1.
Fallow deer
–
The fallow deer is a ruminant mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Some taxonomers include the rarer Persian fallow deer as a subspecies, the male fallow deer is known as a buck, the female is a doe, and the young a fawn. Adult bucks are 140–160 cm long, 85–95 cm in height, and typically 60–100 kg in weight, does are 130–150 cm long, 75–85 cm in shoulder height. The largest bucks may measure 190 cm long and weigh 150 kg, Fawns are born in spring around 30 cm and weigh around 4.5 kg. Their lifespan is around 12–16 years, much variation occurs in the coat colour of the species, with four main variants, common, menil, melanistic, and leucistic – a genuine colour variety, not albinistic. The white is the lightest coloured, almost white, common and menil are darker, common, Chestnut coat with white mottles, it is most pronounced in summer with a much darker, unspotted coat in the winter. The light-coloured area around the tail is edged with black, the tail is light with a black stripe. Menil, Spots are more distinct than common in summer and no black is seen around the patch or on the tail. In winter, spots are still clear on a brown coat. Melanistic, All-year the coat is black shading to greyish brown, no light-coloured tail patch or spots are seen. Leucistic, Fawns are cream-coloured, adults become pure white, especially in winter, dark eyes and nose are seen, with no spots. Most herds consist of the common coat variation, yet animals of the menil coat variation are not rare, the melanistic variation is generally rarer, and white is very much rarer still, although wild New Zealand herds often have a high melanistic percentage. Only bucks have antlers, which are broad and shovel-shaped from three years, in the first two years, the antler is a single spike. They are grazing animals, their habitat is mixed woodland. Agile and fast in case of danger, fallow deer can run at a speed of 30 mph over short distances. Fallow deer can also make jumps up to 1.75 m high, the fallow deer is a Eurasian deer that was a native to most of Europe during the last interglacial. The fallow deer was introduced to the Victoria Island in the Province of Neuquén by billionaire Aaron Anchorena and he freed wildlife of European and Asian origin, making them common inhabitants of the island and competing for land and food with the native huemul and pudu deer. The fallow deer was spread across central Europe by the Romans, until recently, the Normans were thought to have introduced them to Great Britain for hunting in the royal forests
2.
Powderham Castle
–
It is a Grade I listed building. The park and gardens are Grade II* listed in the National Register of Historic Parks and it is situated on flat, formerly marshy ground on the west bank of the River Exe estuary where it is joined by its tributary the River Kenn. On the opposite side of the Exe is the village of Lympstone. The castle was expanded and altered extensively in the 18th and 19th centuries, the castle remains the seat of the Courtenay family, Earls of Devon. The manor of Powderham is named from the ancient Dutch word polder, at some time after 1390 the mediaeval core of the present structure was built by Sir Philip Courtenay, the 5th or 6th son of Hugh Courtenay, 2nd Earl of Devon. They had however shortly before obtained the right to sit in the House of Lords when created Viscounts, the original building on the site was a fortified manor house, the appellation castle was added probably no earlier than the 17th century. The building has never been a castle, that is to say with a keep and moat, although it did possess a curtain wall. Many castle-like elements on the west front were added in the 19th century, the gatehouse was built between 1845–47 to a design by Charles Fowler. The tall rectangular structure beyond with a tower to the north is essentially the original fortified manor house, the projection from the lower storey to the north in lighter stone with three Gothic-style windows is the Victorian dining hall, designed by Fowler. During the Wars of the Roses the enemies of the Courtenay Earls of Devon of Tiverton Castle were the Bonville family of Shute. On 3 November 1455 Thomas de Courtenay, 5th Earl of Devon, at the head of an army of 1,000 men, seized control of Exeter and its castle. Lord Bonville attempted to raise the siege and approached from the east, crossing the River Exe, on 15 December 1455 the Earl of Devon and Lord Bonville met decisively at the Battle of Clyst Heath, where Bonville was defeated and after which the earl sacked and pillaged Shute. During the Civil War Powderham Castle was garrisoned by 300 Royalist soldiers under the command of Sir Hugh Meredith. In December 1645 a Parliamentarian detachment under the command of Sir Thomas Fairfax tried, without initial success, to capture it but it fell on 25 January 1646 to Col. Robert Hammond. The castle was damaged in the assault and remained, in places, open to the elements until the early 1700s when it was repaired by Sir William Courtenay. Originally it was double height, as high as the hall to the north. At the same time the staircase was inserted into the part to form the staircase hall. The screens passage was located in this end of the hall, a single more flatly arched doorway remains high up on the south wall, which formed the entrance to the wooden minstrels gallery overhanging the great hall
3.
Middle Ages
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
4.
Early modern period
–
The early modern period of modern history follows the late Middle Ages of the post-classical era. Historians in recent decades have argued that from a worldwide standpoint, the period witnessed the exploration and colonization of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe. The historical powers became involved in trade, as the exchange of goods, plants, animals, and food crops extended to the Old World. The Columbian Exchange greatly affected the human environment, New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the early modern period. This process began in the medieval North Italian city-states, particularly Genoa, Venice, the early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. The European colonization of the Americas, Asia, and Africa occurred during the 15th to 19th centuries, the early modern trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. Historians typically date the end of the modern period when the French Revolution of the 1790s began the modern period. Early modern themes Other In 16th century China, the Ming Dynastys economy was stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, Spanish. China became involved in a new trade of goods, plants, animals. Trade with Early Modern Europe and Japan brought in massive amounts of silver, during the last decades of the Ming the flow of silver into China was greatly diminished, thereby undermining state revenues and the entire Chinese economy. This damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient Little Ice Age, natural calamities, crop failure, the ensuing breakdown of authority and peoples livelihoods allowed rebel leaders such as Li Zicheng to challenge Ming authority. The Ming Dynasty fell around 1644 to the Qing Dynasty, which was the last ruling dynasty of China, during its reign, the Qing Dynasty became highly integrated with Chinese culture. The Azuchi-Momoyama period saw the unification that preceded the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Edo period from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period gets its name from the city, Edo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from Edo Castle from 1603 until 1868, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon Dynasty with a largely bloodless coup. Joseon experienced advances in science and culture, King Sejong the Great promulgated hangul, the Korean alphabet. The period saw various other cultural and technological advances as well as the dominance of neo-Confucianism over the entirety of Korea, during the late 16th and early 17th centuries, invasions by the neighboring Japanese and Qing Chinese nearly overran the Korean peninsula
5.
Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
6.
Palisade
–
A palisade—sometimes called a stakewall or a paling—is typically a fence or wall made from wooden stakes or tree trunks and used as a defensive structure or enclosure. Typical construction consisted of small or mid-sized tree trunks aligned vertically, the trunks were sharpened or pointed at the top, and were driven into the ground and sometimes reinforced with additional construction. The height of a palisade ranged from around a metre to as high as 3-4 m, as a defensive structure, palisades were often used in conjunction with earthworks. Palisades were an excellent option for small forts or other hastily constructed fortifications, since they were made of wood, they could often be quickly and easily built from readily available materials. They proved to be effective protection for short-term conflicts and were a deterrent against small forces. However, because they were wooden constructions they were vulnerable to fire. Often, a palisade would be constructed around a castle as a wall until a permanent stone wall could be erected. They were frequently used in New France, both the Greeks and Romans created palisades to protect their military camps. The Roman historian Livy describes the Greek method as being inferior to that of the Romans during the Second Macedonian War, the Greek stakes were too large to be easily carried and were spaced too far apart. This made it easy for enemies to them and create a large enough gap in which to enter. In contrast, the Romans used smaller and easier to carry stakes which were placed closer together, many settlements of the native Mississippian culture of the Midwestern United States also made use of palisades. The most prominent example is the Cahokia Mounds site in Collinsville, a wooden stockade with a series of watchtowers or bastions at regular intervals formed a 2-mile-long enclosure around Monks Mound and the Grand Plaza. Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade during excavation of the area and indications that it was several times. The stockade seems to have separated Cahokias main ceremonial precinct from other parts of the city, the English settlements in Jamestown, Virginia and Plymouth, Massachusetts were originally fortified towns surrounded by palisades. In the late century, when milled lumber was not available or practical. The walls were made of vertical half timbers, the outside, rounded half with its still on faced Adirondack weather. Typically, the cracks between the logs were filled with moss and sometimes covered with small sticks. Inside, the cracks were covered with narrow wooden battens and it also presented a more finished look inside
7.
