1.
Hunting
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Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping animals, or pursuing or tracking them with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to predators that are dangerous to humans or domestic animals. Lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals, Hunting can also be a means of pest control. However, hunting has also contributed to the endangerment, extirpation and extinction of many animals. The pursuit, capture and release, or capture for food of fish is called fishing, the practice of foraging or gathering materials from plants and mushrooms is also considered separate from hunting. The word hunt serves as both a noun and a verb, the noun has been dated to the early 12th century, act of chasing game, from the verb hunt. The meaning of a body of persons associated for the purpose of hunting with a pack of hounds is first recorded in the 1570s, meaning the act of searching for someone or something is from about 1600. The verb, Old English huntian to chase game, perhaps developed from hunta hunter, is related to hentan to seize, from Proto-Germanic huntojan, the general sense of search diligently is first recorded c. Hunting has a history and may well pre-date the rise of the species Homo sapiens. Evidence from western Kenya suggests that hunting has been occurring for more two million years. Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have one of the multiple environmental factors leading to the Holocene extinction of megafauna. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, however, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation. The closest surviving relatives of the species are the two species of Pan, the common chimpanzee and bonobos. Common chimpanzees have a diet that includes troop hunting behaviour based on beta males being led by an alpha male. Bonobos have also observed to occasionally engage in group hunting. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as such as dance. Hunting was a component of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of livestock
2.
Deer
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Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the deer and the chital, and the Capreolinae, including the elk, reindeer, the Western roe deer. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species, grow, in this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are in the same order, Artiodactyla. The musk deer of Asia and water chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, Moschidae and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Palaeolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology, religion and their economic importance includes the use of their meat as venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a sport since at least the Middle Ages. Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest, while often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets and prairie and savanna. The majority of deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow, however, fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. There are also species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps. Some deer have a distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga and moose that inhabit taiga, huemul deer of South Americas Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at altitudes in the subalpine meadows. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region, elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, the adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn antelope
3.
Hunting in New Zealand
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Hunting is a popular recreational pursuit and a tourist activity in New Zealand with numerous books and magazines published on the topic. Unlike most other developed countries with a tradition, there are no bag-limits or seasons for hunting large game in New Zealand. Hunting in National Parks is a permitted activity, the wide variety of game animals and the limited restrictions means hunting is a popular pastime which has resulted in a high level of firearms ownership among civilians. Prior to human settlement New Zealand had no land based mammals other than two species of bat, one of which is now extinct, and two species of seal, european settlers introduced a wide range of animals including some specifically for game hunting. Acclimatisation societies were active for a period of 60 years from the 1860s in having introduced animals established in New Zealand, the majority were introduced for food or sport. In the 1980s Recreational Hunting Areas were set up to support hunting on conservation land. The RHAs are administered by the Department of Conservation, guided or independent hunting is open to non-resident hunters with a firearms license and permit issued by the Department of Conservation. Because of the number of game species and varied terrain available. By the 1950s red deer were recognised as an animal pest which damaged the natural environment, networks of tracks with bridges and huts were set up to gain easy access into the backcountry. These tracks and huts, now maintained by the Department of Conservation, are popular for tramping, chamois is a goat-antelope native to Europe. Alpine chamois arrived in New Zealand in 1907 as a gift from the Austrian Emperor, the first surviving releases were made in the Aoraki/Mount Cook region and these animals gradually spread over much of the South Island. They are often referred to colloquially as chamy, in New Zealand, hunting of chamois is unrestricted and even encouraged by the Department of Conservation to limit the animals impact on New Zealands native alpine flora. Fallow deer A smaller species of deer in New Zealand, various genotypes exist with differing colour phases, common, melanistic, menil and white. They are often found in bush closer to pasture/farmland, as prefer grazing on grasses, major herds are found in the North and South Islands of New Zealand. Red deer The red deer in New Zealand produce very large antlers and are regarded as amongst the best in the world by hunters. Along with the other introduced species they are however regarded as a pest by the Department of Conservation and have at times been heavily culled using professional hunters. Additionally many hunters and outdoors enthusiasts class deer in NZ as a resource, ongoing issues over their pest status continue to be debated between parties. Rusa deer A shy and challenging deer to find in New Zealand, larger populations are found in Te Urewera National Park
4.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
5.
Cervidae
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Deer are the ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the deer and the chital, and the Capreolinae, including the elk, reindeer, the Western roe deer. Female reindeer, and male deer of all species, grow, in this they differ from permanently horned antelope, which are in the same order, Artiodactyla. The musk deer of Asia and water chevrotain of tropical African and Asian forests are not usually regarded as true deer and form their own families, Moschidae and Tragulidae, respectively. Deer appear in art from Palaeolithic cave paintings onwards, and they have played a role in mythology, religion and their economic importance includes the use of their meat as venison, their skins as soft, strong buckskin, and their antlers as handles for knives. Deer hunting has been a sport since at least the Middle Ages. Deer live in a variety of biomes, ranging from tundra to the tropical rainforest, while often associated with forests, many deer are ecotone species that live in transitional areas between forests and thickets and prairie and savanna. The majority of deer species inhabit temperate mixed deciduous forest, mountain mixed coniferous forest, tropical seasonal/dry forest. Clearing open areas within forests to some extent may actually benefit deer populations by exposing the understory and allowing the types of grasses, weeds, additionally, access to adjacent croplands may also benefit deer. However, adequate forest or brush cover must still be provided for populations to grow, however, fallow deer have been introduced to South Africa. There are also species of deer that are highly specialized, and live almost exclusively in mountains, grasslands, swamps. Some deer have a distribution in both North America and Eurasia. Examples include the caribou that live in Arctic tundra and taiga and moose that inhabit taiga, huemul deer of South Americas Andes fill the ecological niches of the ibex and wild goat, with the fawns behaving more like goat kids. Mountain slope habitats vary from moist coniferous/mixed forested habitats to dry forests with alpine meadows higher up. The foothills and river valleys between the mountain provide a mosaic of cropland and deciduous parklands. The rare woodland caribou have the most restricted range living at altitudes in the subalpine meadows. Elk and mule deer both migrate between the alpine meadows and lower coniferous forests and tend to be most common in this region, elk also inhabit river valley bottomlands, which they share with White-tailed deer. They also live in the aspen parklands north of Calgary and Edmonton, the adjacent Great Plains grassland habitats are left to herds of elk, American bison, and pronghorn antelope
6.
Red deer
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The red deer is one of the largest deer species. The red deer inhabits most of Europe, the Caucasus Mountains region, Asia Minor, Iran, parts of western Asia and it also inhabits the Atlas Mountains region between Morocco and Tunisia in northwestern Africa, being the only species of deer to inhabit Africa. Red deer have been introduced to areas, including Australia, New Zealand, United States, Canada, Peru, Uruguay, Chile. In many parts of the world, the meat from red deer is used as a food source, Red deer are ruminants, characterized by a four-chambered stomach. Genetic evidence indicates the red deer as traditionally defined is a group, rather than a single species. It is probable that the ancestor of all red deer, including wapiti, originated in central Asia, although at one time red deer were rare in parts of Europe, they were never close to extinction. The red deer is the fourth-largest deer species behind moose, elk and it is a ruminant, eating its food in two stages and having an even number of toes on each hoof, like camels, goats and cattle. European red deer have a long tail compared to their Asian. The deer of Central and Western Europe vary greatly in size, large red deer stags, like the Caspian red deer or those of the Carpathian Mountains, may rival the wapiti in size. Female red deer are smaller than their male counterparts. The male red deer is typically 175 to 250 cm long and weighs 160 to 240 kg, the tail adds another 12 to 19 cm and shoulder height is about 95 to 130 cm. In Scotland, stags average 201 cm in length and 122 cm high at the shoulder. Size varies in different subspecies with the largest, the huge but small-antlered deer of the Carpathian Mountains, weighing up to 500 kg. At the other end of the scale, the Corsican red deer weighs about 80 to 100 kg, European red deer tend to be reddish-brown in their summer coats. The males of many subspecies also grow a short neck mane during the autumn, the male deer of the British Isles and Norway tend to have the thickest and most noticeable manes. Male Caspian red deer and Spanish red deer do not carry neck manes, male deer of all subspecies, however, tend to have stronger and thicker neck muscles than female deer, which may give them an appearance of having neck manes. Red deer hinds do not have neck manes, the European red deer is adapted to a woodland environment. Only the stags have antlers, which growing in the spring and are shed each year
7.
