile wire coated with gutta-percha off the coast from Folkestone, which was tested successfully. It was simply a copper wire coated with gutta-percha, without any other protection, in 1853 further successful cables were laid, linking Great Britain with Ireland, Belgium and the Netherlands, and crossing The Belts in Denmark. The British & Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company completed the first successful Irish link on May 23 between Portpatrick and Donaghadee using the collier William Hutt, the same ship was used for the link from Dover to Ostend in Belgium, by the Submarine Telegraph Company. Meanwhile, the Electric & International Telegraph Company completed two cables across the North Sea, from Orford Ness to Scheveningen, The Netherlands and they were laid by the Monarch, a paddle steamer which later became the first vessel with permanent cable-laying equipment. In 1858 the Steamship Elba was used to lay a Telegraph cable from Jersey to Guernsey, on to Alderney, problems soon developed with eleven breaks occurring by 1860 due to storms, tidal and sand movements and wear on rocks. A report to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1860 set out the problems to assist in future cable laying operations, the first attempt at laying a transatlantic telegraph cable was promoted by Cyrus West Field, who persuaded British industrialists to fund and lay one in 1858. However, the technology of the day was not capable of supporting the project, it was plagued with problems from the outset, and was in operation for only a month. Subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 with the worlds largest steamship, Great Eastern later went on to lay the first cable reaching to India from Aden, Yemen, in 1870. From the 1850s until 1911, British submarine cable systems dominated the most important market, the British had both supply side and demand side advantages. In terms of supply, Britain had entrepreneurs willing to put forth enormous amounts of capital necessary to build, lay, in terms of demand, Britains vast colonial empire led to business for the cable companies from news agencies, trading and shipping companies, and the British government
12.
Russian submarine Kursk (K-141)
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K-141 Kursk was an Oscar-II class nuclear-powered cruise-missile submarine of the Russian Navy which was lost with all hands when it sank in the Barents Sea on 12 August 2000. It was a Project 949A Антей submarine and it was named after the Russian city of Kursk, around which the Battle of Kursk took place in 1943. One of the first vessels completed after the end of the Soviet Union, work on building Kursk began in 1990 at Severodvinsk, near Arkhangelsk. Launched in 1994, it was commissioned in December of that year and it was the penultimate Oscar II class submarine designed and approved in the Soviet era. The Antey design represented the highest achievement of Soviet nuclear submarine technology and they were second-largest attack submarines ever built, after the Typhoon Class submarine. It was built to defeat an entire United States aircraft carrier group, a single Type 65 torpedo carried a 450 kg warhead powerful enough to sink an aircraft carrier. Both missiles and torpedoes could be equipped with nuclear warheads and she was 9.1 m longer than the preceding Oscar I-class of submarines. The senior officers had individual staterooms and the crew had access to a gymnasium. There was a 200 cm gap to the 50.8 mm -thick steel pressure hull and she was designed to remain submerged for up to 120 days. The sail superstructure was reinforced to allow it to break through the Arctic ice, the submarine was armed with 24 SS-N-19/P-700 Granit cruise missiles, and eight torpedo tubes in the bow, four 533 mm and four 650 mm. The Granit missiles with a range of 550 km, were capable of flight at altitudes over 20 km. They were designed to swarm enemy vessels and intelligently choose individual targets which terminated with a dive onto the target, the torpedo tubes could be used to launch either torpedoes or anti-ship missiles with a range of 50 km. Her weapons included 18 SS-N-16 Stallion anti-submarine missiles, Kursk was part of Russias Northern Fleet, which had suffered funding cutbacks throughout the 1990s. Many of its submarines were anchored and rusting in Zapadnaya Litsa Naval Base,100 km from Murmansk, little work to maintain all but the most essential front-line equipment, including search and rescue equipment, had occurred. Northern Fleet sailors had gone unpaid in the mid-1990s and this was due to a lack of funds for fuel. As a result, many of her crew had spent little time at sea and were inexperienced, Kursk joined the Summer-X exercise, the first large-scale naval exercise planned by the Russian Navy in more than a decade, on 10 August 2000. It included 30 ships including the fleets flagship Pyotr Velikiy, four submarines. The crew had won a citation for its excellent performance
13.
Conning tower
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A conning tower is a raised platform on a ship or submarine, often armored, from which an officer can conn the vessel, i. e. give directions to the helmsman. It is usually located as high on the ship as practical, to give the conning team good visibility of the entirety of the ship itself and of ocean conditions, the verb “conn” probably stems from the verb “conduct” rather than from another plausible precedent, the verb “control”. On surface ships, the tower was a feature of all battleships. Located at the front end of the superstructure, the tower was a heavily armored cylinder. At all other times than during battles, the ship would be navigated from the bridge instead, conning towers were used by the French on their floating batteries at the Battle of Kinburn. They were then fitted to the first ironclad the French battleship La Gloire, the first Royal Navy conning tower appeared on HMS Warrior which had 3 inches of armour. The King George V class, in contrast to the Nelson class had comparatively light conning tower protection with 4.5 inch sides,3 inch front and rear, and 2 inch roof and deck. The RNs analysis of World War I combat revealed that command personnel were unlikely to utilize an armoured conning tower, older RN battleships that were reconstructed with new superstructures, had their heavily armoured conning towers removed and replaced with much lighter structures. These new conning towers were placed much higher in the ship. Even in the United States Navy, battleship captains and admirals preferred to use the unarmoured bridge positions during combat. The USN had mixed opinions of the tower, pointing out that its weight, high above the ships center of gravity. Beginning in the late 1930s, as radar surpassed visual sighting as the method of detecting other ships, battleships began reducing or eliminating the conning tower. By the end of World War II, US ships were designed with expanded weather bridges enclosing the armored conning towers. With the demise of battleships after World War II, along with the advent of missiles and nuclear weapons during the Cold War, modern warships no longer feature conning towers. It should not be confused with the control room, which was directly below it in the main pressure hull, or the bridge. As improvements in technology allowed the periscopes to be made longer it became unnecessary to raise the station above the main pressure hull. The USS Triton was the last American submarine to have a conning tower, the additional conning tower pressure hull was eliminated and its functions were added to the command and control center. Thus it is incorrect to refer to the sail of a submarine as a conning tower
14.