History of Anglo-Saxon England
–
Anglo-Saxon England was early medieval England, existing from the 5th to the 11th century from the end of Roman Britain until the Norman conquest in 1066. It consisted of various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms until 927 when it was united as the Kingdom of England by King Æthelstan and it became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway in the 11th century. The Anglo-Saxons were the members of Germanic-speaking groups who migrated to the half of the island from continental Europe. Anglo-Saxon identity survived beyond the Norman conquest, came to be known as Englishry under Norman rule, Bede completed his book Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum in around 731. Thus the term for English people was in use by then to distinguish Germanic groups in Britain from those on the continent, the historian James Campbell suggested that it was not until the late Anglo-Saxon period that England could be described as a nation state. It is certain that the concept of Englishness only developed very slowly, as the Roman occupation of Britain was coming to an end, Constantine III withdrew the remains of the army, in reaction to the barbarian invasion of Europe. The Romano-British leaders were faced with a security problem from seaborne raids. The expedient adopted by the Romano-British leaders was to enlist the help of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, in about 442 the Anglo-Saxons mutinied, apparently because they had not been paid. There then followed several years of fighting between the British and the Anglo-Saxons, the fighting continued until around 500, when, at the Battle of Mount Badon, the Britons inflicted a severe defeat on the Anglo-Saxons. There are records of Germanic infiltration into Britain that date before the collapse of the Roman Empire and it is believed that the earliest Germanic visitors were eight cohorts of Batavians attached to the 14th Legion in the original invasion force under Aulus Plautius in AD43. There is a hypothesis that some of the tribes, identified as Britons by the Romans. It was quite common for Rome to swell its legions with foederati recruited from the German homelands and this practice also extended to the army serving in Britain, and graves of these mercenaries, along with their families, can be identified in the Roman cemeteries of the period. The migration continued with the departure of the Roman army, when Anglo-Saxons were recruited to defend Britain, and also during the period of the Anglo-Saxon first rebellion of 442. The arrival of the Anglo-Saxons into Britain can be seen in the context of a movement of Germanic peoples around Europe between the years 300 and 700, known as the Migration period. In the same there were migrations of Britons to the Armorican peninsula, initially around 383 during Roman rule. The historian Peter Hunter-Blair expounded what is now regarded as the view of the Anglo-Saxon arrival in Britain. He suggested a mass immigration, fighting and driving the Sub-Roman Britons off their land and into the extremities of the islands. This view was influenced by sources such as Bede, where he talks about the Britons being slaughtered or going into perpetual servitude
8.
Anglo-Saxon charters
–
Anglo-Saxon charters are documents from the early medieval period in England, which typically made a grant of land, or recorded a privilege. The term charter covers a range of legal documentation including diplomas, writs. A diploma was a charter that granted rights over land or other privileges by the king. Diplomas were usually written on parchment in Latin, but often contained sections in the vernacular, describing the bounds of estates, the writ was authenticated by a seal and gradually replaced the diploma as evidence of land tenure during the late Anglo-Saxon and early Norman periods. Land held by virtue of a charter was known as bookland, Charters have provided historians with fundamental source material for understanding Anglo-Saxon England, complementing the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and other literary sources. They are catalogued in Peter Sawyers Annotated List and are referred to by their Sawyer number. The Anglo-Saxon charter can take many forms, it can be a lease, a will, an agreement, a writ or, most commonly and our picture is skewed towards those that regard land, particularly in the earlier period. Land charters can further be subdivided into royal charters, or diplomas, over a thousand Anglo-Saxon charters are extant today, as a result of being maintained in the archives of religious houses. These preserved their charters so as to record their right to land, the oldest extant original charter, now in Canterbury Cathedral archive, was issued in 679 by King Hlothhere of Kent granting land to the Reculver Abbey. Some surviving charters are later copies, which sometimes include interpolations, overall, some two hundred charters exist in the original form, whilst others are post-Conquest copies, that were often made by the compilers of cartularies or by early modern antiquaries. The primary motivation for forging charters was to provide evidence of rights to land, often forging was focussed on providing written evidence for the holdings recorded as belonging to a religious house in the Domesday Book. It is important when studying charters to establish their authenticity, the study of charters to determine authenticity gave rise to diplomatics – the science of ancient documents. Anglo-Saxon charters are catalogued in Peter Sawyers Annotated List, and are referred to by their Sawyer number. The three most common forms of Anglo-Saxon charter are diplomas, writs and wills, the largest number of surviving charters are diplomas, or royal charters, that granted privileges and rights, usually over land. The typical diploma had three sections, protocol, corpus, and eschatocol, the protocol opened the charter by invoking God and enumerating the pious considerations for the Kings act. The corpus was usually in Latin and named the beneficiary, recorded the grant or transfer, reserved common burdens, the corpus final section, which was often in Old English, described the boundaries of the land. The eschatocol was composed of a clause and witness-list, which usually included powerful lay. Much of the language of the diploma was explicitly religious - that a grant was made for the benefit of the soul or that anyone breaking the charter would be excommunicated
9.
Norman conquest of England
–
Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne
10.
William the Conqueror
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Roberts mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, during his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy and his marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and his consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine. In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 and he made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 Williams hold on England was mostly secure, Williams final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and his reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, Williams lands were divided after his death, Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and his second surviving son, William Rufus, received England. Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century, permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the duchy of Normandy. Normandy may have used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002
11.
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth
12.
Royal forest
–
A royal forest is an area of land with different definitions in England, Wales, and Scotland. There are also differing and contextual interpretations in Continental Europe derived from the Carolingian and Merovingian legal systems, in Anglo-Saxon England, though the kings were great huntsmen they never set aside areas declared to be outside the law of the land. Historians find no evidence of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs creating forests, however, under the Norman kings, by royal prerogative forest law was widely applied. The law was designed to protect the venison and the vert, the animals of the chase – notably red and fallow deer, the roe deer, and the wild boar –. Forests were designed as hunting areas reserved for the monarch or the aristocracy, the extent and intensity of hardship and of depopulation have been exaggerated, H. R. Loyn observed. During the Middle Ages, the practice of reserving areas of land for the use of the aristocracy was common throughout Europe. Royal forests usually included large areas of heath, grassland and wetland – anywhere that supported deer and other game, in addition, when an area was initially designated forest, any villages, towns and fields that lay within it were also subject to forest law. The areas that became Royal forests were already relatively wild and sparsely populated, prosperous, well-farmed areas were not generally chosen to be afforested, if they were, they tended to lose the status fairly rapidly. In the South West, forests extended across the Upper Jurassic Clay Vale, in the Midlands, the clay plain surrounding the River Severn was heavily wooded. Clay soils in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire formed another belt of woodlands, in Hampshire, Berkshire and Surrey, woodlands were established on sandy, gravelly acid soils. Upland moors too were chosen, such as Dartmoor and Exmoor in the South West, the North Yorkshire moors, a sandstone plateau, had a number of Royal forests. William the Conqueror, a lover of hunting, established the system of forest law. This operated outside the law, and served to protect game animals. In the year of his death,1087, a poem, The Rime of King William, inserted in the Peterborough Chronicle, offences in forest law were divided into two categories, trespass against the vert and the venison. The five animals of the forest protected by law were given by Manwood as the hart and hind, boar, hare and wolf. Protection was also said to be extended to the beasts of chase, the buck and doe, fox, marten, and roe deer, and the beasts and fowls of warren, the hare, coney, pheasant, and partridge. The rights of chase and of warren were granted to local nobility for a fee. Disafforested lands on the edge of the forest were known as purlieus, agriculture was permitted here, the kings rapidly discovered that abridging their rights in the royal forests could provide a useful source of income
13.
James VI and I
–
James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
14.
English Civil War
–
The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists over, principally, the manner of Englands government. The war ended with the Parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, the monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. The term English Civil War appears most often in the singular form, the war in all these countries are known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Unlike other civil wars in England, which focused on who should rule, this war was more concerned with the manner in which the kingdoms of England, Scotland, the two sides had their geographical strongholds, such that minority elements were silenced or fled. The strongholds of the royalty included the countryside, the shires, on the other hand, all the cathedral cities sided with Parliament. All the industrial centers, the ports, and the advanced regions of southern and eastern England typically were parliamentary strongholds. Lacey Baldwin Smith says, the words populist, rich, at times there would be two groups of three lines allowing one group to reload while the other group arranged themselves and fired. Mixed in among the musketeers were pikemen carrying pikes that were between 12 feet and 18 feet long, whose purpose was to protect the musketeers from cavalry charges. The Royalist cavaliers skill and speed on horseback led to early victories. While the Parliamentarian cavalry were slower than the cavaliers, they were better disciplined. The Royalists had a tendency to chase down individual targets after the initial charge leaving their forces scattered and tired, Cromwells cavalry, on the other hand, trained to operate as a single unit, which led to many decisive victories. The English Civil War broke out fewer than forty years after the death of Queen Elizabeth I in 1603, in spite of this, James personal extravagance meant he was perennially short of money and had to resort to extra-Parliamentary sources of income. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his fathers position on the power of the crown, at the time, the Parliament of England did not have a large permanent role in the English system of government. Instead, Parliament functioned as an advisory committee and was summoned only if. Once summoned, a continued existence was at the kings pleasure. Yet in spite of this role, Parliament had, over the preceding centuries. Without question, for a monarch, Parliaments most indispensable power was its ability to tax revenues far in excess of all other sources of revenue at the Crowns disposal
15.
British Empire
–
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
16.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
17.
Capital (economics)
–
In economics, capital goods, real capital, or capital assets are already-produced, durable goods or any non-financial asset that is used in production of goods or services. Adam Smith defines capital as That part of a stock which he expects to afford him revenue. The term stock is derived from the Old English word for stump or tree trunk and it has been used to refer to all the moveable property of a farm since at least 1510. In Middle Ages France contracted leases and loans bearing interest specified payment, how a capital good is maintained or returned to its pre-production state varies with the type of capital involved. In most cases capital is replaced after a period as newer forms of capital make continued use of current capital non profitable. It is also possible that advances make a form of capital practical again. Capital is distinct from land in that capital can be increased by human labor, at any given moment in time, total physical capital may be referred to as the capital stock. Capital is an input in the production function, homes and personal autos are not usually defined as capital but as durable goods because they are not used in a production of saleable goods and services. In Marxist political economy, capital is used to buy something only in order to sell it again to realize a financial profit. In more contemporary schools of economics, this form of capital is referred to as financial capital and is distinguished from capital goods. Classical and neoclassical economics regard capital as one of the factors of production, all other inputs to production are called intangibles in classical economics. This includes organization, entrepreneurship, knowledge, goodwill, or management and this is what makes it a factor of production, The good is not used up immediately in the process of production unlike raw materials or intermediate goods. The good can be produced or increased and these distinctions of convenience have carried over to contemporary economic theory. There was the clarification that capital is a stock. As such, its value can be estimated at a point in time, by contrast, investment, as production to be added to the capital stock, is described as taking place over time, thus a flow. Since at least the 1960s economists have increasingly focused on forms of capital. These terms lead to questions and controversies discussed in those articles. It is in the form of assets, traded in financial markets
18.