Fallow deer
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The fallow deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Some taxonomers include the rarer Persian fallow deer as a subspecies, the male fallow deer is known as a buck, the female is a doe, and the young a fawn. Adult bucks are 140–160 cm long, 85–95 cm in height, and typically 60–100 kg in weight, does are 130–150 cm long, 75–85 cm in shoulder height. The largest bucks may measure 190 cm long and weigh 150 kg, Fawns are born in spring around 30 cm and weigh around 4.5 kg. Their lifespan is around 12–16 years, much variation occurs in the coat colour of the species, with four main variants, common, menil, melanistic, and leucistic – a genuine colour variety, not albinistic. The white is the lightest coloured, almost white, common and menil are darker, common, Chestnut coat with white mottles, it is most pronounced in summer with a much darker, unspotted coat in the winter. The light-coloured area around the tail is edged with black, the tail is light with a black stripe. Menil, Spots are more distinct than common in summer and no black is seen around the patch or on the tail. In winter, spots are still clear on a brown coat. Melanistic, All-year the coat is black shading to greyish brown, no light-coloured tail patch or spots are seen. Leucistic, Fawns are cream-coloured, adults become pure white, especially in winter, dark eyes and nose are seen, with no spots. Most herds consist of the common coat variation, yet animals of the menil coat variation are not rare, the melanistic variation is generally rarer, and white is very much rarer still, although wild New Zealand herds often have a high melanistic percentage. Only bucks have antlers, which are broad and shovel-shaped from three years, in the first two years, the antler is a single spike. They are grazing animals, their habitat is mixed woodland. Agile and fast in case of danger, fallow deer can run at a speed of 30 mph over short distances. Fallow deer can also make jumps up to 1.75 m high, the fallow deer is a Eurasian deer that was a native to most of Europe during the last interglacial. The fallow deer was introduced to the Victoria Island in the Province of Neuquén by billionaire Aaron Anchorena and he freed wildlife of European and Asian origin, making them common inhabitants of the island and competing for land and food with the native huemul and pudu deer. The fallow deer was spread across central Europe by the Romans, until recently, the Normans were thought to have introduced them to Great Britain for hunting in the royal forests
8.
Sambar (deer)
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The sambar is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent, southern China and Southeast Asia. Although it primarily refers to R. unicolor, the sambar is also sometimes used to refer to the Philippine deer. The name is also spelled sambur or sambhur, in general, they attain a height of 102 to 160 centimetres at the shoulder and may weigh as much as 546 kg, though more typically 100 to 350 kg. Head and body length varies from 1.62 to 2.7 m, individuals belonging to western subspecies tend to be larger than those from the east and females are smaller than males. Among all living species, only the moose and the elk can attain larger sizes. The large, rugged antlers are typically rusine, the brow tines being simple, the antlers are typically up to 110 cm long in fully adult individuals. As with most deer, only the males have antlers, the shaggy coat can be anything from yellowish brown to dark grey in colour and, while it is usually uniform in colour, some subspecies have chestnut marks on the rump and underparts. Sambar also have a small but dense mane, which tends to be prominent in males. The tail is long for deer, and is generally black above with a whitish underside. Adult males and pregnant or lactating females possess an unusual hairless and this sometimes oozes a white liquid, and is apparently glandular in nature. In the Himalayan foothills, Myanmar and eastern Taiwan it ranges up to 3,500 m, the sambar prefers the dense cover of deciduous shrubs and grasses, although the exact nature of this varies enormously with the environment, because of their wide range across southern Asia. Home range sizes are probably equally variable, but have recorded as 1,500 ha for males and 300 ha for females in India. Sambar feed on a variety of vegetation, including grasses, foliage, browse, fruit. They also consume a variety of shrubs and trees. They are a prey item for tigers and Asiatic lions. In India, the sambar can comprise up to nearly 60% of the selected by the Bengal tiger. Anecdotally, the tiger is said to mimic the call of the sambar to deceive it while hunting. They also can be taken by crocodiles, mostly the sympatric mugger crocodiles, leopards and dholes largely prey on only young or sickly deer, though they can attack healthy adults as well
9.
Wapiti
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The elk, or wapiti, is one of the largest species within the deer family, Cervidae, in the world, and one of the largest land mammals in North America and Eastern Asia. This animal should not be confused with the still larger moose to which the name elk applies in British English, apart from the moose, the only other member of the deer family to rival the elk in size is the south Asian sambar. Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves, male elk have large antlers which are shed each year. Although they are native to North America and eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries in which they have introduced, including Argentina. Their great adaptability may threaten endemic species and ecosystems into which they have been introduced, Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely by vaccination, have had mixed success, some cultures revere the elk as a spiritual force. In parts of Asia, antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines, Elk are hunted as a game species. The meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken and it was long believed to be a subspecies of the European red deer, but evidence from a number of mitochondrial DNA genetic studies beginning in 1998 show that the two are distinct species. Key morphological differences that distinguish C. canadensis from C. elaphus are the formers wider rump patch and paler-hued antlers. The word elk is related to the Latin alces, Old Norse elgr, Scandinavian elg/älg and German Elch, the name wapiti is from the Shawnee and Cree word waapiti, meaning white rump. This name is used in particular for the Asian subspecies, because in Eurasia the name elk continues to be used for the moose, Asian subspecies are sometimes referred to as the maral, but this name applies primarily to the Caspian red deer, a subspecies of red deer. There is a subspecies of elk in Mongolia called the Altai wapiti, members of the genus Cervus first appear in the fossil record 25 million years ago, during the Oligocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the early Miocene. The extinct Irish elk was not a member of the genus Cervus, until recently, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus. However, the two species have freely inter-bred in New Zealands Fiordland National Park, where the animals have all. There are numerous subspecies of elk described, with six from North America and four from Asia, populations vary as to antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane, of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt, tule, Manitoban and Rocky Mountain. The eastern elk and Merriams elk subspecies have been extinct for at least a century, four subspecies described in Asia include the Altai wapiti and the Tianshan wapiti. Two distinct subspecies found in China and Korea are the Manchurian wapiti, the Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations
10.
Sika deer
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The sika deer also known as the spotted deer or the Japanese deer, is a species of deer native to much of East Asia, and introduced to various other parts of the world. Previously found from northern Vietnam in the south to the Russian Far East in the north, it is now uncommon in areas, excluding Japan. Its name comes from shika, the Japanese word for deer, in Japan the species is known as the nihonjika. The sika deer is a member of the genus Cervus, a group of deer known as the true deer. Formerly, sika were grouped together in this genus with nine other species, now, only the sika and red deer remain, the latter being divided into three separate species, European red deer, central Asian red deer and American elk. Recent DNA evidence indicates these deer are not as closely related as previously thought, resulting in the creation of new species, the genera Rucervus, Rusa, and Przewalskium are where most of the former Cervus species now belong. The ancestor of all Cervus species probably originated in central Asia, all Cervus species can crossbreed and produce hybrids in areas where they coexist. Serious genetic pollution has occurred in many populations, especially in China, therefore, the status of many subspecies remains unclear. The status of C. n. hortulorum is particularly uncertain and might in fact be of mixed origin, the mainland subspecies have larger and more obvious spots, in contrast to the Taiwanese and Japanese subspecies, whose spots are nearly invisible. Many introduced populations are from Japan, so also lack significant spots. The color of the ranges from mahogany to black. During winter, the coat becomes darker and shaggier and the less prominent. They are medium-sized herbivores, though they show notable size variation across their several subspecies and considerable sexual dimorphism and they can vary from 50 to 110 cm tall at the shoulder and from 95 to 180 cm in head-and-body length. The tail measures about 7. 5–13 cm long, the largest subspecies is the Manchurian sika deer, in which males commonly weigh about 68–109 kg and females weigh 45–50 kg, with large stags scaling up to 160 kg. On the other end of the spectrum, in the Japanese sika deer, males weigh 40–70 kg. All sikas are compact and dainty-legged, with short, trim, wedge-shaped heads, when alarmed, they will often display a distinctive flared rump, much like the American elk. Sika stags have stout, upright antlers with an extra buttress up from the brow tine, a forward-facing intermediate tine breaks the line to the top, which is usually forked. Occasionally, sika antlers develop some palmation, females carry a pair of distinctive black bumps on the forehead
11.