Remotely operated underwater vehicle
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A remotely operated underwater vehicle is a tethered underwater mobile device. This meaning is different from remote control vehicles operating on land or in the air, ROVs are unoccupied, highly maneuverable, and operated by a crew aboard a vessel. They are common in deep water industries such as offshore hydrocarbon extraction, the TMS is either a garage-like device which contains the ROV during lowering through the splash zone or, on larger work-class ROVs, a separate assembly which sits on top of the ROV. The purpose of the TMS is to lengthen and shorten the tether so the effect of cable drag where there are underwater currents is minimized. The umbilical cable is a cable that contains a group of electrical conductors and fiber optics that carry electric power, video. Where used, the TMS then relays the signals and power for the ROV down the tether cable, once at the ROV, the electric power is distributed between the components of the ROV. However, in applications, most of the electric power drives a high-power electric motor which drives a hydraulic pump. The pump is used for propulsion and to power equipment such as torque tools. Most ROVs are equipped with at least a camera and lights. Additional equipment is added to expand the vehicle’s capabilities. In the 1970s and 80s the Royal Navy used Cutlet, a remotely operated submersible, RCA maintained the Cutlet 02 System based at BUTEC ranges, whilst the 03 system was based at the submarine base on the Clyde and was operated and maintained by RN personnel. The U. S. Navy funded most of the early ROV technology development in the 1960s into what was named a Cable-Controlled Underwater Recovery Vehicle. This created the capability to perform deep-sea rescue operation and recover objects from the ocean floor, building on this technology base, the offshore oil & gas industry created the work-class ROVs to assist in the development of offshore oil fields. More than a decade after they were first introduced, ROVs became essential in the 1980s when much of the new offshore development exceeded the reach of human divers. During the mid-1980s the marine ROV industry suffered from serious stagnation in development caused in part by a drop in the price of oil. Since then, technological development in the ROV industry has accelerated and their tasks range from simple inspection of subsea structures, pipelines, and platforms, to connecting pipelines and placing underwater manifolds. They are used both in the initial construction of a sub-sea development and the subsequent repair and maintenance. Submersible ROVs have been used to locate many historic shipwrecks, including the RMS Titanic, the Bismarck, USS Yorktown, and SS Central America
15.
Bathyscaphe
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The float is filled with gasoline because it is readily available, buoyant, and, for all practical purposes, incompressible. By contrast, the cabin must withstand a huge pressure differential and is massively built. Buoyancy at the surface can be trimmed easily by replacing gasoline with water, Auguste Piccard, inventor of the first bathyscaphe, composed the name bathyscaphe using the Ancient Greek words βαθύς bathys and σκάφος skaphos. For example, the pressure at the bottom of the Challenger Deep is more than seven times that in a standard H-type compressed gas cylinder, instead, ballast in the form of iron shot is released to ascend, the shot being lost to the ocean floor. The iron shot containers are in the form of one or more hoppers which are open at the bottom throughout the dive, the iron shot being held in place by an electromagnet at the neck. This is a device as it requires no power to ascend, in fact, in the event of a power failure, shot runs out by gravity. The first bathyscaphe was dubbed FNRS-2, named after the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, propulsion was provided by battery-driven electric motors. The float held 37,850 litres of aviation gasoline, there was no access tunnel, the sphere had to be loaded and unloaded while on deck. The first journeys were detailed in the Jacques Cousteau book The Silent World, as described in the book, the vessel had serenely endured the pressure of the depths, but had been destroyed in a minor squall. FNRS-3 was a new submersible, using the crew sphere from the damaged FNRS-2, Piccards second bathyscaphe was actually a third vessel Trieste, which was purchased by the United States Navy from Italy in 1957. It had two water ballast tanks and eleven buoyancy tanks holding 120,000 litres of gasoline, in 1960 Trieste, carrying Piccards son Jacques Piccard and Lt. Don Walsh, reached the deepest known point on the Earths surface, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft but this was corrected to 35,813 ft by taking into account variations arising from salinity. Later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower at 35,798 ft. The crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, in 1995, the Japanese sent an unmanned submersible to this depth, Kaikō, but it was later lost at sea. In 2009, a team from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution sent a submarine named Nereus to the bottom of the trench. On 25 March 2012, James Cameron reached the Challenger Deep in the Deepsea Challenger submersible, siphonophores and the Deep Scattering Layer. The US Navy account of the dive, with photographs Brewington, depth of the Deepest Dive in a Bathyscaphe. History of the Bathyscape Trieste FNRS-213,000 Feet Under the Sea in the French Bathyscaphe Popular Mechanics, May 1954, Deepsea Challenger – Mariana Trench Dive
16.
Hydrocarbon
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In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon, and thus are group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one atom has been removed are functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, cycloalkanes and alkyne-based compounds are different types of hydrocarbons, the classifications for hydrocarbons, defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry are as follows, Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen, the formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2. The most general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2, where r is the number of rings and those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as linear or branched species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property, hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms and those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with one double bond have the formula CnH2n and those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2, aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at least one aromatic ring. Hydrocarbons can be gases, liquids, waxes or low melting solids or polymers, in terms of shells, carbon consists of an incomplete outer shell, which comprises 4 electrons, and thus has 4 electrons available for covalent or dative bonding. Some hydrocarbons also are abundant in the solar system, lakes of liquid methane and ethane have been found on Titan, Saturns largest moon, confirmed by the Cassini-Huygens Mission. Hydrocarbons are also abundant in nebulae forming polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon compounds, hydrocarbons are a primary energy source for current civilizations. The predominant use of hydrocarbons is as a fuel source. In their solid form, hydrocarbons take the form of asphalt, mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons are now used in preference to the chlorofluorocarbons as a propellant for aerosol sprays, due to chlorofluorocarbons impact on the ozone layer. Methane and ethane are gaseous at ambient temperatures and cannot be liquefied by pressure alone. Propane is however easily liquefied, and exists in propane bottles mostly as a liquid, butane is so easily liquefied that it provides a safe, volatile fuel for small pocket lighters
17.