Inheritance Tax in the United Kingdom
–
In the United Kingdom, Inheritance Tax is a transfer tax. It was introduced with effect from 18 March 1986 replacing Capital Transfer Tax, legacy duty and succession duty were later abolished by the Finance Act 1949, followed by the abolition of corporation duty by the Finance Act 1959. The three-year period for gifts made prior to death was extended to five years by the Finance Act 1946, transfers made during a persons lifetime were accumulated with tax assessed on a sliding scale on the total amount. All transfers made at death or within three years before were taxable at a separate, higher sliding scale, where the transferor was domiciled in the United Kingdom, tax was chargeable on all subject property, otherwise, it was chargeable only on property situtated in the UK. CTT was reduced in scope during the Thatcher years, with most lifetime gifts removed by the Finance Act 1986, the tax was renamed as Inheritance Tax. Transfers of value made within specified limits are known as exempt transfers. Transfers of value will also include gifts arising from the amount by which an asset is sold for less than it could have sold on the open market. For deaths occurring after 5 April 2012, the tax is assessed at 36%, if applicable gifts meet the 10% threshold for a given component, in certain circumstances, upon election, the 36% rate applies to the whole estate. Thus, for the 2007/8 tax year, a couple will in effect have an allowance of £600,000 against inheritance tax. If the surviving spouse died in a year when the nil-rate band had reached £350,000. This measure was extended to existing widows, widowers and bereaved civil partners on 9 October 2007. This applies irrespective of the date on which the first spouse died, in a judgement following an unsuccessful appeal to a 2006 decision by the European Court of Human Rights, it was held that the above does not apply to siblings living together. Prior to this change, the most common means of ensuring that both nil-rate bands were used was called a nil band discretionary trust. This is an arrangement in both wills which says that whoever is the first to die leaves their nil band to a discretionary trust for the family and that they do qualify as at a) or b) may be certified by application to the British MOD Joint Casualty and Compassionate Centre. The JCCC then inform the HMRC of that decision, the exemption does not apply to ex-servicemen or servicewomen who die from other causes unrelated to their military service. In the summer budget of 2015 a new measure was outlined to reduce the burden of IHT for most families by making it easier to pass on the home to direct descendants without a tax charge. This is conditional upon the deceased having left that smaller residence, or assets of equivalent value and these are defined as lineal descendants, spouses or civil partners of such lineal descendants, or former spouses or civil partners who have not become anyone elses spouse or civil partner. In 2002, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother is understood to have left her estate to her daughter Elizabeth II, including works of art, jewels, antiques
19.
Aristocracy
–
Aristocracy is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning rule of the best, at the time of the words origins in Ancient Greece, the Greeks conceived it as rule by the best qualified citizens—and often contrasted it favourably with monarchy, rule by an individual. In later times, aristocracy was usually seen as rule by a group, the aristocratic class. The Greeks did not like the concept of monarchy, and as their democratic system fell, in Ancient Rome, the Republic consisted of an aristocracy—as well as consuls, a senate, and a tribal assembly. In the Middle Ages and early modern era, aristocracies primarily consisted of an aristocratic class, privileged by birth. Since the French Revolution, aristocracy has generally been contrasted with democracy, however, this distinction is often oversimplified. In exchange feudal aid is received from tenants or vassals, oaths of military allegiance, however an oligarchy, nobility or royalty had the right to set taxes, assemble or raise armies and command loyalty by virtue of traditional authority. In the 1651 book Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes describes an aristocracy as a commonwealth in which the representative of the citizens is an assembly by part and it is a system in which only a small part of the population represents the government. Modern depictions of aristocracy tend to regard it not as the ancient Greek concept of rule by the best, history, John Cannon, Oxford University Press,1997, ISBN 978-0-19-866176-4 Aristocracy in the Modern World, Ellis Wasson, Palgrave Macmillan,2006
20.
Tumulus
–
A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, a cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been a tumulus. Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape, in this respect, a long barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage graves. A round barrow is a tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a range, the categorization only refers to the external apparent shape. The method of inhumation may involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe. The funeral of Patroclus is described in book 23 of the Iliad, Patroclus is burned on a pyre, and his bones are collected into a golden urn in two layers of fat. The barrow is built on the location of the pyre, achilles then sponsors funeral games, consisting of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, running, a duel between two champions to the first blood, discus throwing, archery and spear throwing. Beowulfs body is taken to Hronesness, where it is burned on a funeral pyre, during cremation, the Geats lament the death of their lord, a widows lament being mentioned in particular, singing dirges as they circumambulate the barrow. Afterwards, a mound is built on top of a hill, overlooking the sea, a band of twelve of the best warriors ride around the barrow, singing dirges in praise of their lord. Parallels have also drawn to the account of Attilas burial in Jordanes Getica. Jordanes tells that as Attilas body was lying in state, the best horsemen of the Huns circled it, as in circus games. An Old Irish Life of Columcille reports that every funeral procession halted at a mound called Eala, whereupon the corpse was laid, archaeologists often classify tumuli according to their location, form, and date of construction. Some British types are listed below, Bank barrow Bell barrow Bowl barrow D-shaped barrow - round barrow with a flat edge at one side often defined by stone slabs. Disc barrow Fancy barrow - generic term for any Bronze Age barrows more elaborate than a hemispherical shape. Long barrow Oval barrow - a Neolithic long barrow consisting of an elliptical, platform barrow - The least common of the recognised types of round barrow, consisting of a flat, wide circular mound that may be surrounded by a ditch. They occur widely across southern England with a concentration in East and West Sussex. Pond barrow - a barrow consisting of a circular depression, surrounded by a bank running around the rim of the depression
21.
Roman roads
–
They provided efficient means for the overland movement of armies, officials, and civilians, and the inland carriage of official communications and trade goods. Roman roads were of several kinds, ranging from local roads to broad, long-distance highways built to connect cities, major towns. These major roads were often stone-paved and metaled, cambered for drainage and they were laid along accurately surveyed courses, and some were cut through hills, or conducted over rivers and ravines on bridgework. Sections could be supported over marshy ground on rafted or piled foundations, at the peak of Romes development, no fewer than 29 great military highways radiated from the capital, and the late Empires 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great roads. The whole comprised more than 400,000 kilometres of roads, in Gaul alone, no less than 21,000 kilometres of roadways are said to have been improved, and in Britain at least 4,000 kilometres. The courses of many Roman roads survived for millennia, some are overlaid by modern roads, livy mentions some of the most familiar roads near Rome, and the milestones on them, at times long before the first paved road—the Appian Way. Unless these allusions are just simple anachronisms, the referred to were probably at the time little more than levelled earthen tracks. Thus, the Via Gabina is mentioned in about 500 BC, the Via Latina in about 490 BC, the Via Nomentana, in 449 BC, the Via Labicana in 421 BC, and the Via Salaria in 361 BC. There is hardly a district to which we expect a Roman official to be sent, on service either civil or military. They reach the Wall in Britain, run along the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates, and cover, as with a network, a road map of the empire reveals that it was generally laced with a dense network of prepared viae. Beyond its borders there were no paved roads, however, it can be supposed that footpaths, there were, for instance, some pre-Roman ancient trackways in Britain, such as the Ridgeway and the Icknield Way. For specific roads, see Roman road locations below, the Laws of the Twelve Tables, dated to about 450 BC, specified that a road shall be 8 Roman feet wide where straight and twice that width where curved. Actual practices varied from this standard, the Tables command Romans to build roads and give wayfarers the right to pass over private land where the road is in disrepair. Roman law defined the right to use a road as a servitus, the ius eundi established a claim to use an iter, or footpath, across private land, the ius agendi, an actus, or carriage track. A via combined both types of servitutes, provided it was of the width, which was determined by an arbiter. The default width was the latitudo legitima of 8 feet, Roman law and tradition forbade the use of vehicles in urban areas, except in certain cases. Married women and government officials on business could ride, the Lex Iulia Municipalis restricted commercial carts to night-time access in the city within the walls and within a mile outside the walls. Such roads led either to the sea, or to a town, or to a public river and these roads bear the names of their constructors
22.