White-tailed deer
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The white-tailed deer, also known as the whitetail, is a medium-sized deer native to the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, and South America as far south as Peru and Bolivia. It has also introduced to New Zealand, Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Bahamas, Lesser Antilles, and some countries in Europe, such as Finland, the Czech Republic. In the Americas, it is the most widely distributed wild ungulate, in North America, the species is widely distributed east of the Rocky Mountains, but elsewhere, it is mostly replaced by the black-tailed or mule deer. Some taxonomists have attempted to separate white-tailed deer into a host of subspecies, genetic studies, however, suggest fewer subspecies within the animals range, as compared to the 30 to 40 subspecies that some scientists described in the last century. The Florida Key deer, O. virginianus clavium, and the Columbian white-tailed deer, in the United States, the Virginia white-tail, O. virginianus virginianus, is among the most widespread subspecies. The white-tailed deer species has tremendous genetic variation and is adaptable to several environments, several local deer populations, especially in the southern states, are descended from white-tailed deer transplanted from various localities east of the Continental Divide. Some of these populations may have been from as far north as the Great Lakes region to as far west as Texas, yet are also quite at home in the Appalachian. These deer over time have intermixed with the indigenous deer populations. Central and South America have a number of white-tailed deer subspecies that range from Guatemala as far south as Peru. This list of subspecies of deer is more exhaustive than the list of North American subspecies, however, the white-tailed deer populations in these areas are difficult to study, due to overhunting in many parts and a lack of protection. Some areas no longer carry deer, so it is difficult to assess the genetic difference of these animals, the deer can be recognized by the characteristic white underside to its tail. It raises its tail when it is alarmed to warn the predator that it has been detected, a population of white-tailed deer in New York is entirely white —not albino—in color. The former Seneca Army Depot in Romulus, New York, has the largest known concentration of white deer, strong conservation efforts have allowed white deer to thrive within the confines of the depot. White-tailed deers horizontally slit pupils allow for night vision and color vision during the day. The white-tailed deer is highly variable in size, generally following Bergmanns rule that the size is larger farther away from the Equator. North American male deer usually weigh 45 kilograms, but in rare cases, mature bucks over 180 kilograms have been recorded in the northernmost reaches of their native range, specifically, Minnesota and Ontario. In 1926, Carl J. Lenander, Jr. took a white-tailed buck near Tofte, MN, the female in North America usually weighs from 40 to 90 kg. White-tailed deer from the tropics and the Florida Keys are markedly smaller-bodied than temperate populations, averaging 35 to 50 kg, white-tailed deer from the Andes are larger than other tropical deer of this species and have thick, slightly woolly looking fur
12.
Axis (genus)
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The chital or cheetal, also known as spotted deer or axis deer, is a deer found in the Indian subcontinent. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, a moderate-sized deer, male chital reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder. While males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the females weigh 25–45 kilograms. The species is dimorphic, males are larger than females. The upper parts are golden to rufous, completely covered in white spots, the abdomen, rump, throat, insides of legs, ears and tail are all white. The antlers, three-pronged, are nearly 1 metre long, the scientific name of the chital is Axis axis. Axis has several origins, the Greek axōn, the Lithuanian ašis. The vernacular name chital is derived from the Hindi cītal or from the Sanskrit citrala, another possible origin is from the Sanskrit citra which means bright or spotted. The name of the cheetah has a similar origin, other names for the chital are cheetal, cheetul, Indian spotted deer or simply the spotted deer, and axis deer. The chital is the member of the genus Axis and is classified under the family Cervidae. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, earlier, Hyelaphus – comprising the Bawean deer, the Calamian deer and the hog deer – was considered a subgenus of Axis. However Hyelaphus has now elevated to generic status a 2004 phylogenetic study showed that Hyelaphus is closer to the genus Rusa than Axis. The study showed that Axis is paraphyletic, and distant from Hyelaphus in the phylogenetic tree, the chital forms a clade with Rucervus duvaucelii and R. schomburgki. The chital diverged from the Rucervus lineage in the early Pliocene, a 2002 study shows that Axis shansius, followed by A. lyra, is the earliest ancestor in the A. axis lineage. Axis is no longer considered a subgenus of Cervus, a 1951 paper identified two subspecies of the chital, A. a. axis and A. a. ceylonensis. The validity of these, however, is disputed, the chital is a moderately sized deer. Males reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder, while males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the lighter females weigh 25–45 kilograms. Exceptionally large males can weigh up to 98 to 110 kg, the tail,20 centimetres long, is marked by a dark stripe that stretches along its length
13.
Moose
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The moose or elk, Alces alces, is the largest extant species in the deer family. Moose are distinguished by the broad, flat antlers of the males, Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. Hunting and other activities have caused a reduction in the size of the mooses range over time. Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats, currently, most moose are found in Canada, Alaska, New England, Fennoscandia, Latvia, Estonia and Russia. Their diet consists of terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. The most common predators are the gray wolf along with bears. Unlike most other species, moose are solitary animals and do not form herds. Although generally slow-moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive and move quickly if angered or startled and their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female. Alces alces is called a moose in North American English, and that same word elk in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, the Cervus canadensis, also called the wapiti. A mature male moose is called a bull, a female a cow. The word elk originated from Proto-Germanic languages, from which Old English evolved, the British English word elk has cognates in other Indo-European languages, for example elg in Danish/Norwegian, älg in Swedish, alnis in Latvian, Elch in German, and łoś in Polish. In the continental-European languages, these forms of the word elk almost always refer to the Alces alces, the word moose first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages, and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The term moose is a name of North American origin, the animal is known in British English as the elk. The moose became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age, long before the Europeans discovery of America, the youngest bones were found in Scotland and are roughly 3900 years old. Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described elk as a deer that was as large as a horse, confusingly, the word elk is used in North America to refer to a different animal, Cervus canadensis, which is also called by the Algonkian indigenous name, wapiti. The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names, the wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe although it was much larger and was not red. The moose was a rather strange-looking deer to the colonists, the wapiti is very similar to the red deer of central and western Europe, although it is distinctly different behaviorally and genetically. Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti elk because of its size, the moose resembled the German elk, which was less familiar to the British colonists
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Field dressing deer
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Field dressing is the process of removing the internal organs of hunted game, and is a necessary step in preserving meat from animals harvested in the wild. Field dressing must be done as soon as possible in order to ensure rapid heat loss. Field dressing helps maintain the quality of the meat. It also makes it easier for a hunter to carry larger game from the hunt area. Most hunters use a knife to accomplish their purpose. Other tools can be used such as axes or saws, however, the fact that harvesting locations are generally in remote areas makes the transporting and use of larger tools impractical. Using a knife designed for field dressing and the use of surgical gloves can greatly aid in sanitation. Chronic wasting disease is a neurological disease and has been found in a minute percentage of deer and elk in certain geographical areas in Canada. The epidemiologcial study further concludes that, s a precaution, hunters should avoid eating deer, tests have also been developed to check for the presence of CWD. Dressed weight CWD in Wisconsin How to Field Dress a Deer How to Field Dress Quail
15.
Rocky Mountains
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The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges, the Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks, at the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre in 1752, the Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles, also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the side of the Trench. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges, the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges, the Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies. The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City, the Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these sub-ranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region, the Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The ranges highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet above sea level, Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet, is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains, triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific, but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, see Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers. Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer, however, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40-year statewide increases in range from 35% in Montana to about 150% in Utah
16.
Mule deer
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The mule deer is a deer indigenous to western North America, it is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule. There are believed to be several subspecies including the black-tailed deer, unlike the related white-tailed deer, mule deer are generally more associated with the land west of the Missouri River, and more specifically with the Rocky Mountain region of North America. Mule deer have also introduced to Argentina and Kauai, Hawaii. The most noticeable differences between white-tailed and mule deer are the size of their ears, the color of their tails, in many cases, body size is also a key difference. The mule deers tail is black-tipped, whereas the whitetails is not, mule deer antlers are bifurcated, they fork as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam, as is the case with white-tails. Each spring, a bucks antlers start to regrow almost immediately after the old antlers are shed, shedding typically takes place in mid-February, with variations occurring by locale. Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen stotting, the mule deer is the larger of the two Odocoileus species on average, with a height of 80–106 cm at the shoulders and a nose-to-tail length ranging from 1.2 to 2.1 m. Of this, the tail may comprise 11.6 to 23 cm, adult bucks normally weigh 55–150 kg, averaging around 92 kg, although trophy specimens may weigh up to 210 kg. Does are rather smaller and typically weigh from 43 to 90 kg, an exception to this is the subspecies, the Sitka black-tailed deer. This race is smaller than other mule deer, with an average weight of 54.5 kg and 36 kg in males and females. In addition to related to available shelter and food, the breeding cycle is important in understanding deer behavior. The rut or mating season begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a few days and males become more aggressive. Does may mate more than one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they did not become pregnant. The gestation period is about 190–200 days, with fawns born in the spring, staying with their mothers during the summer, mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it is their first time having a fawn, they often have just one. A bucks antlers fall off during the winter, to again in preparation for the next seasons rut. The annual cycle of growth is regulated by changes in the length of the day. For a guide to identify the sex and age class of Rocky Mountain mule deer at various seasons see S1 File, for more information see the main article on deer. The size of mule deer groups follow a seasonal pattern
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Blacktail deer
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Two forms of black-tailed deer or blacktail deer that occupy coastal woodlands in the Pacific Northwest are subspecies of the mule deer. They have sometimes been treated as a species, but virtually all recent authorities maintain they are subspecies, the Columbian black-tailed deer is found in western North America, from Northern California into the Pacific Northwest and coastal British Columbia. The Sitka deer is found coastally in British Columbia, Southeast Alaska, Black-tailed deer once lived at least as far east as Wyoming. The black-tailed deer is currently common in California, western Oregon, Washington, in coastal and interior British Columbia and it is a popular game animal. Though it has argued that the black-tailed deer is a species. Strictly speaking, the black-tailed deer group consists of two subspecies, as it also includes O. h. sitkensis, the black-tailed deer group and the mule deer group hybridize and appear to have evolved from the black-tailed deer group. Despite this, the mtDNA of the deer and mule deer are similar. This may be the result of introgression, although hybrids between the deer and white-tailed deer are rare in the wild, and the hybrid survival rate is low even in captivity. One of the plants that black-tailed deer browse is western poison oak and this deer often is most active at dawn and dusk, and is frequently involved in collisions with automobiles. During the winter and early spring, they feed on Douglas-fir, western red cedar, red huckleberry, salal, deer fern, late spring to fall, they consume grasses, blackberries, apples, fireweed, pearly everlasting, forbs, salmonberry, salal, and maple. The mating or rutting season occurs during November and early December, bucks can be observed running back and forth across the roads in the pursuit of does. After the rut, the bucks tend to hide and rest and they suffer broken antlers, and have lost weight. They drop their antlers between January and March, antlers on the forest floor provide a source of calcium and other nutrients to other forest inhabitants. Bucks regrow their antlers beginning in April through to August, the gestation period for does is six to seven months, with fawns being born in late May and into June. Twins are the rule, although young does often have only single fawns, fawns weigh 2.7 to 4 kilograms and have no scent for the first week or so. This enables the mother to leave the fawn hidden while she goes off to browse and she must also eat enough to produce enough milk to feed her fawns. Although does are excellent mothers, fawn mortality rate is 45 to 70%, does are very protective of their young and humans are viewed as predators. Deer communicate with the aid of scent and pheromones from glands located on the lower legs
18.