Liquid oxygen
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Liquid oxygen—abbreviated LOx, LOX or Lox in the aerospace, submarine and gas industries—is one of the physical forms of elemental oxygen. Liquid oxygen has a blue color and is strongly paramagnetic. Liquid oxygen has a density of 1.141 g/cm3 and is cryogenic with a point of 54.36 K. Because of its nature, liquid oxygen can cause the materials it touches to become extremely brittle. Liquid oxygen is also a powerful oxidizing agent, organic materials will burn rapidly and energetically in liquid oxygen. Further, if soaked in liquid oxygen, some such as coal briquettes, carbon black, etc. can detonate unpredictably from sources of ignition such as flames. Petrochemicals, including asphalt, often exhibit this behavior, the tetraoxygen molecule was first predicted in 1924 by Gilbert N. Lewis, who proposed it to explain why liquid oxygen defied Curies law. Modern computer simulations indicate that there are no stable O4 molecules in liquid oxygen, O2 molecules do tend to associate in pairs with antiparallel spins. Conversely, liquid nitrogen or liquid air can be oxygen-enriched by letting it stand in air, atmospheric oxygen dissolves in it. In commerce, liquid oxygen is classified as a gas and is widely used for industrial and medical purposes. Liquid oxygen is obtained from the oxygen found naturally in air by fractional distillation in an air separation plant. Liquid oxygen is a cryogenic liquid oxidizer propellant for spacecraft rocket applications, usually in combination with liquid hydrogen. Liquid oxygen is useful in this role because it creates a specific impulse. It was used in the very first rocket applications like the V2 missile and Redstone, R-7 Semyorka, Atlas boosters, many modern rockets use liquid oxygen, including the main engines on the now-retired Space Shuttle. U. S. Army has long recognized the importance of liquid oxygen. In 1985 it started a program of building its own facilities at all major consumption bases. By 1845, Michael Faraday had managed to liquefy most gases then known to exist, six gases, however, resisted every attempt at liquefaction and were known at the time as permanent gases. They were oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, in 1877, Louis Paul Cailletet in France and Raoul Pictet in Switzerland succeeded in producing the first droplets of liquid air
18.
Stirling engine
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More specifically, the Stirling engine is a closed-cycle regenerative heat engine with a permanently gaseous working fluid. The inclusion of a regenerator differentiates the Stirling engine from other closed cycle hot air engines, originally conceived in 1816 as an industrial prime mover to rival the steam engine, its practical use was largely confined to low-power domestic applications for over a century. Stirling engines have a high efficiency compared to engines, being able to reach 50% efficiency. They are also capable of operation and can use almost any heat source. The heat energy source is generated external to the Stirling engine rather than by internal combustion as with the Otto cycle or Diesel cycle engines. This type of engine is generating interest as the core component of micro combined heat and power units, in which it is more efficient. However, it has a low ratio, rendering it more suitable for use in static installations where space. This contrasts with a combustion engine where heat input is by combustion of a fuel within the body of the working fluid. Most of the many possible implementations of the Stirling engine fall into the category of reciprocating piston engine, the Stirling engine was invented and patented by Robert Stirling in 1816. It followed earlier attempts at making an air engine but was probably the first put to use when, in 1818. The main subject of Stirlings original patent was a heat exchanger, the patent also described in detail the employment of one form of the economiser in his unique closed-cycle air engine design in which application it is now generally known as a regenerator. These generally operated at lower temperatures so as not to tax available materials and their selling point was that, unlike a steam engine, they could be operated safely by anybody capable of managing a fire. Several types remained in production beyond the end of the century, during the early part of the twentieth century the role of the Stirling engine as a domestic motor was gradually taken over by electric motors and small internal combustion engines. By the late 1930s, it was forgotten, only produced for toys. Around that time, Philips was seeking to expand sales of its radios into parts of the world where grid electricity and batteries were not consistently available. After a systematic comparison of various prime movers, the decided to go forward with the Stirling engine, citing its quiet operation. By 1951, the 180/200 W generator set designated MP1002CA was ready for production and a batch of 250 was planned. Additionally, the advent of transistor radios and their lower power requirements meant that the original rationale for the set was disappearing
19.
FNRS-2
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The FNRS-2 was the first bathyscaphe. It was created by Auguste Piccard, work started in 1937 but was interrupted by World War II. The deep-diving submarine was finished in 1948, the bathyscaphe was named after the Belgian Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, the funding organization for the venture. FNRS also funded the FNRS-1 which was a balloon that set an altitude record. The FNRS-2 set world diving records, besting those of the bathyspheres and it was in turn bested by a more refined version of itself, the bathyscaphe Trieste. She was damaged during sea trials in 1948, off the Cape Verde Islands, FNRS-2 was sold to the French Navy when FNRS funding ran low, in 1948. The French rebuilt and rebaptised her FNRS-3 and she was eventually replaced by the FNRS-4. In February 1954 the FNRS-3 reached a depth of 4,050 metres in the Atlantic,160 miles off Dakar, FNRS-2 went for sea trials accompanied by the 3500t Belgian ship Scaldis, as her tender. However, Scaldis crane was not strong enough to lift FNRS-2 while her float was filled, and this proved to be the detail that would end FNRS-2s career. An unmanned test dive to 4,600 feet was completed, but owing to technical problems. Scaldis attempted to tow FNRS-2 back to port, but she was battered by ocean waves, after the leak was detected, the gasoline was dumped into the sea and FNRS-2 was raised. However, there was no reserve of gasoline for replacement, nor funding to fix the float, au fond de locéan ASIN B0000DVJS0 Bathyscaphe le à4050 m au fond de locéan ASIN B0000DP36O2000 FATHOMS DOWN ASIN B001947NIS Pope, Steve. Maritime Topics on Stamps, Research Submersibles
20.