Abandoned village
–
An abandoned village is a village that has, for some reason, been deserted. In many countries, and throughout history, thousands of villages have been deserted for a variety of causes, abandonment of villages is often related to epidemic, famine, war, climate change, environmental destruction, or deliberate clearances. Hundreds of villages in Nagorno-Karabakh went deserted following the Nagorno-Karabakh War, between 1988 and 1993,400,000 ethnic Azeris and Kurds fled the area and nearly 200 villages in Armenia itself populated by Azeris and Kurds were abandoned by 1991. Likewise nearly 300,000 Armenians fled from Azerbaijan between 1988 and 1993, including 50 villages populated by Armenians in Northern Artsakh that were abandoned, majority of the Armenian settlements and churches outside the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic have been destroyed including those in Nakhichevan. In Australia, the government requires operators of mining towns to remove all traces of the town when it is abandoned and this has occurred in the case of Mary Kathleen, Goldsworthy and Shay Gap. Some towns have been lost or moved when dams are built, Villages have been abandoned as a result of the Cyprus dispute. Some of these are reported to be landmined, there are hundreds of abandoned villages, known as Wüstungen, in Germany. His scheme has been expanded, and has criticized for not taking into account expansion and regression. A distinction is made between Flurwüstungen and Ortswüstungen by archaeologists. As in Britain, the Black Death played a role in this, as did the growth of large villages and towns, the Little Ice Age, the introduction of crop rotation. In later times, the German Empire created a number of training grounds for the military that were eventually abandoned, many villages in remote parts of the New Territories, Hong Kong, usually in valleys or on islands, have been abandoned due to inaccessibility. Residents go to live in areas with better job opportunities. Some villages have been moved to new sites to make way for reservoirs or new town development, see also walled villages of Hong Kong and list of villages in Hong Kong. Hundreds of villages were abandoned during the Ottoman wars in the Kingdom of Hungary in the 16–17th century, many of them were never repopulated and generally left few visible traces. Real ghost towns are rare in present-day Hungary, except the villages of Derenk. Due to the decrease of rural population beginning in the 1980s dozens of villages are now threatened with abandonment, the first village officially declared as died out was Gyűrűfű in the end of the 1970s but later it was repopulated as an eco-village. Sometimes depopulated villages were successfully saved as small rural resorts like Kán, Tornakápolna, Szanticska, Gorica, about ten million people, approximately one-third of the population of the affected area, are estimated to have died in the Bengal famine of 1770. Regions where the famine occurred included especially the modern Indian states of Bihar and West Bengal, among the worst affected areas were Birbhum and Murshidabad in Bengal, and Tirhut, Champaran and Bettiah in Bihar
23.
Venison
–
Venison is the meat of a deer. Venison can be used to refer to any part of the deer, so long as it can be consumed, including the flesh, venison, much like beef, is categorized into specific cuts, including roast, sirloin, and ribs. The word derives from the Latin venari and this term entered English through Norman in the 11th century, following the Norman invasion of England, and the establishment of Royal Forests. Venison originally described meat of any game animal killed by hunting, and was applied to any animal from the families Cervidae, Leporidae, and Suidae, in Southern Africa, the word venison refers to the meat of antelope. There are no native Cervidae in sub-Saharan Africa, venison may be eaten as steaks, tenderloin, roasts, sausages, jerky and minced meat. It has a reminiscent of beef, but is richer. Venison tends to have a texture and is leaner than comparable cuts of beef. However, like beef, leaner cuts can be tougher as well, organ meats of deer are eaten, but would not be called venison. This is supposedly the origins of the phrase humble pie, literally a pie made from the organs of the deer, venison is widely considered by modern nutritionists to be a very healthy meat. Since wild deer are not confined to limited spaces and eat a diet, their meat is natural. Venison is higher in moisture, similar in protein and lower in calories, cholesterol and fat than most cuts of grain-fed beef, pork, when considering the environmental effects that result from raising livestock, deer meat is also a low-impact food. Farmers have had tests developed especially for the species they raise to obtain better results than those used on cattle. Venison jerky can be purchased in grocery stores or ordered online. Some deer breeders have expressed an interest in breeding for an animal that displays more marbling in the meat. Historically, venison was considered to be a symbol among many Europeans. In England, for example, hunting rights were restricted in an effort to preserve property rights, as a result, the possession and sale of venison was tightly regulated under English law. Venison is widely available in European supermarkets through the hunting season. The main cuts available to European consumers are derived from the saddle, in the United States, venison is less common at retail due to the requirement that the animal be first inspected by USDA inspectors
24.
Umberleigh
–
Umberleigh is a former large manor within the historic hundred of Tawton, but today a small village in North Devon in England. It used to bed an ecclesiastical parish, but following the building of the church at Atherington it became a part of that parish and it forms however a part of the civil parish of Chittlehampton, which is mostly located on the east side of the River Taw. The site was occupied by the manor house of Umberleigh, the present Georgian manifestation of which. Next to the house in about 1275 was founded Umberleigh Chapel. According to the Devon historian Tristram Risdon, Umberleigh was a manor held in demesne by King Athelstan, King of the West Saxons from 924 to 927. He built at Umberleigh a palace and next to it a chapel dedicated to the Blessed Trinity which served the royal family and household. Within the manor of Umberleigh Athelstan later founded two churches, at Bickington, now High Bickington and at Atherington, each of which he endowed with two hides of land. Immediately prior to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 the manor of Umberleigh had been held by Brictric and he was probably the great Saxon thane Brictric son of Algar. A person named Brictric was also the pre-Conquest holder of the possession in Dorset of the Church of the Holy Trinity of Caen. The building work began in 1062 and finished in 1130 and he was succeeded by his son, either Gilbert, or Phillip de Soleigny. Both father and son fought under King Henry II during his battles to succeed King Stephen, for her dowry Hawis was given by her father the manor of Stoke Rivers, which thus passed to her husband. Gilbert/Phillip de Soligny left a daughter Mabill de Soligny as sole heiress, the Champernon family, sometimes Latinised Campo Arnulfi originated in the Cambernon area of Lower Normandy, and their arrival in England was associated with the Norman Conquest. Many members of the later adopted alternate spellings such as Champernoun, Champernowne. The immediate line of descent from Jordan and Mabill de Champernon is unclear, according to Risdon, their sole heir was a daughter, Joan de Champernon. However, Poles account assigns two sons to Jordan and Mabill, Richard de Champernon, who died without issue, and Jordan de Champernon. At Umberleigh, William de Champernon, apparently a grandson of Jordan II, was by his wife Eva, Joan II who lived during the reign of King Edward I married Sir Ralph de Willington of Gloucestershire, but retained her maiden name, which she used in legal documents. For instance, an grant during her widowhood, confirmed by Peter, Bishop of Exeter (apparently Peter Quinel, hiis testibus, John de Punchardon, Nicholao de Filleigh, Roberto Beaple, Matth. de Wollington, milit Joan de Champernon, greetings. The Ilfracombe line was descended from Richard de Champernon of Clist Champernon
25.
Honor Grenville, Viscountess Lisle
–
She married twice, Firstly to Sir John Basset of Umberleigh in the parish of Atherington in Devon. Basset was a widower aged 53, and still lacking a son, by John Basset she had children as follows, depicted as a row of small kneeling figures below her monumental brass in Atherington Church, Devon, John Basset, eldest son and heir. George Basset, born between 1522–25, James Basset, born between 1526–27, Philippa Basset, born 1516, Katherine Basset, born 1517, Anne Bassett, born 1521, reputedly a mistress of King Henry VIII. Honor was one of the ladies who attended Anne Boleyn when she travelled to Calais with Henry VIII in 1532 and she moved permanently to Calais with her second husband in 1533 when he was appointed Lord deputy of Calais. They lived together at the Staple Inn in Calais until 1540, during which time she succeeded in forwarding the careers of her children, during this time Honor had been under house arrest in Calais with her daughters Mary and Philippa. The contemporary chronicler Elis Gruffydd described the event of 20 May 1540 thus, That afternoon in the twilight Lord Sussex and the Council went to the Staple Inn where Lady Lisle kept house. She, after the Council had conversed a little with her, was put in prison in a room of the palace and the girls were taken from her and put in prison in various places throughout the town. Lady Lisle was then taken on 1 June 1540 to the house of Francis Hall a Spear of Calais, the Lisle household was broken up on 2 June and the Treasurer of Calais took possession of all the treasure and clothes of Lord and Lady Lisle in the Kings name. It was at time and place that the surviving Lisle Papers were seized by the state. Rumours circulated that Honor herself was the traitor who brought about her husbands downfall. This servant was a domestic chaplain named Gregory Botolf, like Honor of popish sympathy, nicknamed Sir Gregory Sweet-Lips. When they were found by Lord Sussex they added further to evidence of suspicious activity, foxe had a dislike for Honor, whom he suspected as being a determined catholic. Elis Gruffydd however reported that she lost her senses whilst imprisoned in Francis Halls house at Calais and she died at Tehidy and was buried in Illogan Church on 30 April 1566. Foxe disliked Honor, and stated of her, The Lord Lisly albeit, Honor is notable for her surviving letters describing sixteenth-century court life, published as the Lisle Letters
26.