Axis deer
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The chital or cheetal, also known as spotted deer or axis deer, is a deer found in the Indian subcontinent. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, a moderate-sized deer, male chital reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder. While males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the females weigh 25–45 kilograms. The species is dimorphic, males are larger than females. The upper parts are golden to rufous, completely covered in white spots, the abdomen, rump, throat, insides of legs, ears and tail are all white. The antlers, three-pronged, are nearly 1 metre long, the scientific name of the chital is Axis axis. Axis has several origins, the Greek axōn, the Lithuanian ašis. The vernacular name chital is derived from the Hindi cītal or from the Sanskrit citrala, another possible origin is from the Sanskrit citra which means bright or spotted. The name of the cheetah has a similar origin, other names for the chital are cheetal, cheetul, Indian spotted deer or simply the spotted deer, and axis deer. The chital is the member of the genus Axis and is classified under the family Cervidae. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, earlier, Hyelaphus – comprising the Bawean deer, the Calamian deer and the hog deer – was considered a subgenus of Axis. However Hyelaphus has now elevated to generic status a 2004 phylogenetic study showed that Hyelaphus is closer to the genus Rusa than Axis. The study showed that Axis is paraphyletic, and distant from Hyelaphus in the phylogenetic tree, the chital forms a clade with Rucervus duvaucelii and R. schomburgki. The chital diverged from the Rucervus lineage in the early Pliocene, a 2002 study shows that Axis shansius, followed by A. lyra, is the earliest ancestor in the A. axis lineage. Axis is no longer considered a subgenus of Cervus, a 1951 paper identified two subspecies of the chital, A. a. axis and A. a. ceylonensis. The validity of these, however, is disputed, the chital is a moderately sized deer. Males reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder, while males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the lighter females weigh 25–45 kilograms. Exceptionally large males can weigh up to 98 to 110 kg, the tail,20 centimetres long, is marked by a dark stripe that stretches along its length
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Invasive species
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One study pointed out widely divergent perceptions of the criteria for invasive species among researchers and concerns with the subjectivity of the term invasive. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats and this includes non-native invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in native plant communities. It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The European Union defines Invasive Alien Species as those that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area and it is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and the public for noxious weeds. The kudzu vine, Andean Pampas grass, and yellow starthistle are examples, an alternate usage broadens the term to include indigenous or native species along with non-native species, that have colonized natural areas. Deer are an example, considered to be overpopulating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens, by some in the Northeastern, sometimes the term is used to describe a non-native or introduced species that has become widespread. However, not every introduced species has adverse effects on the environment, a nonadverse example is the common goldfish, which is found throughout the United States, but rarely achieves high densities. Scientists include species and ecosystem factors among the mechanisms that when combined, while all species compete to survive, invasive species appear to have specific traits or specific combinations of traits that allow them to outcompete native species. In some cases, the competition is about rates of growth, in other cases, species interact with each other more directly. Researchers disagree about the usefulness of traits as invasiveness markers, one study found that of a list of invasive and noninvasive species, 86% of the invasive species could be identified from the traits alone. Another study found invasive species tended to have only a subset of the presumed traits. Repeated patterns of movement, such as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up. An introduced species might become if it can outcompete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water. If these species evolved under great competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the invader to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems in which are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero-sum systems in which any gain for the invader is a loss for the native, however, such unilateral competitive superiority is not the rule. For example, barbed goatgrass was introduced to California on serpentine soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high magnesium/calcium ratio, and possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to low density, but goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils. Some species, like Kalanchoe daigremontana, produce allelopathic compounds, that might have an effect on competing species
20.
Big game hunting
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Big-game hunting is the hunting of large game, almost always large terrestrial mammals, for meat, other animal by-products, trophy or sport. The term is associated with the hunting of Africas Big Five game. Along with the big five animals, many species are hunted including kudu, antelope. Moose, elk, caribou, bison, mule deer, and white-tailed deer are the largest game hunted in North America, big-game hunting is conducted in Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Asia and Australia. In Africa, lion, Cape buffalo, elephant, giraffe, in North America, animals such as bear, wolf, caribou, moose, elk, alligator, boar, sheep and bison are hunted. In South America, deer and other species are hunted, in Europe, sheep, boar, goats, elk, deer, and other species are hunted. In Asia, several species of deer, bear, sheep, in Australia, several species of deer and wild boar are hunted. Hunting of big game for food is an ancient practice, dating back thousands of years and it is associated in Europe with the appearance of the Aurignacian culture, although bone fractures on Neanerthal fossils suggest a possible earlier appearance. Based on cave paintings, it appears that early man hunted mammoth in groups, using a combination of spears or large rocks, various big-game hunting methods have been developed over centuries. The main methods in use today are stalking, ambush, driving, trapping or a combination thereof, calling and baiting may be used to increase the effectiveness of any method or combination. The stalking method consists of following the animal until the kill can be made, generally the hunter approaches the game stealthily - camouflaging his appearance, scent or sound depending on which sense is most likely to reveal him to his prey under the conditions. Stalks can routinely persist for days for certain game under certain conditions, tracking game for stalking is a skill that has been learned by hunters since pre-historic times, and is used to with great success today. Ground blinds, tree stands, cocking-cloths, dugout blinds, all of these blinds are used in the ambush method. Cocking-cloths, or stalking blinds, are used in stalking prey, generally, baiting big-game includes the use of blinds, all the methods described herein may be used in combination. Driving game, as a method, is the act of directing the movement of the animal in order to kill it. Game may be driven to a trap, to a fall that will kill it, such as over a cliff, the use of vehicles in stalking and driving game can increase the hunters range and speed, and therefore, his effectiveness. Vehicles may also be used as blinds, ground and air vehicles have been used in hunting big game, both for scouting game location and for the stalk. By far the most common used by hunters is the firearm
21.
Alaska
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Alaska is a U. S. state located in the northwest extremity of North America. To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas–the southern parts of the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area, the 3rd least populous, approximately half of Alaskas residents live within the Anchorage metropolitan area. Alaskas economy is dominated by the fishing, natural gas, military bases and tourism are also a significant part of the economy. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire on March 30,1867, the area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11,1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U. S. on January 3,1959, the name Alaska was introduced in the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut, or Unangam idiom, which refers to the mainland of Alaska. Literally, it means object to which the action of the sea is directed, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States and has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U. S. state on continental North America and it is technically part of the continental U. S. but is sometimes not included in colloquial use, Alaska is not part of the contiguous U. S. often called the Lower 48. The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. Alaskas territorial waters touch Russias territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island, Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U. S. states combined. Alaska is the largest state in the United States by total area at 663,268 square miles, over twice the size of Texas, Alaska is larger than all but 18 sovereign countries. Counting territorial waters, Alaska is larger than the area of the next three largest states, Texas, California, and Montana. It is also larger than the area of the 22 smallest U. S. states. Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the rest of the United States, as such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest and it contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaskas largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital transportation link throughout the area. The Interior is the largest region of Alaska, much of it is uninhabited wilderness, Fairbanks is the only large city in the region
22.