FNRS-3
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The FNRS-3 or FNRS III is a bathyscaphe of the French Navy. It is currently presevered at Toulon and she set world depth records, competing against a more refined version of her design, the first bathyscaphe Trieste. The French Navy eventually replaced her with the bathyscaphe FNRS-4, in the 1960s, after damage to the FNRS-2 during its sea trials in 1948, FNRS ran out of funding, and the submersible was sold to the French Navy, in 1950. She was subsequently rebuilt and improved at Toulon naval base. She was relaunched in 1953, under the command of Georges Houot, on 15 February 1954, she made a 4,050 metres dive 160 miles off Dakar, Senegal in the Atlantic Ocean, beating Piccards 1953 record, set by the Trieste, by 900 meters. This record was not exceeded until a workup dive by Trieste in 1959, dSV-0 Trieste DSV-1 Trieste II Bathyscaphe Archimede Georges Houot at the French Wikipedia 13,000 Feet Under the Sea in the French Bathyscaphe Popular Mechanics, May 1954, pp. 110–111
21.
Bathyscaphe Trieste II
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Trieste II was the successor to Trieste—the United States Navys first bathyscaphe purchased from its Swiss designers. The original Trieste design was modified by the Naval Electronics Laboratory in San Diego, California. Trieste II incorporated the original Terni, Italian-built sphere used in Trieste, the Trieste sphere was suspended from an entirely new float, more seaworthy and streamlined than the original but operating on identical principles. Completed in early 1964, Trieste II was placed on board USNS Francis X. McGraw and shipped, via the Panama Canal, mooney, Jr. with co-pilot Lt. John H. Howland and Capt. Frank Andrews, Trieste II conducted dives in the vicinity of the site of Thresher—operations commenced by the first Trieste the year before. She recovered bits of wreckage, positively fixing the remains as that of the lost Thresher, the addition of skegs or outriggers on both sides of the sphere. During that same period work was under way on a third configuration of the bathyscaphe. This work resulted in yet a new appearance for the Trieste II, as the bathyscaphe continued her operations as test vehicle for the deep submergence program, she qualified four officers as hydronauts—the beginning of a burgeoning oceanographic operation. This unique craft was listed only as equipment in the Navy inventory until the autumn of 1969, on 1 September 1969, Trieste II was placed in service, with the hull number X-1. Reclassified as a deep submergence vehicle on 1 June 1971, Trieste II continued her service in the Pacific Fleet into 1980. The Trieste class DSV were replaced by the Alvin class DSV, the Alvins are more capable, more maneuverable, less fragile, but also can not dive as deep, reaching only a maximum of 20,000 feet. Trieste II is now preserved as a ship at the Naval Undersea Museum, Keyport. Deep Submergence Vehicle Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle DSV Alvin Trieste II History of the Bathyscaph Triests FNRS-2 HNSA Ship Page, RV Trieste
22.
DSV Alvin
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Alvin is a manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The vehicle was built by General Mills Electronics Group in Minneapolis, named to honor the prime mover and creative inspiration for the vehicle, Allyn Vine, Alvin was commissioned on 5 June 1964. The submersible is launched from the deep submergence support vessel RV Atlantis, Research conducted by Alvin has been featured in nearly 2,000 scientific papers. Alvin was designed as a replacement for bathyscaphes and other less maneuverable oceanographic vehicles and its more nimble design was made possible in part by the development of syntactic foam, which is buoyant and yet strong enough to serve as a structural material at great depths. It allows for two scientists and one pilot to dive for up to nine hours at 4,500 meters, the submersible features two robotic arms and can be fitted with mission-specific sampling and experimental gear. The plug hatch of the vessel is 0.48 m in diameter and somewhat thicker than the 2-inch thick titanium pressure hull. In an emergency, if Alvin were stuck underwater with occupants inside, the titanium sphere would then rise to the surface uncontrolled. Harold E. Froehlich was one of the designers of the Alvin. Alvin, first of its class of deep submergence vehicle, was built to dive to 2,440 meters. Each of the Alvin-class DSVs have different depth capabilities, however Alvin is the only one seconded to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, with the others staying with the United States Navy. Alvins first deep sea tests took place off Andros Island, the Bahamas, on 20 July 1965 Alvin made its first 6, 000-foot manned dive for the Navy to obtain certification. On 17 March 1966, Alvin was used to locate a submerged 1. 45-megaton hydrogen bomb lost in a United States Air Force midair accident over Palomares, the bomb, found resting nearly 910 m deep, was raised intact on 7 April. On 6 July 1967, the Alvin was attacked by a swordfish during dive 202, the swordfish became trapped in the Alvins skin, and the Alvin was forced to make an emergency surface. The attack took place at 2,000 feet below the surface, the fish was recovered at the surface and cooked for dinner. Lulu, a vessel created from a pair of decommissioned U. S. Navy pontoon boats with a structure added on, was lowering Alvin over the side when two steel cables snapped. There were three crew members aboard Alvin at the time, and the hatch was open, situated between the pontoons with no deck underneath, Alvin hit the water and rapidly began to sink. Severe weather prevented the recovery of Alvin throughout late 1968, Alvin was found to be upright and appeared intact except for damage to the stern. It was decided to attempt recovery, although no object of Alvins size had ever recovered from a depth of 5,000 feet
23.
Office of Naval Research
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It is headquartered in the Ballston neighborhood of Arlington, Virginia. ONR reports to the U. S. Secretary of the Navy through the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development and Acquisition. The Chief of Naval Research is Rear Admiral Mathias W. ONR executes its mission through science and technology departments, corporate programs, the Naval Research Laboratory, the ONR Global office. In 2007, a Naval S&T Strategic Plan was developed to describe how ONR will enable the future operational concepts of the Navy and this plan was updated in 2009 and 2011. More than 50 researchers have won a Nobel Prize for their ONR-funded work, continuous investment in new and innovative technology enables ONR to build and maintain the world’s most capable Navy. Its focus is long term, yet it is responsive to near-term Naval needs. The six departments support efforts span from combating terrorism to oceanography, NRL is the corporate research laboratory for the Navy and Marine Corps and conducts a broad program of scientific research, technology and advanced development. A few of the Laboratorys current specialties include plasma physics, space physics, materials science, the U. S. Office of Naval Research Global provides worldwide science & technology-based solutions to current and future Naval challenges. ONR Global combines the expertise of over 40 scientists, technologists, oNRs investments have enabled many firsts, including the launch of the first U. S. Others include, The ONR has also sponsored symposia such as the Symposium on Principles of Self-Organization at Allerton Park in 1960, Office of Naval Research Homepage Naval Research Laboratory Homepage Naval S&T Strategic Plan
24.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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Established in 1930 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U. S. with staff and students numbering about 1,000. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile, the bulk of the Institutions funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations. WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. A new ship, Neil Armstrong was delivered to the Navy on September 23,2015, the RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which had previously been used by WHOI since 1970 and was transferred to the Mexican Navy in March 2016. WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science, there are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or by the Institution itself. WHOI also offers outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a program and a membership program, WHOI Associate. In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to consider the share of the United States of America in a program of oceanographic research. WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a growth in staff, research fleet. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security. In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, in February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution, avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOIs 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position. The B H Ketchum award, established in 1983, is presented for innovative research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. Buck Ketchum. The first recipient was Edward D. Goldberg in 1984, the Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow. 1974 Henry M. Stommel 1970 Frederick J. Vine – In recognition of his “imaginative, all are owned by the Institution itself
25.