Bailiff
–
A bailiff is a manager, overseer or custodian, a legal officer to whom some degree of authority or jurisdiction is given. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offices and duties vary greatly, another official sometimes referred to as a bailiff was the vogt, see Vogt and Vogt. In the Holy Roman Empire a similar function was performed by the Amtmann, Bailiff was the term used by the Normans for what the Saxons had called a reeve, the officer responsible for executing the decisions of a court. The duty of the bailiff would thus include serving summonses and orders, the district within which the bailiff operated was called his bailiwick, even to the present day. Bailiffs were outsiders and free men, that is, they were not usually from the bailiwick they were responsible for. Throughout Norman England, the Saxon and Norman populations gradually mixed, primarily then, bailiff referred to the officer executing the decisions of manorial courts, and the hundred courts. Likewise, in Scotland a bailie was the officer of a barony. With the introduction of Justices of the Peace, magistrates courts acquired their own bailiffs, historically, courts were not always concerned with legal matters, and often decided administrative matters for the area within their jurisdiction. A bailiff of a manor, therefore, would oversee the manors lands and buildings, collect its rents, manage its accounts. In the 19th century, the functions of courts were mostly replaced by the creation of elected local authorities. Nevertheless, the bailiff is retained as a title by the chief officers of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, such as the High Bailiff of Westminster. In Scotland, bailie now refers to an officer corresponding to an English alderman. The high court acquired the sheriffs, the county court the bailiffs, to avoid confusion with their underlings, the County Courts Act 1888 renamed bailifs as High Bailiffs. This act also formally acknowledged the High Bailiffs right to appoint under-bailiffs as he wished, the High Bailiff gradually became a purely ceremonial role, the courts clerk liaising with under-bailiffs directly. The Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act as an under-bailiff to levy any distress for rent, unless he is authorized by a county court judge to act as an under-bailiff. The County Courts Act 1888 restricted the hours an under-bailiff could execute a possession warrant and it also limited the ability to bring a legal complaint against a bailiff, six days notice now had to be given. In the Channel Islands the bailiff is the first civil officer in each of the two bailiwicks and he is appointed by the Crown, and holds office until retirement. He presides as a judge in the court, and takes the opinions of the jurats, he also presides over the states
27.
William Denys
–
Sir William Denys of Dyrham, Gloucestershire, was a courtier of King Henry VIII and High Sheriff of Gloucestershire in 1518 and 1526. He was the eldest son and heir of Sir Walter Denys by his 2nd wife Agnes Danvers, 2nd daughter & co-heiress of Sir Robert Danvers of Epwell, Oxfordshire, Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. The Inquisition post mortem of his father Sir Walter, dated 1505, states William his son and heir to have then been aged 35 years and more, which suggests a date of birth of 1470. Twynyho served as MP for Bristol in 1472-5 and again in 1484 and had been Attorney General to Lord Edward, Clarence was determined to have Ankaret executed, against the wishes of the Queen, who believed her to be an elderly and harmless widow blamed unjustly. She was hanged at Mytton, Warks. on 15 April 1477, Shaftesbury was the second wealthiest Abbey in the land, behind only Glastonbury Abbey. The will of John Twynyho bequeaths to this Dame Margery, my niece, nun of Shaftesbury a silver & gilt goblet which had presented to him by George. This familiarity with the Duke suggests that John was the son or grandson of Ankarette, the manor descended to his son Walter Twynyho. Alice Walwyn, as widow of Sir Thomas, was the 4th, Edmund Langleys will was dated 1490. Thomas Delalynde of Winterborne Clenston, Dorset, was married to Edith Twynyho, daughter of William Twynyho of Keyford, Somerset, John Walshe of Olveston, and Little Sodbury Glos. Appears to have acquired Olveston in 1472 from Sir Walter Denys, father of William, in 1490 Walshe was appointed Kings Receiver of the estates of William, Marquess Berkeley, uncle of Anne Berkeley, Sir William Denyss 2nd. Wife, when he alienated his estates to King Henry VII and his son John II Walshe was Kings Champion at the coronation of Henry VIII, and was a great favourite of the young kings. John I Walshes daughter Catherine married George Huntley of Frocester, MP for Cricklade, eldest son of John Huntley of Standish by Alice Langley, George Huntleys brother John married Jane Carne, daughter of Sir Edward Carne, husband of Anne Denys, daughter of Sir William Denys. The marriage settlement appears to have concerned the Denys manors of Aust, Gloucestershire, of which held a moiety. The feoffees to this arrangement are the same as those who acted in the previously quoted transfer at about the time of Cherington by Sir Walter Denys. The marriage settlement appears to have concerned the Denys manor of Aust,21 Edward IV. enfeoffed thereof. Twynyho, William Twynyho, John Thame, Edmund Langley. A daughter named Anne was born from the marriage with Edith Twynyho, Hugh had occupied the closest position to the king of all the courtiers, and was highly trusted by the old king. It was perhaps as a replacement for old Hugh that the king appointed his half-nephew William Denys in his place. This grant is witnessed by a charter on parchment, to which is affixed a rare example of a great seal of Henry VIII
28.
Manor
–
A manor in English law is an estate in land to which is incident the right to hold a court termed court baron, that is to say a manorial court. The proper unit of tenure under the system is the fee, on which the manor became established through the process of time. The manor is nevertheless often described as the basic unit of tenure and is historically connected with the territorial divisions of the march, county, hundred, parish. And so by continuance of time made a manor, of the portion reserved by the lord for his own use, termed the demesne, part was occupied by villeins, with the duty of cultivating the rest for the lords use. These were originally tenants at will and in a state of semi-serfdom and it is of the essence of copyhold that it should be regulated by the custom of the manor, as evidenced in the manorial roll produced by the manorial court. Manors cannot be created at the present day because manorial courts cannot be established with any legal jurisdiction, the statute did not apply to a tenant-in-chief of the king, who might have alienated his land under a license. When a great baron had granted out smaller manors to others, all land was differentiated by its legal status and by physical characteristics. It should be noted that legal status of land in England, demesne, land retained in-hand by the lord of the manor, without subtenant. Other land could be, Glebe, land not belonging to the reserved for the support of the parish priest. Common land, by open land, over which the lord, certain manorial tenants. For example, a right of estovers may belong to one of groups or all of them. Freehold Copyhold Customary Freehold Leasehold, the Reversion is held by its former freeholder, usually before the sale of land belonging to manors, arable, ploughed land used to grow crops. Pasture, grassland used for grazing livestock, closes, small enclosed fields created by hedge or stone wall boundaries, used for example to house ewes with their lambs requiring close observation. Marsh Woodland, a fuel resource. Furze, a resource used by the lower tenants. Fallow, land resting within the cycle of crop rotation agriculture, fishpond, used to breed fish such as carp A manor was akin to the modern firm or business or other going concern. It was further similar in that its ownership could be transferred, with the licence to alienate having been obtained from the overlord. The administration was self-contained and the new lord needed only to collect its net revenues to form his return on investment, the direction was ultimately provided by the manorial court, presided over by the lords personal steward, whose members included the freehold tenants of the manor
29.
Manor of Dyrham
–
The Manor of Dyrham was a former manorial estate in the parish of Dyrham in South Gloucestershire, England. The Domesday Book of 1086 records the tenant-in-chief of Dyrham as William FitzWido, in 1086 he held 7 hides in Dyrham, formerly the land of Aluric. He had formerly held also 3 hides of this manor which Durand de Pitres, Sheriff of Gloucester, had given to Pershore Abbey and these had apparently been given to Turstin FitzRolf by Earl William, presumably William FitzOsbern, 1st Earl of Hereford. Dyrham passed with Wynebalds fiefdom, based at North Cadbury, Somerset, Henry de Newmarchs heir was his youngest son James who died leaving two daughters co-heiresses to the barony, Isabel the eldest and Hawise. The barony was split, with a moiety going to the husband of each daughter, Russell married off Isabel de Newmarch to his son Sir Ralph Russell, and thus the moiety of the barony of Newmarch containing Dyrham came into the Russell family. The Russell family appear to have resided during the 13th and 14th centuries firstly at Kingston Russell and latterly at Yaverland in the Isle of Wight, Ralph and Isabels daughter Maud married Robert Walerand of nearby Siston, a great magnate and Justiciar to King Henry III. Clearly the escheator had seized Dyrham believing it to be held by Walerand in his own right, Maud retained Dyrham as her dowry, along with the customary third share in many of Walerands extensive manors elsewhere, until her death in 1288. Sir William Russell was seated there for the remainder of his life and he was appointed as one of 3 Wardens of the Island and Constable of Carisbrooke Castle, the caput of the Island, from which all manors were held under feudal ties. In 1294 he received instructions for putting the Island into a proper posture to meet the threatened invasion by France of the southern coasts of England. In 1295, still as a son, his brothers being still alive, he was elected to parliament as burgess for Great Bedwyn, Wiltshire. In 1297 he was summoned by King Edward I to join with his barons to muster in London in preparation for an expedition crossing over to Flanders. Sir William was summoned by writ to be at York on 25 May 1298 to oppose the Scotsman William Wallace. He fought at the Battle of Falkirk, where a great English victory was won, however, the Scottish forces regrouped and Russell was again summoned to join King Edwards army on 24 June 1300 at Carlisle. He was present at the Siege of Caerlaverock later that year, Russell was again summoned as Sir William Russell of the Isle to be ready at Carlisle in 1301, after which the army wintered with much hardship in Scotland. In 1302 he was appointed for a 2nd time a Warden of the Isle, in 1307 Russell received another summons from King Edward I Hammer of the Scots to join the royal army at Carlisle within 15 days of 8 July, to counter the aggression of Robert the Bruce. Before the campaign commenced, the King determined on knighting his son, and was accorded by parliament the customary feudal aid, Russell was appointed as collector of this feudal aid for the county of Southampton. On this occasion the army was spared any fighting since Bruce had in the meantime been defeated by the border barons acting independently. Russell thereupon relinquished his duties as Constable of Carisbrooke Castle to his successor Nicholas de Bois, in 1308 by letters patent Russell was appointed 1 of 3 justiciaries for the Channel Islands to make enquiry into encroachments to the royal revenues
30.