Reindeer
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This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. While overall widespread and numerous, some of its subspecies are rare, for this reason, it is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN. Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size, both sexes can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between population and season. Antlers are typically larger on males, hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and Subarctic peoples. In traditional festive legend, Santa Clauss reindeer pull a sleigh through the sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The name Rangifer, which Carl Linnaeus chose for the genus, was used by Albertus Magnus in his De animalibus. This word may go back to a Saami word raingo, for the origin of the word tarandus, which Linnaeus chose as the specific epithet, he made reference to Ulisse Aldrovandis Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. However, Aldrovandi – and before him Konrad Gesner – thought that rangifer, in any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus – see In history below. Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer tarandus and some of its subspecies have names in many languages, the name rein is of Norse origin. The Finnish name poro may also stem from the same, the word deer was originally broader in meaning, but became more specific over time. In Middle English, der meant a wild animal of any kind. Cognates of Old English dēor in other dead Germanic languages have the sense of animal, such as Old High German tior, Old Norse djúr or dýr, Gothic dius, Old Saxon dier. The name caribou comes, through French, from Mikmaq qalipu, meaning snow shoveler, in Inuktitut, spoken in eastern Arctic North America, the caribou is known by the name tuktu. In the western North American Arctic, the used by the Iñupiat is tuttu. Across the range of a species, individuals may display considerable morphological, genetic, COSEWIC developed Designated Unit attribution to add to classifications already in use. The species taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the subspecies taxonomic name, Rangifer tarandus caribou was defined by Gmelin in 1788. Based on Banfields often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer, R. t. caboti, R. t. osborni and R. t. terraenovae were considered invalid and included in R. t. caribou. Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct and he affirms that true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention
23.
Hunting and shooting in the United Kingdom
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In the United Kingdom hunting without qualification generally refers to hunting with hounds-normally fox hunting, beagling, stag hunting or minkhunting-whereas shooting is the shooting of game birds. What is called deer hunting elsewhere is deer stalking, as of 2012 game shooting and deer stalking are practised in the UK. Hunting with hounds in the traditional manner became illegal in 2002 in Scotland and 2005 in England and Wales, since 2005 it has also been illegal in England and Wales to shoot flights or game birds while they are not in flight. Following a trail rather than a live quarry subsequently grew in importance, the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people a year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay shooting and target shooting. Hunting has been practised in Britain since prehistoric times, it was an activity of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of animals. During the last ice age, humans and neanderthals hunted mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses by driving them over cliffs, in Britain, hunting with hounds was popular in Celtic Britain before the Romans arrived, using the Agassaei breed. The Romans brought their Castorian and Fulpine hound breeds to England, along with importing the brown hare and fallow deer as quarry. The earliest known attempt to hunt a fox with hounds was in Norfolk, in the East of England, in 1534. Packs of hounds were first trained specifically to hunt foxes in the late 17th century, by the end of the 17th century, many organised packs were hunting both hare and fox. Shotguns were improved during the 18th and 19th centuries and game shooting became more popular, Game Laws were relaxed in 1831 which meant anyone could obtain a permit to take rabbits, hares and gamebirds. Shooting on the estates of Scotland was particularly popular. This trend is attributed to the Victorians who were inspired by the romantic imagery of the Scottish Highlands. The shooting of birds, in particular pheasant, is found in the UK, on large, traditional driven shoots on estates. Shooting of game birds is carried out using a shotgun, most often 12 and 20 bore or a.410, Game birds are shot in different ways. The guns will be members of a syndicate sharing costs, or have paid in the region of £25+ per bird for pheasants, the total bag will be anywhere between 10 and 400, again dependent on the budget and quarry. The day may be formal, and the head gamekeeper or a shoot captain will oversee proceedings. Great emphasis is placed on safety, pickers-up with dogs are also employed to make sure all shot or wounded game is collected. On such estates, large numbers of pheasants, partridge and duck, grouse cannot be reared intensively but the heather moorland where they live is intensively managed to maximise numbers
24.
UK
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
25.
Roe deer
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The European roe deer, also known as the western roe deer, chevreuil, or simply roe deer, is an Eurasian species of deer. The male of the species is referred to as a roebuck. The roe deer is small, reddish and grey-brown. The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia and it is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer. Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in Co, sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth, Bt. The Lissadell deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that area for about 50 years before they died out. In England and Wales, roe have experienced an expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century. This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems, at the start of the 20th century, they were almost extinct in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range for no apparent reason and possibly in some cases with human help. In 1884, roe were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Chase area, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. At the same time, the population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire. Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe are now a feature of cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol. In Wales, they are common, but have been seen as far south west as Cardigan and as far north west as Bangor. German colonial administrators introduced roe deer to the island of Pohnpei in Micronesia and they are hunted by locals in very steep and heavily vegetated terrain. The meat is sold in markets and restaurants in Kolonia, the capital city of Pohnpei. Roe deer were introduced also to Australia, the roe deer is distinct from the somewhat larger Siberian roe deer found from the Ural Mountains to as far east as China and Siberia. It is known there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chernobyl. The roe deer is a small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm, a shoulder height of 65–75 cm. It has rather short, erect antlers and a body with a grey face
26.
Reeves's muntjac
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Reevess muntjac is a muntjac species found widely in southeastern China, Taiwan, Bōsō Peninsula on Honshu and Izu Ōshima. It has also introduced in Belgium, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom. It feeds on herbs, blossoms, succulent shoots, grasses and nuts and it takes its name from John Reeves, who was appointed Assistant Inspector of Tea for the British East India Company in 1812. This muntjac grows to 0.5 metres high at the shoulder,0.95 m in length and it is dog-like in appearance but has striped markings on its face. The male has antlers, usually four inches or less. The Taiwanese subspecies, commonly known as the Formosan Reeves Muntjac, is relatively dark compared to the other subspecies, Reevess muntjac is also called the barking deer, known for its distinctive bark, though this name is also used for the other species of muntjacs. The Reevess muntjac preferred habitats are forest and shrubland and it is a solitary and nocturnal animal, feeding on tree leaves, grass and fruits. The tanned skin of Reevess muntjac is notable for its softness and is used for specialist application like beauty care product, musical instruments, lenses. Low-fat muntjack meat is also noted for its culinary qualities, female muntjacs become sexually mature within the first year of life. Gestation period lasts from 209 to 220 days, females limit the number of mating bouts, though time between successive bouts is determined by males. An unspecified species of Reevess muntjac was introduced to the grounds of Woburn Abbey in Bedfordshire in the century by the then Duke of Bedford. While a small number are reported as escaping, it is unlikely that they are the source of the current UK population. Larger numbers of Reevess muntjac escaped from Whipsnade Zoo, and they are the likely ancestors. Since the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, it has been illegal to release the species except where already established, Reevess muntjac colonies exist throughout England south of Derbyshire, and the population continues to grow. In Ireland, the first sightings of muntjac in 2008 caused the Government, concerned at the risk of the species becoming established, the Reevess muntjac was introduced in Japanese Bōsō Peninsula after several specimens escaped the exhibition zoo in 1960-1970 period. As in 2017, the Reevess muntjac numbers on Bōsō Peninsula reached at least 60000, in particular, the muntjac has inflicted severe damage to the Ashitaba plantations. Also, the Reevess muntjac group has escaped zoo on Izu Ōshima in 1970 when the fence fell due typhoon, the muntjac eradication company on Izu Ōshima was performed in 2007-2014 but completely failed, with at least 11000 specimens and yearly population growth rate of 15% as in 2014. This failure exposed the inadequate survey methods strongly under-estimating the population of these nocturnal species, in Hong Kong, it is a protected species under Wild Animals Protection Ordinance Cap 170
27.