National Science Foundation
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The National Science Foundation is a United States government agency that supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health, with an annual budget of about US$7.0 billion, the NSF funds approximately 24% of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics, and the social sciences, the current NSF director, confirmed in March 2014, is astronomer France A. Córdova, former president of Purdue University. The NSF seeks to fulfill its mission chiefly by issuing competitive, the NSF also makes some contracts. Some proposals are solicited, and some are not, the NSF funds both kinds, the NSF does not operate its own laboratories, unlike other federal research agencies, notable examples being the NASA and the National Institutes of Health. The NSF receives over 50,000 such proposals each year and those funded are typically projects that are ranked highest in a merit review process, the current version of which was introduced in 1997. For example, reviewers cannot work at the NSF itself, nor for the institution that employs the proposing researchers, all proposal evaluations are confidential, the proposing researchers may see them, but they do not see the names of the reviewers. However, both already had been mandated for all NSF merit review procedures in the 2010 re-authorization of the America COMPETES Act. The Act also includes an emphasis on promoting potentially transformative research, most NSF grants go to individuals or small groups of investigators, who carry out research at their home campuses. Other grants provide funding for research centers, instruments. Still, others fund national-scale facilities that are shared by the community as a whole. In addition to researchers and research facilities, NSF grants also support science, engineering, Undergraduates can receive funding through Research Experiences for Undergraduates summer programs. K-12 and some community college instructors are eligible to participate in compensated Research Experiences for Teachers programs, the NSFs workforce numbers about 1,700, nearly all working at its Arlington headquarters. In June 2013 it was announced that the NSF would relocate its headquarters to Alexandria, Virginia in 2017. S, examples include initiatives in, Nanotechnology The science of learning Digital libraries The ecology of infectious diseases The NSF was established by the National Science Foundation Act of 1950. Its stated mission is To promote the progress of science, to advance the health, prosperity, and welfare. Some historians of science have argued that the result was a compromise between too many clashing visions of the purpose and scope of the federal government. The NSF was certainly not the government agency for the funding of basic science. By 1950, support for areas of research had already become dominated by specialized agencies such as the National Institutes of Health
26.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
27.
RV Atlantis (AGOR-25)
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R/V Atlantis is an oceanographic research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System fleet. She is the host vessel of DSV Alvin and she is named for the first research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, R/V Atlantis for which the Space Shuttle Atlantis is also named. Atlantis was built by Halter Marine Inc and she was laid down in August 1994 and launched in February 1996. She was delivered to the U. S. Navy on 25 February 1998, winches Traction -30,000.68 EM or 9/16 wire Hydro -33,000 3-cond. The three sister ships are R/V Thomas G. Thompson, R/V Roger Revelle and NOAAS Ronald H. Brown, navSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive - T-AGOR-25 Atlantis R/V Atlantis Specifications Where are the Ships Now
28.
DSV-3 Turtle
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Turtle is a 16-ton, manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy. It is sister to Alvin, and also an Alvin class Deep Submergence Vehicle, the Turtle was retired from active service in 1998. It now resides at the Mystic Aquarium in Mystic, Connecticut The Turtle was designed to dive to 6000 feet, when DSV-2 Alvin installed a new titanium hull, the Alvin steel hull was installed in the Turtle. The Turtle depth rating was increased to 10,000 feet. It has a hull 2 inches thick, and a hatch about 3-1/2 inches thick held in place by the pressure of the water above it, the Alvin-class DSVs were designed to replace older DSV, such as the less maneuverable Trieste-class bathyscaphes. DSV Alvin DSV Sea Cliff Nemo, retired 1998 Deep Submergence Vehicle Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle Bathyscaphe Trieste Bathyscaphe Trieste II Naval Vessel Register, DSV-3
29.
DSV-4 Sea Cliff
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DSV-4 is a 25-ton, manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy, now known only by its hull number, not by its former name. DSV-4 is an Alvin-class Deep Submergence Vehicle, a sister ship to DSV Turtle and DSV Alvin. It was redesigned to dive to 20,000 feet and refitted in 1984, with the refit of DSV-4, the bathyscaphe DSV-1 was retired from service. DSV-4 has a plug hatch 2 feet in diameter, held in place mechanically with hatch dogs and, while submerged, by the pressure of the water above it. DSV-4 can dive 5,000 feet deeper than the famed Alvin, however, sea Cliff was retired from active service in 1998 and subsequently given to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
30.