Dyrham Park
–
Not to be confused with Dyrham Park Country Club, Hertfordshire. Dyrham Park is a country house in an ancient deer park near the village of Dyrham in South Gloucestershire. The house, attached orangery, stable block and accompanying parish church are Grade I listed buildings, while the park is Grade II* listed on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens. The current house was built for William Blathwayt in stages during the 17th and early 18th centuries on the site of a manor house. It contains art works and furniture from around the world, particularly Holland, the house is linked to the 13th-century church of St Peter, where many of the Blathwayt family are buried. The house is surrounded by 274 acres of gardens. The grounds, which were laid out by George London and later developed by Charles Harcourt Masters, include water features. The house and estate are now owned by the National Trust and they are open to the public on some days and host events and attractions, including open-air concerts. They have also used as a location for film and television productions. The Manor of Dyrham has been recorded since the Domesday Book of 1086, the first lord of the manor to be resident may have been William Denys, who was an Esquire of the Body to Henry VIII and later High Sheriff of Gloucestershire. He was granted the licence to empark 500 acres of Dyrham in 1511, the estate was sold to the Wynter family in 1571 and Sir George Wynter was allowed to empark further land in 1620. In 1689 the estate was acquired through marriage by William Blathwayt and he retained the existing Tudor building and expanded it in stages. The west front of 1692 was commissioned from the Huguenot architect, Samuel Hauduroy, in 1698 a stable block with space for 26 horses, and servants quarters above, around a courtyard was added. The east front of 1704 was designed by William Talman, architect of Chatsworth, the construction of the east wing included demolition of the remains of the original Tudor house and the addition of a statue of an eagle on the roof. Owing to Blathwayt’s royal connections, and his uncle, Thomas Povey. The collection includes delftware, paintings and furniture, eighteenth-century additions include furniture by Gillow and Linnell. The interiors have remained little altered since decorated by Blathwayt, the gardens were designed by George London in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. The National Trust acquired it in 1961, in 2015 major renovation work, costing £3.8 million, included replacing the roof
31.
Demesne
–
In England royal demesne is the land held by the Crown, and ancient demesne is the legal term for the land held by the king at the time of the Domesday Book. The word derives from Old French demeine, ultimately from Latin dominus, lord, the word barton, which is an element found in many place-names, can refer to a demesne farm, it derives from Old English bere and ton. In this feudal system the demesne was all the land retained under his own management by a lord of the manor for his own use and it was not necessarily all contiguous to the manor house. A portion of the lands, called the lords waste, served as public roads and common pasture land for the lord. Most of the remainder of the land in the manor was sub-enfeoffed by the lord to others as sub-tenants, with the advent of the early modern period, demesne lands came to be cultivated by paid labourers. In times of inflation or debasement of coinage, the rent might come to represent a pittance, demesne lands that were leased out for a term of years remained demesne lands, though no longer in the occupation of the lord of the manor. The king made grants of large parcels of land under various forms of feudal tenure from his demesne. The land not so enfeoffed, for example royal manors administered by royal stewards and royal hunting forests, thus remained within the royal demesne. During the reign of King George III, Parliament appropriated most of the demesne, in exchange for a fixed annual sum thenceforth payable to the monarch. The position of the estate of Windsor, still occupied by the monarch and never alienated since 1066. Since the demesne surrounded the principal seat of the lord, it came to be used of any proprietary territory. A Dictionary of Medieval Terms and Phrases
32.
William Warham
–
William Warham was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1503 to his death. Warham was the son of Robert Warham of Malshanger in Hampshire and he was educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford. After graduating, Warham practising and teaching law both in London and Oxford and his father was a tenant farmer, but his brother, Sir Hugh Warham, acquired an estate at Croydon, which passed to his daughter Agnes, who married Sir Anthony St Leger. Later, Warham took holy orders, held two livings and became Master of the Rolls in 1494, Henry VII found him a useful and clever diplomatist. He helped to arrange the marriage between Henrys son, Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Catherine of Aragon and he went to Scotland with Richard Foxe, then bishop of Durham, in 1497. In 1502, he was consecrated Bishop of London and became Keeper of the Great Seal, in 1506, he became Chancellor of Oxford University, a role he held until his death. In 1509, he married and then crowned Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, on 28 September 1511, he made a visit to the hospital at Maison Dieu, Faversham. As archbishop, Warham seems to have been arbitrary, for example, his actions led to a serious quarrel with Foxe, now Bishop of Winchester. That made him gradually withdraw into the background after the coronation and he resigned the office of Lord Chancellor in 1515 and was succeeded by Thomas Wolsey, whom he had consecrated as bishop of Lincoln in the previous year. His resignation was possibly because of his dislike of Henrys foreign policy, Warham was present at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 and assisted Wolsey as assessor during the secret inquiry into the validity of Henrys marriage with Catherine in 1527. Throughout the divorce proceedings, Warhams position was essentially that of an old, later, it was proposed that the archbishop himself should try the case, but the suggestion came to nothing. In Warhams concluding years, however, the archbishop showed more independence. He attempted in vain to strike a compromise during the Submission of the Clergy, having been munificent in his public and moderate in his private life, he died on a visit to his nephew, also William Warham. He was buried in the Martyrdom transept of Canterbury Cathedral, john Sherren Brewer, Reign of Henry VIII James Gairdner, Lee, Sidney, ed. Warham, William. Archival material relating to William Warham, portraits of William Warham at the National Portrait Gallery, London
33.
Richard Foxe
–
Richard Foxe was an English churchman, successively Bishop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, Lord Privy Seal, and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Foxe was born at Ropsley near Grantham, Lincolnshire and his parents belonged to the yeoman class, and little is known about Foxes early career. He is thought to have gone to Magdalen College, Oxford, from which he drew many members of his subsequent foundation and he also appears to have studied at Cambridge University, but nothing definite is known of his first thirty-five years. He was Master of the school in Stratford-upon-Avon from 1477, a man of wisdom, knowledge, learning, in 1484, Foxe was in Paris possibly for the sake of learning or because he had made himself unpopular with Richard III. There he came into contact with Henry Tudor, who was beginning his quest for the English throne, in January 1485 Richard intervened to prevent Foxes appointment to the vicarage of Stepney on the ground that he was keeping company with the great rebel, Henry ap Tuddor. The important offices conferred on Foxe immediately after the Battle of Bosworth imply that he had seen more extensive political service than can be traced in records. His Tudor credentials immediately confirmed by ordination as Vicar of Stepney, the ecclesiastical role provided a salary that was not at Henrys expense, for Foxe never saw either Exeter or the diocese of Bath and Wells to which he was moved in February 1492. In 1487 he negotiated a treaty with King James III of Scotland, but his energies were principally devoted to pacific purposes. The marriage itself did not take place until 1503, just a century before the accession of James I, in August 1501 he was translated once more, this time to the see of Winchester, then reputed the richest bishopric in England. In that year he brought to a conclusion marriage negotiations not less momentous in their ultimate results and his last diplomatic achievement in the reign of Henry VII was the betrothal of the kings younger daughter Mary to the future emperor Charles V. In 1500 Foxe was elected chancellor of Cambridge University and in 1507 master of Pembroke Hall and his financial work brought him a less enviable notoriety, though history has deprived him of the credit which is his due for Mortons Fork. It is in keeping with the somewhat malicious saying about Foxe, reported by William Tyndale, that he would sacrifice his father to save his king, the accession of Henry VIII only increased Foxes power, the personnel of his ministry remaining unaltered. He was the chief of the statesmen of Mortons school, believed in frequent parliaments. They also differed over the prerogatives of Canterbury with regard to probate, thomas Wolseys rapid rise in 1511 put an end to Foxes influence. Foxe resigned the seal because of Wolseys ill-advised attempt to drive King Francis I of France out of Milan by financing an expedition led by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. Cuthbert Tunstall protested, Wolsey took Warhams place as chancellor, and Foxe was succeeded by Ruthal, yet he warmly congratulated Wolsey two years later when warlike adventures were abandoned at the peace of London. Foxe now devoted himself to his episcopal duties. His sight failed during the last ten years of his life, Foxe died on 5 October 1528
34.
Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk
–
Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk KG PC, styled Earl of Surrey from 1483 to 1485 and again from 1489 to 1514, was an English nobleman and politician. He was the son of John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk, by his first wife. The Duke was the grandfather of both Queen Anne Boleyn and Queen Catherine Howard and the grandfather of Queen Elizabeth I. He served four monarchs as a soldier and statesman and he was educated at Thetford Grammar School. While a youth he entered the service of King Edward IV as a henchman, Howard took the Kings side when war broke out in 1469 with the Earl of Warwick, and took sanctuary at Colchester when the King fled to Holland in 1470. Howard rejoined the forces at Edwards return to England in 1471. He was appointed an esquire of the body in 1473, on 14 January 1478 he was knighted by Edward IV at the marriage of the Kings second son, the young Duke of York, and Lady Anne Mowbray. After the death of Edward IV on 9 April 1483, Thomas Howard, Thomas bore the Sword of State at Richards coronation, and served as steward at the coronation banquet. Both Thomas and his father were granted lands by the new King, on 28 June 1483, John Howard was created Duke of Norfolk, while Thomas was created Earl of Surrey. Surrey was also sworn of the Privy Council and invested with the Order of the Garter, in the autumn of that year Norfolk and Surrey suppressed a rebellion against the King by the Duke of Buckingham. Both Howards remained close to King Richard throughout his reign, and fought for him at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, where Surrey was wounded and taken prisoner. Surrey was attainted in the first Parliament of the new King, Henry VII, stripped of his lands, and committed to the Tower of London, where he spent the next three years. Howard was offered an opportunity to escape during the rebellion of the Earl of Lincoln in 1487, in May 1489 Henry restored him to the earldom of Surrey, although most of his lands were withheld, and sent him to quell a rebellion in Yorkshire. Surrey remained in the north as the Kings lieutenant until 1499, in 1499 he was recalled to court, and accompanied the King on a state visit to France in the following year. In 1501 he was appointed a member of the Council. Surrey, Bishop Richard Foxe, the Lord Privy Seal, and Archbishop William Warham and he was entrusted with a number of diplomatic missions. In 1501 he was involved in the negotiations for Catherine of Aragons marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales, and in 1503 conducted Margaret Tudor to Scotland for her wedding to King James IV. Surrey was an executor of the will of King Henry VII when the King died on 21 April 1509 and he challenged Thomas Wolsey in an effort to become the new Kings first minister, but eventually accepted Wolseys supremacy
35.
Sutton Court
–
The house has been designated as Grade II* listed building. The house is at Stowey in the Chew Valley in an area of Somerset now part of Bath and North East Somerset, the house is surrounded by an extensive estate, laid out as a Ferme ornée, part of which is now the Folly Farm nature reserve. Since the early period the house has been the country seat of several prominent families including the St Loes one of whom married Bess of Hardwick. They lived at Sutton Court and expanded the property in the half of the 16th century. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries it was owned by the Strachey baronets and their descendants until it was sold in 1987 and converted into apartments. In the Early 1980s the house was used as a location for the BBC Look and Read series Dark Towers. The original tower of a house, which forms a central part of the current building was built in the 14th century by Walter de Sutton. It was later purchased by the St Loe family of Newton St Loe Castle who expanded the hall, a length of the original embattled wall, which was built in the 14th century, survives. G. W. and J. H. Locke who lived in Belluton, John St Loe was buried at the local Church of St Andrew, Chew Magna. Sir William St Loe was a soldier, politician and courtier and his official positions included Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard, Chief Butler of England and Member of Parliament for Derbyshire. He died suddenly without male issue in 1564/5, which Mary S. Lovell suggests may have been as a result of poisoning by his younger brother, all his property was left Bess, to the detriment of his daughters and brother. When Bess died in 1608 the house was left to her son Charles Cavendish, in the early 17th century it was the seat of Richard Jones and his son Sir William Jones, the Attorney General of England. In the 1650s the estate was bought by the Baber family, the house became the seat of the Strachey family including John Strachey, the geologist, who inherited estates including Sutton Court from his father in 1674 at three years of age. He introduced a theory of rock known as Stratum, based on a pictorial cross-section of the geology under the estate. He projected them according to their thicknesses and attitudes into unknown areas between the coal workings. The purpose was to enhance the value of his grant of a coal-lease on parts of his estate and this work was later developed by William Smith. Henry Strachey, the grandson of the geologist and a civil servant, was created a baronet in 1801. When he inherited the house in the 18th century the house had been mortgaged, Henry Strachey, the 2nd Baronet, was appointed High Sheriff of Somerset in 1832 and Edward Strachey the 3rd Baronet High Sheriff in 1864
36.
Chew Magna
–
Chew Magna is a village and civil parish within the Chew Valley in the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset, in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England. The parish has a population of 1,149, to the south of the village is Chew Valley Lake. The village is on the B3130 road, about 10 miles from Bristol,15 miles from Bath,13 miles from the city of Wells, the village is close to the northern edge of the Mendip Hills, and was designated a conservation area in 1978. There are many listed buildings reflecting the history of the village, the River Chew flows through the village. Just outside the village is Chew Magna Reservoir, this small Bristol Water supply reservoir intercepts the Winford Brook, the village has approximately 1,200 residents. There is one school, and an adjacent secondary school, several shops and small businesses. There is also a pitch and childrens play area. Chew Magna has long been the largest village in the district and it acquired market town and non-represented borough status. The picture was not entirely benign as 22 of these households were serfs, the manor of Chew was held by the Bishops of Bath and Wells from 1062 to 1548, and therefore was called Chew Episcopi or Bishops Chew. The bishops built a palace near the church of St Andrews, Chew Court is a surviving part of the palace and has its adjacent well head also listed for its long heritage. This is supported by the Domesday Book which was made to specify the 1086, furthermore, it had the living of Dundry annexed to it. By 1848 all tithes had been commuted and the sole improprietor is listed in 1848 of the tithes as George Smyth. The parish was part of the hundred of Chew, in the eastern corner of the south aisle of the church is a monument of the Baber family, who formerly had large possessions in the parish. Around 1700 the Lord of the Manor was Sir William Jones, until about 1880 the village had toll roads and a toll house to collect the fees. During German bombing raids targeted on Bristol, many bombs fell in the parish, the nearly flat area just east of the Y-junction on Chew Hill was initially chosen as a Starfish site area to be lit by fires to simulate Bristol in flames. Later, about half way between North Chew Farm and Manor Farm, North Wick was an area secured by Royal Air Force personnel, lit by fires, there was also a genuine heavy anti aircraft battery at Chewhill farm. The area was guarded by pill boxes of one remains on the west side of Blacklands. The construction of Chew Valley Lake in the 1950s brought opportunities for leisure, the bridge on the road to Dundry was demolished
37.
Banwell
–
Banwell is a village and civil parish on the River Banwell in the North Somerset district of Somerset, England. Its population was 2,919 according to the 2011 census, Banwell Camp, east of the village, is a univallate hillfort which has yielded flint implements from the Palaeolithic, Neolithic and Bronze Age. It was also occupied in the Iron Age, in the late 1950s it was excavated by J. W. Hunt of the Banwell Society of Archaeology. It is surrounded by a 4 metres high bank and ditch, the remains of a Romano-British villa were discovered in 1968. It included a courtyard, wall and bath house close to the River Banwell, artefacts from the site suggest it fell into disuse in the 4th century. The raised area which was occupied by the Bower House was surrounded by a water filled ditch, the parish was part of the Winterstoke Hundred. Banwell Abbey was built as a residence in the 14th and 15th century on the site of a monastic foundation. It was renovated in 1870 by Hans Price, and is now a Grade II* listed building, nearby is a small building presented to the village by Miss Elizabeth Fazakerly, who lived at The Abbey in 1887 to house a small fire-engine. It served as the station until the 1960s and now houses a small museum of memorabilia related to the fire station. Beards Stone in Caves Wood dates from 1842 and it marks the reburial site of an ancient human skeleton found in a cave near Bishops Cottage. William Beard, an amateur archaeologist who had found the bones, had them reinterred and marked the site with the stone with a poetic inscription, Banwell Castle is a Victorian castle built in 1847 by John Dyer Sympson, a solicitor from London. Originally built as his home, it is now a hotel, of the two historical village pumps standing in the village, one of them was erected to commemorate Queen Victorias Diamond Jubilee. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the councils operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also of interest to the council, the parish falls within the unitary authority of North Somerset which was created in 1996, as established by the Local Government Act 1992. North Somersets area covers part of the county of Somerset. Its administrative headquarters is in the hall in Weston-super-Mare. Between 1 April 1974 and 1 April 1996, it was the Woodspring district of the county of Avon, before 1974 the parish was part of the Axbridge Rural District
38.
Bishop of Bath and Wells
–
The Bishop of Bath and Wells heads the Church of England Diocese of Bath and Wells in the Province of Canterbury in England. The present diocese covers the vast majority of the county of Somerset, the Episcopal seat is located in the Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew in the city of Wells in Somerset. The current bishop, since his confirmation of election on 4 March 2014, is Peter Hancock, the seventy-eighth Bishop and he fully took up his duties upon his installation in a service at Wells Cathedral on 7 June 2014. The see had been vacant since Peter Prices retirement on 30 June 2013, the Bishops residence is The Palace, Wells. In late 2013 the Church Commissioners announced that they were purchasing the Old Rectory, however this decision was widely opposed, including by the Diocese, and in May 2014 was overturned by a committee of the Archbishops Council. Somerset originally came under the authority of the Bishop of Sherborne and he planned and began a much larger church as his cathedral, to which was attached a priory, with the bishops palace beside it. In 1197 Bishop Savaric FitzGeldewin officially moved his seat to Glastonbury Abbey with the approval of Pope Celestine III. However, the monks there would not accept their new Bishop of Glastonbury and his successor, Jocelin of Wells, then returned to Bath, again under the title, Bishop of Bath. The official episcopal title became Bishop of Bath and Wells under a Papal ruling of 3 January 1245, by the 15th century Bath Abbey was badly dilapidated. Oliver King, Bishop of Bath and Wells, decided in 1500 to rebuild it on a smaller scale, the new abbey-church was completed just a few years before Bath Priory was dissolved in 1539. Then Henry VIII considered this new church redundant, and it was offered to the people of Bath to form their parish church, but they did not buy it, and it was stripped of its glass and lead. The last bishop in communion with Rome was deprived in 1559, the diocese and the episcopate are today part of the Anglican Communion. Fictional bishops of this title appear in the BBC television comedy Blackadder, in which the bishop is portrayed as an obese, blasphemous. Others are mentioned in at least two skits by Monty Python and yet another in the BBC radio comedy Absolute Power. Neil Gaimans 2008 work The Graveyard Book features a character named the Bishop of Bath, official Diocese of Bath & Wells Website Episcopal succession, Wells
39.