Chinese water deer
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The water deer is a small deer superficially more similar to a musk deer than a true deer. Native to China and Korea, there are two subspecies, the Chinese water deer and the Korean water deer, despite its lack of antlers and certain other anatomical anomalies—including a pair of prominent tusks, it is classified as a cervid. Its unique anatomical characteristics have caused it to be classified in its own genus as well as its own subfamily, however, a study of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences placed it near Capreolus within an Old World section of the subfamily Capreolinae. Its prominent tusks, similar to those of deer, have led to both being colloquially named vampire deer in English-speaking areas to which they have been imported. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, in China, water deer are found in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Henan, Anhui, Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Shanghai, and Guangxi. They are now extinct in the southern and western China, Water deer inhabit the land alongside rivers, where they are protected from sight by the tall reeds and rushes. They are also seen on mountains, swamps, grasslands, Water deer are proficient swimmers, and can swim several miles to reach remote river islands. Chinese Water Deer are now located in United Kingdom, France and Argentina, Chinese water deer were first introduced into Great Britain in the 1870s. The animals were kept in the London Zoo until 1896, when Herbrand Russell oversaw their transferral to Woburn Abbey, more of the animals were imported and added to the herd over the next three decades. In 1929 and 1930,32 deer were transferred from Woburn to Whipsnade, also in Bedfordshire, the current population of Chinese water deer at Whipsnade is currently estimated to be more than 600, while the population at Woburn is probably in excess of 250. The majority of the current population of Chinese water deer in Britain derives from escapees, most of these animals still reside close to Woburn Abbey. It appears that the strong preference for a particular habitat – tall reed. The main area of distribution is from Woburn, east into Cambridgeshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and North Essex, there have been small colonies reported in other areas. The British Deer Society coordinated a survey of wild deer in the United Kingdom between 2005 and 2007 and noted the Chinese water deer as notably increasing its range since the last census in 2000. A small population existed in France originating from animals which had escaped an enclosure in 1960 in western France, the population was reinforced in 1965 and 1970 and species is protected since 1974. Despite efforts to locate the animals with the help of local hunters, there have no records since the year 2000. The species is not native, but a few small farms in the southeastern United States have successfully bred water deer. The water deer has narrow pectoral and pelvic girdles, long legs, the powerful hind legs are longer than the front legs, so that the haunches are carried higher than the shoulders
28.
Hunting in the United Kingdom
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In the United Kingdom hunting without qualification generally refers to hunting with hounds-normally fox hunting, beagling, stag hunting or minkhunting-whereas shooting is the shooting of game birds. What is called deer hunting elsewhere is deer stalking, as of 2012 game shooting and deer stalking are practised in the UK. Hunting with hounds in the traditional manner became illegal in 2002 in Scotland and 2005 in England and Wales, since 2005 it has also been illegal in England and Wales to shoot flights or game birds while they are not in flight. Following a trail rather than a live quarry subsequently grew in importance, the British Association for Shooting and Conservation says that over a million people a year participate in shooting, including game shooting, clay shooting and target shooting. Hunting has been practised in Britain since prehistoric times, it was an activity of hunter-gatherer societies before the domestication of animals. During the last ice age, humans and neanderthals hunted mammoths and woolly rhinoceroses by driving them over cliffs, in Britain, hunting with hounds was popular in Celtic Britain before the Romans arrived, using the Agassaei breed. The Romans brought their Castorian and Fulpine hound breeds to England, along with importing the brown hare and fallow deer as quarry. The earliest known attempt to hunt a fox with hounds was in Norfolk, in the East of England, in 1534. Packs of hounds were first trained specifically to hunt foxes in the late 17th century, by the end of the 17th century, many organised packs were hunting both hare and fox. Shotguns were improved during the 18th and 19th centuries and game shooting became more popular, Game Laws were relaxed in 1831 which meant anyone could obtain a permit to take rabbits, hares and gamebirds. Shooting on the estates of Scotland was particularly popular. This trend is attributed to the Victorians who were inspired by the romantic imagery of the Scottish Highlands. The shooting of birds, in particular pheasant, is found in the UK, on large, traditional driven shoots on estates. Shooting of game birds is carried out using a shotgun, most often 12 and 20 bore or a.410, Game birds are shot in different ways. The guns will be members of a syndicate sharing costs, or have paid in the region of £25+ per bird for pheasants, the total bag will be anywhere between 10 and 400, again dependent on the budget and quarry. The day may be formal, and the head gamekeeper or a shoot captain will oversee proceedings. Great emphasis is placed on safety, pickers-up with dogs are also employed to make sure all shot or wounded game is collected. On such estates, large numbers of pheasants, partridge and duck, grouse cannot be reared intensively but the heather moorland where they live is intensively managed to maximise numbers
29.
Culling
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In biology, culling is the process of segregating organisms from a group according to desired or undesired characteristics. In animal breeding, culling is the process of removing or segregating animals from a stock based on specific trait. This is done to exaggerate desirable characteristics, or to remove undesirable characteristics, for livestock and wildlife, culling often refers to the act of killing removed animals. This usually happens at collection centres located at, or close to farms, Culling is sometimes used as a term to describe indiscriminate killing within one particular species which can be due to a range of reasons, for example, badger culling in the United Kingdom. The word comes from the Latin colligere, which means to collect, the term can be applied broadly to mean sorting a collection into two groups, one that will be kept and one that will be rejected. The cull is the set of items rejected during the selection process, the culling process is repeated until the selected group is of proper size and consistency desired. In the breeding of pedigreed animals, both desirable and undesirable traits are considered when choosing which animals to retain for breeding and which to place as pets. The process of culling starts with examination of the standard of the animal and will often include additional qualities such as health, robustness, temperament, color preference. The breeder takes all things into consideration when envisioning his/her ideal for the breed or goal of their breeding program, from that vision, selections are made as to which animals, when bred, have the best chance of producing the ideal for the breed. Breeders of pedigreed animals cull based on many criteria, the first culling criterion should always be health and robustness. Secondary to health, temperament and conformation of the animal should be considered, the filtering process ends with the breeders personal preferences on pattern, color, etc. Once that level of quality in the trait is achieved. With the tandem method, a level of quality is set for important characteristics that the breeder wishes to remain constant. The breeder is focussing improvement in one particular trait without losing quality of the others, the breeder will raise the threshold for selection on this trait with each successive generation of progeny, thus ensuring improvement in this single characteristic of his breeding program. Progeny is first evaluated on the existing quality thresholds in place for muzzle length, muzzle shape, independent levels is a method where any animal who falls below a given standard in any single characteristic is not used in a breeding program. With each successive mating, the threshold culling criteria is raised thus improving the breed with each successive generation and this method measures several characteristics at once. Should progeny fall below the quality in any one characteristic being measured. With each successive generation of progeny, the quality of each characteristic is raised thus insuring improvement of these traits
30.
Medieval
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
31.
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981
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The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 is an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom implemented to comply with European Council Directive 2009/147/EC on the conservation of wild birds. The Act is split into 4 parts covering 74 sections, it also includes 17 schedules, the legislation has strength, few amendments have been made to it, and it has acted as a foundation for later legislation to build upon. The compulsory 5 year review of schedules 5 and 8 make it dynamic in terms of the species which it protects. The Wild Birds Protection Act 1902 was an Act of Parliament of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, given the royal assent on 22 July 1902, the Act was repealed and replaced by the Protection of Birds Act 1954. Bird Sanctuary Orders under this Act were replaced by Areas of Special Protection under the Wildlife, the 1979 Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats covered the natural heritage of Europe, as well as in some African countries. It encouraged European co-operation in protecting natural habitats, and the conservation of flora and fauna, including migratory species, the convention became open for signature on 19 September 1979 as a binding international legal instrument, it came into force on 1 June 1982. The UK ratified the convention and adopted the European Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds, European Directive 79/409/EC on the Conservation of Wild Birds was adopted on 2 April 1979. The main provisions included, protection of species, classification of Special Protection Areas, protection for all wild birds. From 1981 several acts have passed as UK legislation to comply with the European Directive on the Conservation, the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 strengthened protection of SSSIs introduced by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. The pre-dated acts, Protection of Birds Acts of 1954,1964 and 1967 Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act 1975 were repealed by the passing of the Wildlife, 1982- The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 was implemented. 1985- The UK ratified the Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, adopted in Bonn, Germany in 1979 and coming into force in 1985, the Bonn Convention worked to conserve migratory species and their habitats. Listed in Appendix I are species which are endangered, Appendix II contains species which would benefit from international cooperation, Appendix 1 migratory species listed in the convention were amended into the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Part II includes sections 28 to 52 of the Act, building on the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 which required local authorities to draw up maps defining public rights of way. An up-to-date map act as evidence that the public has right of way in relevant way, footpath- allows the public to use highway on foot. Bridleway- allows the public to use highway on foot, leading a horse or riding a horse, relevant conservation body- Natural England or Countryside Council for Wales The Act contains 17 schedules. Schedules 1 to 10 relate to powers under the Wildlife part of the Act, schedule 1 lists over forty species of birds that are protected by special penalties. Schedule 2 lists Huntable birds and their close seasons, there have been a few simple amendments to the Wildlife and Countryside Act, such as word changes, increase in fines, etc. Every 5 years the JNCC coordinates a compulsory review of schedules 5 and 8 to add new species that may need protection, a secretary of state can add or remove species at any time
32.