American submarine NR-1
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Deep Submergence Vessel NR-1 was a unique United States Navy nuclear-powered ocean engineering and research submarine, built by the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics at Groton, Connecticut. NR-1 was launched on 25 January 1969, completed sea trials 19 August 1969. NR-1 was the smallest nuclear submarine ever put into operation, the vessel was casually known as Nerwin and was never officially named or commissioned. The U. S. Navy is allocated a number of warships by the U. S. Congress. Admiral Hyman Rickover avoided using one of those allocations, and he wanted to avoid the oversight that a warship receives from various bureaus. NR-1s missions included search, object recovery, geological survey, oceanographic research, NR-1 had the unique capability to remain at one site and completely map or search an area with a high degree of accuracy, and this was a valuable asset on several occasions. Through the 1970s and 1980s, NR-1 conducted numerous classified missions involving recovery of objects from the floor of the deep sea and these missions remain classified and few details have been made public. One publicly acknowledged mission in 1976 was to recover parts of an F-14 that was lost from the deck of an aircraft carrier, the secrecy normal to USN submarine operations was heightened by Rickovers personal involvement, and he shared details of NR-1 operations on a need-to-know basis. Rickover envisioned building a fleet of NR-1 type submarines. Following the loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1986, NR-1 was used to search for, identify and it could remain on the sea floor without resurfacing frequently, and was a major tool for searching deep waters. NR-1 remained submerged and on even when heavy weather and rough seas hit the area and forced all other search. On November 13,2013, the U. S. Navy announced that salvaged pieces of the sub would be put on display at the Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton. NR-1 performed underwater search and recovery, oceanographic research missions, and installation, surface vision was provided by a television periscope permanently installed on a fixed mast in her sail area. NR-1 had sophisticated electronics, computers, and sonar systems that aided in navigation, communications and it could maneuver or hold a steady position on or close to the seabed or underwater ridges, detect and identify objects at a considerable distance, and lift objects off the ocean floor. NR-1 was equipped with two electric-motor driven propellers and its maneuverability was enhanced by four ducted thrusters, two forward and two aft, the vehicle had diving planes mounted on the sail, and a conventional rudder. NR-1 could travel submerged at approximately 4 knots for long periods and it could study and map the ocean bottom, including temperature, currents, and other information for military, commercial, and scientific uses. Its nuclear propulsion provided independence from support ships and essentially unlimited endurance. NR-1s size limited its crew comforts, the crew of about 10 men could stay at sea for as long as a month, but had no kitchen or bathing facilities
31.
Aluminaut
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Aluminaut was built in 1964 and was the worlds first aluminum submarine since the WWII Type 21. An experimental vessel, the 80-ton,15.5 meter manned deep-ocean research submersible was built by Reynolds Metals Company, after retirement, Aluminaut was donated to the Science Museum of Virginia in Richmond, where it is on permanent display. Reynolds Metals was a pioneer in research and development of products using aluminum. These included a transit bus and other aluminum motor vehicles. Reynolds Metals designed and built the Aluminaut as an experiment, the concept of an aluminum submarine was developed at Reynolds during World War II in 1942 by executive vice president Julian Louis Reynolds, a son of the founder. At 34, Louis Reynolds led the division, which accounted for 65% of the companys sales before the war. Reynolds Metals played a role in the U. S. war effort. In 1964, Reynolds had the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics in Groton, the submersible was operated by subsidiary Reynolds Submarine Services Corporation, based in Miami, Florida. Compared to many deep-sea vessels, Aluminaut was large and it weighed 80 tons and could accommodate a crew of three and three to four scientists. It had four view ports, active and passive sonar, manipulators, side-scan sonar, for flexibility, it was outfitted for many types of oceanographic and salvage missions. Time Magazine reported in September 1964 on the specifications, reporting that the vessels 51-foot hull consists of 11 forged cylinders. Aluminums strength-to-weight ratio exceeds that of steel, so Aluminauts 6.5 inches thick shell could withstand pressures of 7,500 lbf/in² at the subs 17,000 ft maximum diving range, the Aluminaut was designed at Woods Hole Marine Station in Massachusetts. A full-scale wooden mock-up was built to engineer the interior spaces, the project was classified as top secret at that time. At that time it did not have a conning tower entry and it immediately flooded, the tower entry was designed and added and in the first test turned the submarine upside down. It was thought at that time that the design was impractical and was almost scrapped, a one-sixteenth scale model of the final design was built in 1960 and run through stability and pressure tests. The Aluminaut soon became useful during an incident with potentially major implications, on January 17,1966, a 1. 45-megaton-of-TNT thermonuclear bomb was lost in the Mediterranean Sea during a United States Air Force 1966 Palomares B-52 crash over Palomares, Spain. Eight crew members were killed in the crash of a B-52 bomber. The crash dropped three bombs on the land, and one in the sea
32.
Reynolds Group Holdings
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Reynolds Metals was acquired by Alcoa in June 2000. Reynolds Metals became known for the consumer product Reynolds Wrap, as well as for developing and promoting new uses for aluminum and its RV Aluminaut submarine was operated by Reynolds Submarine Services Corporation. It was headquartered for most of its existence in Richmond, Virginia, the Reynolds Metals Company was founded in 1919 as the U. S. Foil Company in Louisville, Kentucky by Richard S. Reynolds, initially, the new company supplied lead and tin foil wrappers to cigarette and candy companies. Foil purchased the manufacturer of Eskimo Pies, which were wrapped in foil, in 1928, Reynolds purchased Robertshaw Thermostat, Fulton Sylphon, and part of Beechnut Foil, adding them to U. S. In 1931 the company headquarters was moved to New York City and in 1938 the headquarters was moved again to Richmond, the company began producing aluminum foil for packaging in 1926. Reynolds Metals created the first high-speed, gravure-printed foil, aluminum bottle labels, heat-sealed foil bags for foods, in 1940 Reynolds Metals began mining bauxite in Bauxite, Arkansas and opened its first aluminum plant near Sheffield, Alabama, the following year. In 1947, the company released Reynolds Wrap Aluminum Foil, Reynolds Metals pioneered the development of aluminum siding in 1945, and Richard S. Reynolds began predicting a growing demand for additional aluminum during peacetime. He believed new aluminum-producing facilities would need to be built to meet demand, Reynolds Metals Company leased, and later bought, six government defense plants that were up for disposal. Reynolds later expanded into non aluminum products such as plastics and precious metals, after the Second World War, the sense of aluminums utility expanded to include its ornamental characteristics. By repurposing military by-products into consumer goods, aluminum was now being marketed for its appeal as well. Reynolds advertised aluminum for its property, now reaching areas of fashion, home improvement. Reynolds marketed aluminum foil as gift wrap, aluminum yarn for Vogue dress patterns, and even extended their advertising strategy to include wrapping their office headquarters in aluminum. Four sons of founder Richard S. Reynolds, William Gray Reynolds, Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. David P. Reynolds, in 1976 David P. Reynolds, also known for his involvement in Thoroughbred horse racing, took over as president. He was the last member of his family to head the company, Reynolds Metals developed other, less well-known products. Not all became commercially viable, such as an aluminum bus developed with Rohr Industries, the aluminum vehicles were surpassed in weight and cost by steel, plastics and fiberglass. However, when Reynolds Metals developed the worlds first aluminum submarine, the Aluminaut, aluminauts assistance enabled Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to continue operating its submersible. Alvins work continues 45 years later, the company merged with Alcoa on May 3,2000 to become the largest aluminum company in the United States
33.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
34.