Dissolution of the Monasteries
–
Although the policy was originally envisaged as increasing the regular income of the Crown, much former monastic property was sold off to fund Henrys military campaigns in the 1540s. Professor George W. Bernard argues, The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. one adult man in fifty was in religious orders. Very few English houses had been founded later than the end of the 13th century, there was a Medieval proverb in England that said if the Abbot of Glastonbury married the Abbess of Shaftesbury, the heir would have more land than the King of England. The 200 houses of friars in England and Wales constituted a distinct wave of foundations almost all occurring in the 13th century. Friaries, for the most part, were concentrated in urban areas, however, the religious changes in England under Henry VIII and Edward VI were of a different nature from those taking place in Germany, Bohemia, France, Scotland and Geneva. Bernard says there was concern in the later fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries about the condition of the monasteries. Pastoral care was seen as more important and vital than the monastic focus on contemplation, prayer. English monasticism in the 1530s may have faced grave and urgent problems, Henry wanted to change this, and in November 1529 Parliament passed Acts reforming apparent abuses in the English Church. These Acts sought to demonstrate that establishing royal jurisdiction over the Church would ensure progress in religious reformation where papal authority had been insufficient, the monasteries were next in line. The stories of monastic impropriety, vice and excess that were to be collected by Thomas Cromwells visitors may have been biased and exaggerated. Levels of monastic debt were increasing, and average numbers of professed religious were falling, only a minority of houses could now support the twelve or thirteen professed religious usually regarded as the minimum necessary to maintain the full canonical hours of the Divine Office. Extensive monastic complexes dominated English towns of any size, but most were less than half full, renaissance princes throughout Europe were facing severe financial difficulties due to sharply rising expenditures, especially to pay for armies, fighting ships and fortifications. Most tended, sooner or later, to resort to plundering monastic wealth, protestant princes would justify this by claiming divine authority, Catholic princes would obtain the agreement and connivance of the Papacy. Monastic wealth, regarded everywhere as excessive and idle, offered a standing temptation for cash-strapped secular, in terms of popular esteem however, the balance tilted the other way. By the time Henry VIII turned his mind to the business of monastery reform, the first case was that of the so-called Alien Priories. As a result of the Norman Conquest some French religious orders held substantial property through their daughter monasteries in England, some of these were merely granges, agricultural estates with a single foreign monk in residence to supervise things, others were rich foundations in their own right. Such estates were a source of income for the Crown in its French wars. If the property with which a house had been endowed by its founder were to be confiscated or surrendered, then the house ceased to exist, whether its members continued in the religious life or not
40.
W. G. Hoskins
–
William George Hoskins CBE FBA was an English local historian who founded the first university department of English Local History. His great contribution to the study of history was in the field of landscape history, Hoskins demonstrated the profound impact of human activity on the evolution of the English landscape in a pioneering book, The Making of the English Landscape. His work has had lasting influence in the fields of local and landscape history, William George Hoskins was born at 26–28 St Davids Hill, Exeter, Devon on 22 May 1908, his father, like his grandfather, was a baker. He won a scholarship to Heles School in 1918, and attended the University College of South West England where he gained BSc and MSc degrees in economics by the age of 21, both his MSc in 1929 and his PhD in 1938 were on the history of Devon. The remainder of his life was devoted to university teaching and the authorship of historical works and he died on 11 January 1992 in Cullompton, Devon. Hoskins was appointed Assistant Lecturer in Commerce at University College, Leicester in 1931 and he found the trade statistics to be dull lecture material, but he enjoyed the evenings that he spent teaching archaeology and local history at Vaughan College. His academic researches covered historical demography, urban history, agrarian history and he became a member of the Leicestershire Archaeological Society in September 1935. After the award of his doctorate Hoskins was appointed Reader in English Local History at University College, in his obituary, this was stated to be generally acknowledged as a mistake. Hoskins was one of the founders of the Exeter Group in 1960 and he was president of the Dartmoor Preservation Association from 1962 until 1976. He became the first professor of history at the University of Leicester in 1965 when he was appointed Hatton Professor of English History. Hoskins wrote and presented a BBC television series Landscapes of England in 1976, Hoskins was awarded the Fellowship of the British Academy in 1969 and the CBE in 1971. He was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1973, the University of Exeter acknowledged his links with the city by conferring an honorary Doctorate of Letters upon him in 1974. G. Hoskins lecture, and another at St Annes College, Oxford, in 1955, Hoskins published the book that was to make his name. The Making of the English Landscape is a history of England. The brief history of one thousand years has become a standard text in local and environmental history courses. Hoskins sets out his stall in the introduction with No book exists to describe the manner in which the various landscapes of this came to assume the shape. The brief concluding chapter contains only one image, Plate 82, The completed English landscape showing a tree in a wide open field. The book has well received by critics
41.
Earthworks (archaeology)
–
In archaeology, earthworks are artificial changes in land level, typically made from piles of artificially placed or sculpted rocks and soil. Earthworks are often known as barrows in England, and mounds in North America, Earthworks can themselves be archaeological features, or they can show features beneath the surface. They are believed to have used as monuments for spiritual ritual ceremonies. Long barrows are oblong-shaped mounds that are used for burials, tumuli are mounds of earth created over a tomb, it has the same meaning as barrow. A cross dyke or cross-ridge dyke is a bank and ditch, found in Europe and often belonging to the later Bronze Age or Iron Age. Often marked on Ordnance Survey maps in the UK. Ridge and furrows are sets of parallel depressions, mottes are mound structures made of earth and stone that once held castles. A round barrow is a mound that is in a shape that was used during Neolithic times as a burial mound. Geoglyph, a design or motif Earthworks can vary in height from a few centimetres to the size of Silbury Hill at 40 metres. They can date from the Neolithic to the present, the structures can also stretch for many tens of kilometres. In area, they can cover many hectares, for example, Maiden Castle, shallow earthworks are often more visible as cropmarks or in aerial photographs if taken when the sun is low in the sky and shadows are more pronounced. Similarly, earthworks may be visible after a frost or a light dusting of snow. Earthworks can be detected and plotted using Light Detection and Ranging and this technique is particularly useful for mapping small variations in land height that would be difficult to detect by eye. It can be used to map features beneath forest canopy and for features hidden by other vegetation, LIDAR results can be input into a geographic information system to produce three-dimensional representations of the earthworks. An accurate survey of the earthworks can enable them to be interpreted without the need for excavation, for example, earthworks from deserted medieval villages can be used to determine the location, size, and layout of lost settlements. Often these earthworks can point to the purpose of such a settlement, Earthworks in North America include mounds built by Native Americans known as the Mound Builders. Ancient people who lived in the American Midwest commonly built effigy mounds, possibly the most famous of these effigy mounds is Serpent Mound. Located in the Ohio, this 411-meterlong earthen work is thought to memorialize alignments of the planets, cone-shaped or conical mounds are also numerous, with thousands of them scattered across the American Midwest, some over 80 feet tall. These conical mounds appear to be marking the graves of one person or even dozens of people
42.
Barnsdale
–
Barnsdale, or Barnsdale Forest, is a relatively small area of South Yorkshire, England. The area falls within the Whitley Ward of the Wakefield Metropolitan Council, Barnsdale is historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. Barnsdale historically falls within the West Riding of the County of York commonly known as the West Riding of Yorkshire, the small South Yorkshire village of Hampole is generally considered to lie within the dead centre of what was once the Barnsdale Forest area 53°35′10. 0″N 1°14′0. 00″W. It is recorded that Richard Rolle, the famous Latin and English religious writer and Bible translator, spent his years at Hampole as a hermit. The area was thick woodland, rich with game and deer. It is believed that at point in the early medieval era, Barnsdale Forest was probably huge. It is possible that the town of Barnsley, some 10 miles to the west of Hampole. Barnsdale Bar is the site of the junction of the A1, the A639, now a service area lies just north of the junction, about eight miles north-north-west of Doncaster. All that now exists of Barnsdale Forest is small gatherings of trees at the side of the A1 trunk road at Barnsdale Bar 53°37′3. 12″N 1°13′53. 05″W, there is however a wooded area around a half a mile wide, lying around a mile south of Hampole. It is called Hampole Wood, and although a small wood, the same could be said of the woodland that resides around a nearby stately home, Brodsworth Hall. At Woodlands there is Hanging Wood, which was part of Barnsdale Forest. In the earliest medieval ballads of Robin Hood, which date from the fifteenth century, notable locations within the forest of Barnsdale which are directly related to the Robin Hood legend include the villages of Wentbridge and Campsall. There is also Robin Hoods Well, a small monument lying right next to the A1 between the Red House junction and Barnsdale Bar, in between the villages of Skelbrooke and Burghwallis. However, it was moved around 1960 when the junction was being constructed, yet another well - Little Johns Well - lies to the west of Hampole, between Wrangbrook and Skelbrooke. It is also called Little Johns Cave, situated by the A638, to the west of Barnsdale, it was once engraved with the outlaws name, but is now derelict. A number of villages and geological features along this route are mentioned in the ballads of Robin Hood as being places the outlaw would visit