Venison
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Venison is the meat of a deer. Venison can be used to refer to any part of the deer, so long as it can be consumed, including the flesh, venison, much like beef, is categorized into specific cuts, including roast, sirloin, and ribs. The word derives from the Latin venari and this term entered English through Norman in the 11th century, following the Norman invasion of England, and the establishment of Royal Forests. Venison originally described meat of any game animal killed by hunting, and was applied to any animal from the families Cervidae, Leporidae, and Suidae, in Southern Africa, the word venison refers to the meat of antelope. There are no native Cervidae in sub-Saharan Africa, venison may be eaten as steaks, tenderloin, roasts, sausages, jerky and minced meat. It has a reminiscent of beef, but is richer. Venison tends to have a texture and is leaner than comparable cuts of beef. However, like beef, leaner cuts can be tougher as well, organ meats of deer are eaten, but would not be called venison. This is supposedly the origins of the phrase humble pie, literally a pie made from the organs of the deer, venison is widely considered by modern nutritionists to be a very healthy meat. Since wild deer are not confined to limited spaces and eat a diet, their meat is natural. Venison is higher in moisture, similar in protein and lower in calories, cholesterol and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, when considering the environmental effects that result from raising livestock, deer meat is also a low-impact food. Farmers have had tests developed especially for the species they raise to obtain better results than those used on cattle. Venison jerky can be purchased in grocery stores or ordered online. Some deer breeders have expressed an interest in breeding for an animal that displays more marbling in the meat. Historically, venison was considered to be a symbol among many Europeans. In England, for example, hunting rights were restricted in an effort to preserve property rights, as a result, the possession and sale of venison was tightly regulated under English law. Venison is widely available in European supermarkets through the hunting season. The main cuts available to European consumers are derived from the saddle, in the United States, venison is less common at retail due to the requirement that the animal be first inspected by USDA inspectors
33.
Ghillie
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In origin it referred especially to someone who attended on his employer or guests. A ghillie may also serve as a gamekeeper employed by a landowner to prevent poaching on their lands, control unwelcome natural predators such as fox or otter and monitor the health of the wildlife. The origin of this dates from the late 16th century, from the Scottish Gaelic gille, lad, servant. Historically, the term was used for a Highland chiefs attendant, a ghillie-weetfit, a term now obsolete, was the ghillie whose duty it was to carry his master over streams. It became a term of contempt among the Lowlanders for the tail of a Highland chief
34.
Scottish Highlands
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The Highlands are a historic region of Scotland. Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, the term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands, the Scottish Gaelic name of A Ghàidhealtachd literally means the place of the Gaels and traditionally, from a Gaelic-speaking point of view, includes both the Western Isles and the Highlands. The area is sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region. At 9.1 per km2 in 2012, the density in the Highlands and Islands is less than one seventh of Scotlands as a whole, comparable with that of Bolivia, Chad. The Highland Council is the body for much of the Highlands. However, the Highlands also includes parts of the areas of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Argyll and Bute, Moray, North Ayrshire, Perth & Kinross, Stirling. The Scottish highlands is the area in the British Isles to have the Taiga biome as it features concentrated populations of Scots pine forest. Between the 15th century and the 20th century, the area differed from most of the Lowlands in terms of language. In Scottish Gaelic, the region is known as the Gàidhealtachd, because it was traditionally the Gaelic-speaking part of Scotland, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably but have different meanings in their respective languages. Scottish English is the predominant language of the area today, though Highland English has been influenced by Gaelic speech to a significant extent, historically, the Highland line distinguished the two Scottish cultures. Most of this legislation was repealed by the end of the 18th century as the Jacobite threat subsided, there was soon a rehabilitation of Highland culture. Tartan was adopted for Highland regiments in the British Army, which poor Highlanders joined in large numbers in the era of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. Tartan had largely abandoned by the ordinary people of the region, but in the 1820s, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland. The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle, individual clan tartans were largely designated in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity. The period of the Napoleonic wars brought prosperity, optimism, the economy grew thanks to wages paid in industries such as kelping, fisheries, and weaving, as well as large-scale infrastructure spending such as the Caledonian Canal project. On the East Coast, farmlands were improved, and high prices for cattle brought money to the area, Service in the Army was also attractive to young men from the Highlands, who sent pay home and retired there with their army pensions. This prosperity ended after 1815, and long-term negative factors began to undermine the position of the poor tenant farmers, who typically rented a few acres
35.
North American
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
36.
Scent-seeking hounds
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Scent hounds are a type of hound that primarily hunts by scent rather than sight. These breeds are hunting dogs and are regarded as having some of the most sensitive noses among canines. Hounds are hunting dogs that hunt by following the scent of a game animal or by following the animal by sight. There are many breeds in the type, and scenthounds may do other work as well. Kennel clubs assign breeds of dogs to Groups, which are based on breed types. Each kennel club determines which breeds it will place in a given group, scent hounds specialize in following a smell or scent. Most of these breeds have long, drooping ears, one theory says that this trait helps to collect scent from the air and keep it near the dogs face and nose. They also have large cavities, which also helps to help them smell better. Their typically loose, moist lips are said to assist in trapping scent particles, most of these breeds have deep, booming voices and use them actively when running, and especially when following a scent trail. The best scent hounds can follow a scent trail even across running water, most scent hounds are used for hunting in packs of multiple dogs. Longer-legged hounds run more quickly and usually require that the follow on horseback. The hunters then go to the spot on foot, following the sound of the dogs baying, the Fédération Cynologique Internationale places scent hounds into their classification Group 6. This includes a subdivision, Section 2, Leash Hounds, some examples of which are the Bavarian Mountain Scenthound, the Hanoverian Scenthound, in addition, the Dalmatian and the Rhodesian Ridgeback are placed in Group 6 as Related breeds. The United Kennel Club divides its Scenthound Group into two categories, the first, Tree Hounds, includes the American hunting dogs known as coonhounds and the European hounds from which they were developed. The second category is named Trailing Scenthounds, and includes dogs used for the tracking of game animals and they are also used for explosives detection. The Trailing group are reputedly descended from a type of bloodhound kept by monks in Belgium, genetic studies confirm the long-standing belief that all scent hounds share a more recent common ancestor with each other than they do with other branches on the dog family tree. The scent hound type includes the following breeds, The Scenthound Group is the category used by the United Kennel Club. The first includes the American hunting dogs known as coonhounds and the European hounds from which they were developed and these are referred to as Tree Hounds
37.
Chital
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The chital or cheetal, also known as spotted deer or axis deer, is a deer found in the Indian subcontinent. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, a moderate-sized deer, male chital reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder. While males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the females weigh 25–45 kilograms. The species is dimorphic, males are larger than females. The upper parts are golden to rufous, completely covered in white spots, the abdomen, rump, throat, insides of legs, ears and tail are all white. The antlers, three-pronged, are nearly 1 metre long, the scientific name of the chital is Axis axis. Axis has several origins, the Greek axōn, the Lithuanian ašis. The vernacular name chital is derived from the Hindi cītal or from the Sanskrit citrala, another possible origin is from the Sanskrit citra which means bright or spotted. The name of the cheetah has a similar origin, other names for the chital are cheetal, cheetul, Indian spotted deer or simply the spotted deer, and axis deer. The chital is the member of the genus Axis and is classified under the family Cervidae. The species was first described by German naturalist Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben in 1777, earlier, Hyelaphus – comprising the Bawean deer, the Calamian deer and the hog deer – was considered a subgenus of Axis. However Hyelaphus has now elevated to generic status a 2004 phylogenetic study showed that Hyelaphus is closer to the genus Rusa than Axis. The study showed that Axis is paraphyletic, and distant from Hyelaphus in the phylogenetic tree, the chital forms a clade with Rucervus duvaucelii and R. schomburgki. The chital diverged from the Rucervus lineage in the early Pliocene, a 2002 study shows that Axis shansius, followed by A. lyra, is the earliest ancestor in the A. axis lineage. Axis is no longer considered a subgenus of Cervus, a 1951 paper identified two subspecies of the chital, A. a. axis and A. a. ceylonensis. The validity of these, however, is disputed, the chital is a moderately sized deer. Males reach nearly 90 centimetres and females 70 centimetres at the shoulder, while males weigh 30–75 kilograms, the lighter females weigh 25–45 kilograms. Exceptionally large males can weigh up to 98 to 110 kg, the tail,20 centimetres long, is marked by a dark stripe that stretches along its length
38.