Deepsea Challenger
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Deepsea Challenger is a 7. 3-metre deep-diving submersible designed to reach the bottom of Challenger Deep, the deepest-known point on Earth. On 26 March 2012, Canadian film director James Cameron piloted the craft to accomplish this goal in the second manned dive reaching the Challenger Deep. Deepsea Challenger was secretly built in Australia, in partnership with the National Geographic Society and with support from Rolex, the construction of the submersible was headed by Australian engineer Ron Allum. Many of the developer team members hail from Sydneys cave-diving fraternity including Allum himself with many years cave-diving experience. The foam is composed of small hollow glass spheres suspended in an epoxy resin. The foam supersedes gasoline-filled tanks for flotation as used in the historic submarine, Allum also built many innovations, necessary to overcome the limitations of existing products. Allum gained much of his developing the electronic communication used in Camerons Titanic dives in filming Ghosts of the Abyss, Bismarck. Power systems for the submarine were supplied by batteries that were housed within the foam. The lithium battery charging systems were designed by Ron Allum, the submersible contains over 180 onboard systems, including batteries, thrusters, life support, 3D cameras, and LED lighting. These interconnected systems are monitored and controlled by a programmable automation controller from Temecula, the crucial structural elements, such as the backbone and pilot sphere that carried Cameron, were engineered by the Tasmanian company Finite Elements. The submersible features a pilot sphere measuring 1.1 metres in diameter, the sphere, with steel walls 64 mm thick, was tested for its ability to withstand the required 114 megapascals of pressure in a pressure chamber at Pennsylvania State University. The sphere sits at the base of the 11. 8-tonne vehicle, the vehicle operates in a vertical attitude, and carries 500 kg of ballast weight that allows it to both sink to the bottom, and when released, rise to the surface. In late January 2012, to test systems, Cameron spent three hours in the submersible while submerged just below the surface in Australias Sydney Naval Yard. On 21 February 2012, a test dive intended to reach a depth of over 1,000 m was aborted after only an hour because of problems with cameras and life support systems. On 28 February 2012, during a dive, Cameron spent six hours in the submersible at a depth of 3,700 m. Power system fluctuations and unforeseen currents presented unexpected challenges, on 4 March 2012, a record-setting dive to more than 7,260 m stopped short of the bottom of the New Britain Trench when problems with the vertical thrusters led Cameron to return to the surface. Days later, with the problem solved, Cameron successfully took the submersible to the bottom of the New Britain Trench. There, he found a plain of loose sediment, anemones, jellyfish
35.
Titanium
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Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
36.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
37.
Mir (submersible)
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Mir is a self-propelled Deep Submergence Vehicle. The project was developed by the USSR Academy of Sciences along with Design Bureau Lazurith. Later two vehicles were ordered from Finland, the Mir 1 and Mir 2, delivered in 1987, were designed and built by the Finnish company Rauma-Repolas Oceanics subsidiary. The project was carried out under the supervision of constructors and engineers of the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, the vessels are designed to be used for scientific research. They might also be used to assist in rescue operations. The carrier and command centre of both Mir submersibles is the R/V Akademik Mstislav Keldysh, the two Mir units are operated by the Russian Academy of Sciences. The Mir submersibles can dive to a depth of 6,000 metres. Traditionally, the sphere of a deep sea submersible is manufactured of titanium plates that are welded together. On Mir, the sphere is made of a maraging steel alloy that has ten percent better strength/weight ratio than titanium. This alloy contains about 30% cobalt and smaller amounts of nickel, chrome, two hemispheres were made by casting and machining, and then bolted together, thus avoiding welded joints. The resulting construction is close to the density of water, thus making it easier to move in different depths, additional buoyancy is provided by 8 cubic metres of syntactic foam. Unlike other Deep Submergence Vehicles that use iron ballast to reach the ocean floor, the Mir submersibles are 7.8 m long,3.6 m wide,3.0 m high, and weighs 18,600 kg. The personnel spheres walls are 5 cm thick, and the diameter of the working area is 2.1 m. Three viewports are provided, the port is 20 cm diameter. Power is provided by NiCad batteries of 100 kWh capacity, electric motors drive hydraulic pumps to actuate hydraulic manipulators and 3 propulsors. The aft hydraulic propulsor is rated at 9 kW and 2 side propulsors are rated at 2.5 kW each, maximum underwater speed is 5 knots. Longitudinal trim is controlled using 2 spherical water ballast tanks, fore, water can be forced out of these tanks as required by using compressed air. VHF radio is used to communication with the surface
38.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
39.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
40.
RMS Titanic
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Of the 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster, the first class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on-board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high-class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high-power radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger marconigrams and for the operational use. Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people—slightly more than half of the number on board, after leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles south of Newfoundland, the collision caused the ships hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea, she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some members were evacuated in lifeboats. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a women and children first protocol for loading lifeboats, at 2,20 a. m. she broke apart and foundered—with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived at the scene, where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors. The disaster was greeted with shock and outrage at the huge loss of life. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications—which could have saved many more passengers. The wreck of Titanic, first discovered over 70 years after the sinking, remains on the seabed, since her discovery in 1985, thousands of artifacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history, her memory is kept alive by numerous works of culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Lines fleet, Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be back into her old spot on White Stars New York service after Titanics loss. The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin
41.