Hog deer
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Introduced populations also exist in Australia and Sri Lanka. It gets its name from the manner in which it runs through the forests with its head hung low so that it can duck under obstacles instead of leaping over them like most other deer. Cover is taken as soon as it is feasible, during flight, the tail is held erect, showing the white underside. A mature hog deer stag stands about 70 cm at the shoulder and weighs approximately 50 kg while hinds are much smaller, standing about 61 cm and weighing in the vicinity of 30 kg. They are very solidly built with a body and relatively short legs. The ears are rounded, older animals tend to become light coloured in the face, the Indian Hog Deers coat is quite thick and generally a uniform dark-brown in winter except for the underparts of the body and legs which are lighter in colour. During late spring, the change to a coat of rich reddish brown commences although this may vary between individuals. Many hog deer show a dorsal stripe extending from the head down the back of the neck. In summer, there is usually a row of light-coloured spots along either side of the dorsal stripe from the shoulders to the rump. The tail is short and brown but tipped with white. The underside of the tail is white and the deer can fan the white out in a distinctive alarm display. Indian hog deer have preorbital glands on the face just below the eyes, pedal glands are located between the cleaves or toes of the hind hooves. The antler of a mature hog deer stag is typically three tined-brow tine with solid main beam terminating in inner and outer top tines, however, antlers with more points are not uncommon. This species of deer are gregarious only when conditions are favorable and do not form a unit at these times, when alarmed, hog deer make a whistling vocalization or a warning bark. Home ranges vary widely in size, but average about 0.70 km², males are aggressive, and may become territorial at low population densities, marking the boundaries with glandular secretions. During the rut, males gather in open meadows, pawing the ground during antagonistic encounters, harems are not created, with males courting and defending a single female at any given time. Unlike many other species, hog deer do not have a rutting call. Population densities may be as low as 0.1 animals per square kilometer in riverine valleys, predators include tigers, leopards, dholes and sometimes the Burmese python, and the clouded leopard
39.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
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Queensland
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Queensland is the second-largest and third-most-populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west, to the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. Queensland has a population of 4,750,500, concentrated along the coast, the state is the worlds sixth largest sub-national entity, with an area of 1,852,642 km2. The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane, Australias third largest city, often referred to as the Sunshine State, Queensland is home to 10 of Australias 30 largest cities and is the nations third largest economy. Tourism in the state, fuelled largely by its tropical climate, is a major industry. Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, the first European to land in Queensland was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain. The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 by Governor Arthur Phillip at Sydney, New South Wales at that time included all of what is now Queensland, Queensland was explored in subsequent decades until the establishment of a penal colony at Brisbane in 1824 by John Oxley. Penal transportation ceased in 1839 and free settlement was allowed from 1842, the state was named in honour of Queen Victoria, who on 6 June 1859 signed Letters Patent separating the colony from New South Wales. The 6th of June is now celebrated statewide as Queensland Day. Queensland achieved statehood with the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the history of Queensland spans thousands of years, encompassing both a lengthy indigenous presence, as well as the eventful times of post-European settlement. The north-eastern Australian region was explored by Dutch, Spanish and French navigators before being encountered by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, the Australian Labor Party has its origin as a formal organisation in Queensland and the town of Barcaldine is the symbolic birthplace of the party. June 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of its creation as a colony from New South Wales. The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, likely via boat or land bridge across Torres Strait, during the last ice age Queenslands landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. This led to the worlds first seed-grinding technology, warming again made the land hospitable, which brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the states tropical rainforests. In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa and this was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people. The region was explored by French and Spanish explorers prior to the arrival of Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of the United Kingdom on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming Eastern Australia, including Queensland, the Aboriginal population declined significantly after a smallpox epidemic during the late 18th century
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South Australia
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South Australia is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country, with a total land area of 983,482 square kilometres, it is the fourth-largest of Australias states and territories. Other population centres in the state are relatively small, the state comprises less than 8 percent of the Australian population and ranks fifth in population among the six states and two territories. The majority of its people reside in Adelaide, most of the remainder are settled in fertile areas along the south-eastern coast and River Murray. The states colonial origins are unique in Australia as a settled, planned British province. Official settlement began on 28 December 1836, when the colony was proclaimed at the Old Gum Tree by Governor John Hindmarsh, as with the rest of the continent, the region had been long occupied by Aboriginal peoples, who were organised into numerous tribes and languages. The first British settlement to be established was Kingscote, Kangaroo Island, on 26 July 1836, the guiding principle behind settlement was that of systematic colonisation, a theory espoused by Edward Gibbon Wakefield that was later employed by the New Zealand Company. The goal was to establish the province as a centre of civilisation for free immigrants, promising civil liberties, although its history is marked by economic hardship, South Australia has remained politically innovative and culturally vibrant. Today, it is known for its wine and numerous cultural festivals. The states economy is dominated by the agricultural, manufacturing and mining industries, the state has an increasingly significant finance sector as well. Evidence of human activity in South Australia dates back as far as 20,000 years, with flint mining activity, in addition wooden spears and tools were made in an area now covered in peat bog in the South East. Kangaroo Island was inhabited long before the island was cut off by rising sea levels, thijssen named his discovery Pieter Nuyts Land, after the highest ranking individual on board. The complete coastline of South Australia was first mapped by Matthew Flinders, the land which now forms the state of South Australia was claimed for Britain in 1788 as part of the colony of New South Wales. Although the new colony included almost two-thirds of the continent, early settlements were all on the eastern coast and it took more than forty years before any serious proposal to establish settlements in the south-western portion of New South Wales were put forward. In 1834, the British Parliament passed the South Australia Act 1834, the act stated that 802,511 square kilometres would be allotted to the colony and it would be convict-free. In contrast to the rest of Australia, terra nullius did not apply to the new province, although the patent guaranteed land rights under force of law for the indigenous inhabitants it was ignored by the South Australian Company authorities and squatters. Settlement of seven vessels and 636 people was made at Kingscote on Kangaroo Island. The first immigrants arrived at Holdfast Bay in November 1836, the Colonisation Commissioners intended to establish a police service as soon as misconduct within the increasing population warranted it
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Tree stand
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Tree stands or deer stands are open or enclosed platforms used by hunters. The platforms are secured to trees in order to elevate the hunter, a tripod stand is a similar device, but because it is freestanding rather than attached to a tree, it is not technically a tree stand. Hunters use many different types of tree stands, two parts make up climbing stands. The bottom part is the platform and the top is the seat. Not all the top parts have backs for the seats, there is normally a strap that connects the two parts, so if the bottom falls while in the tree or climbing, the platform doesn’t fall all the way to the ground, stranding the hunter. Only trees that have no limbs up to the height desired for hunting will work, climbing tree stands have a couple of different styles to connect to the tree. The part that wraps around the tree can be made from a cable or boomerang shaped piece of metal. The part that wraps around the tree is fastened to the stand with a bolt or pin for easy adjustment for different tree sizes, before climbing the tree both parts need to be adjusted to the tree so they are level for the hunter to stand and sit on. To climb the tree the back of each part is angled to the one at a time. Then the part that the hunter is moving is set back level and this is done until the hunter is at the desired height. In addition to the stand, some hunters use a safety harness to prevent injury in the event that any component of the tree stand fails. To descend the tree, the hunter simply reverses the order of operations to climb the tree - lowering the standing platform, standing on the standing platform, ladder stands are a stand with a seat and platform along with the ladder to climb up into the stand. A ladder stand has a seat and platform that connect to the tree with the ladder coming off the front of the platform to give the hunter access to the stand, ladder stands are stationary because of the size and lack of ability to move through the woods quietly. Stability is good because of the connection to the tree and support from the ground, hunters can use one and two person ladder stands. Hanging stands can resemble ladder stands without the ladder, and the stand is also stationary. Hanging stands connect to the tree with chains or cables at the desired height. To get up to a hanging stand hunters use ladders or sections of ladders secured to the tree, or they use screw in steps that screw in the tree and allow the hunter to climb up to the stand. Box stands are large enclosed stands that almost look like a shed and these are designed to help get out of the weather and keep you hidden from view of game
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Hunting blind
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A hunting blind, hide or machan is a cover device for hunters, designed to reduce the chance of detection. There are different types of blinds for different situations, such as deer blinds, some are exceedingly simple, while others are complex. The legality of various kinds of blinds may vary according to municipality, blinds may be stable or mobile. An early blind used by hunters was a cocking-cloth, a piece of canvas stretched on a frame like a kite that would permit hunters to approach pheasants and to shoot them through a hole in the cloth. Ground blinds are an alternative to the tree stand, movements in a well-designed ground blind can virtually be undetectable by the game. The hunter simply sits down on the top and pushes dirt away with both feet, front and back, in two to three minutes a shallow depression is created. Then additional stubble from cut grain can be placed around the edges, enough to cover when the hunter lies down when birds are spotted. The blind can be deepened to allow sitting upright, if desired, in other areas duck blinds can be quite elaborate. More substantial structures are common in the midwestern United States, and their purpose often extends beyond concealment to include protection from the elements, particularly from rain, in some areas, blinds can approach small cabins in their size and amenities. A sinkbox is another form of duck blind, designed for partial submersion in a body of water. Deer blinds may not be legal in all areas, so hunters are obligated to check hunting laws before constructing them, alternatives include simply sitting still at the base of a tree. It may be illegal is adding to a condition to improve upon it and conceal a hunters presence, or actually constructing something with sides. In some states, hunting from a camouflaged blind may be prohibited during rifle/shotgun season, in such cases, a hunter is required to add orange patch on blind such that the orange is visible from all angles. Other simple blinds include climbing a tree, usually with special climbing equipment and with kind of seat. In India, a platform on a tree during shikar is known as machan
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