Hydrothermal vent
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A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planets surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins. Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers, under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea form the base of the chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, limpets. Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiters moon Europa, and Saturns moon Enceladus, Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges, such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These are locations where two plates are diverging and new crust is being formed. The proportion of each varies from location to location, in contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 to as high as 464 °C. Due to the hydrostatic pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures. The critical point of water is 375 °C at a pressure of 218 atmospheres, however, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater is 407 °C and 298.5 bars, accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C and 298.5 bars, furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust. The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, for example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the point at 400 °C and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid, examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. Sister Peak vents low salinity phase-separated, vapor-type fluids, sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C, which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe, which is the worlds deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5000 m below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C and 2.3 wt% NaCl
42.
Submarine hull
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A light hull of a submarine is the outer non-watertight hull which provides a hydrodynamically efficient shape. The pressure hull is the hull of a submarine, this holds the difference between outside and inside pressure. This design, already visible on very early submarines is called a teardrop hull and it significantly reduces the hydrodynamic drag on the sub when submerged, but decreases the sea-keeping capabilities and increases the drag while surfaced. Because of the slow submerged speeds of these submarines, usually well below 10 knots, USS Albacore was a unique research submarine that pioneered the American version of the teardrop hull form of modern submarines. All small modern submarines and submersibles, as well as the oldest ones, have a single hull, however, for large submarines, the approaches have separated. All Soviet heavy submarines are built with a hull structure. The double hull of a submarine is different from a double hull. The external hull, which forms the shape of submarine, is called the outer hull. This term is appropriate for Russian submarine construction, where the light hull is usually made of steel that is only 2 to 4 millimetres thick. The light hull can be used to mount equipment, which if attached directly to the hull could cause unnecessary stress. The double hull approach also saves space inside the hull, as the ring stiffeners. These measures help minimise the size of the hull, which is much heavier than the light hull. Also, in case the submarine is damaged, the light hull takes some of the damage and does not compromise the vessels integrity, inside the outer hull there is a strong hull, or pressure hull, which actually withstands the outside pressure and has normal atmospheric pressure inside. The pressure hull is constructed of thick high-strength steel with a complex structure and high strength reserve. The pressure and light hulls arent separated, and form a structure with increased strength. The interhull space is used for some of the equipment which doesnt require constant pressure to operate, the list significantly differs between submarines, and generally includes different water/air tanks. In case of a submarine, the light hull and the pressure hull are the same except for the bow. The constructions of a pressure hull requires a degree of precision
43.
Delta III-class submarine
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The 667BDR Kaľmar Delta-III class submarine is a large ballistic missile submarine operated by the Russian Navy. Like other previous Delta-class submarines, the Delta III is a double hulled design, the technical description and requirements for a new ballistic missile submarine were published in 1972. Development of Project 667BDR was begun at the Rubin Central Design Bureau for Marine Engineering under the direction of main designer Sergeiy Nikiticz Kovalev, the submarine was to be a successor to the project 667BD. The Delta III subs are significantly quieter and have a higher missile section for new longer missiles, the hull is divided into ten waterproof sections. The first, third, and tenth sections are emergency sections with escape hatches, a new modular freon firefighting system was installed. A solarium and gymnasium were to be installed to improve living conditions, two back-up TG-3000 turbogenerators were also installed. Average period between refuelling and overhaul is about 10 years, the Delta III class are fitted with a new sonar system, the MGK-400 Rubikon, developed under the leadership of main designer S. M. The Rubikon can operate in infrasound frequencies, and contains automated systems for target classification and its maximum range in ideal hydrologic conditions is about 200 km. The Delta III is equipped with a new management system. For improved stealthiness, a new navigation system, Tobol-M-1. The Delta III includes the Molnija-M communications system, with satellite capabilities provided by the Tsunami subsystem, in February 1973, State Rocket Center Makayev began development of a new two-stage liquid-fueled ballistic missile R-29R. Fire control for the R-29R is achieved through the D-9R ballistic missile system, Delta III most often carried 16 of the R-29R missiles each carrying 3 MIRVs with a range of about 6,500 km. They also can carry R-29RK with 7 MIRVs and range of about 6,500 km or R-29RL with single warhead, the submarines have four 533mm bow torpedo tubes and carry sixteen torpedoes of types SET-65, SAET-60M, 53-65K, 53-65M, or any combination thereof. The first ship of the class, K-424, was laid down on 30 January 1974 in Severnoye Mashinostroitelnoye Predpriyatie, Severodvinsk, during construction the new D-9R missile system was integrated into the Delta II hull without any changes in other equipment. The ship was launched on 11 February 1976 and passed sea trials in November 1976, then tests of the new missile system were started in the White and Barents seas,22 missiles were launched and the missile system was commissioned in September 1978. Most submarines served in the Pacific fleet at Rybachiy submarine base near Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, seven under-ice Arctic voyages and two along the Southern territories were completed to 1980. In some places the depth of the sea is less than 50 metres and that gives only a few metres around the submarine. Such a voyage can be performed only by manual steering, which imposes a burden on the crew
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Nautile
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Nautile is a manned submersible owned by Ifremer, the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea. Commissioned in 1984, the submersible can be operated at depths of up to 6 km, Nautile is capable of housing three people. She has a length of 8 m, still imaging cameras and she is fitted with two robotic arms to allow remote manipulation. Nautile can stay under water for up to eight hours at a time, two ships can act as mothership to Nautile, Pourquoi Pas. and Atalante. In its early days Nautile was launched from RV Nadir
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DSV Shinkai
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The Shinkai is a manned research submersible that can dive up to a depth of 600 m. It was completed in 1970 and until 1981 it had the greatest depth range of any manned research vehicle in the Japan, the Shinkai is owned and run by the Japan Coast Guard and it is launched from the support vessel Otomemaru. Two pilots and two researcher operate within two high-strength low-alloy steel pressure hull, three methacrylate resin view ports are arranged at the front and on each side of the vehicle. DSV Shinkai 2000 DSV Shinkai 6500 Archimède FNRS-2 FNRS-3 Bathyscaphe Deepsea Challenger HU-06 SHINKAI page
Bathyscaphe Trieste – 11,000 m
Deepsea Challenger – 11,000 m
Jiaolong – 7,500 m
DSV Shinkai 6500 – 6,500 m
Konsul – 6,500 m
Nautile – 6,000 m
DSV Alvin – 4,500 m
