1.
Oil palm
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Elaeis is a genus of palms containing two species, called oil palms. They are used in agriculture in the production of palm oil. The African oil palm Elaeis guineensis is the source of palm oil, it is native to west and southwest Africa. The American oil palm Elaeis oleifera is native to tropical Central and South America, mature palms are single-stemmed, and can grow well over 20 m tall. The leaves are pinnate, and reach between 3–5 m long, the flowers are produced in dense clusters, each individual flower is small, with three sepals and three petals. The palm fruit is reddish, about the size of a large plum, each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy outer layer, with a single seed, also rich in oil. The two species, E. guineensis and E. oleifera can produce fertile hybrids, the genome of E. guineensis has been sequenced, which has important implications for breeding improved strains of the crop plants. Since palm oil contains more saturated fats than oils made from canola, corn, linseed, soybeans, safflower and it contains no trans fat, and its use in food has increased as food-labelling laws have changed to specify trans fat content. Oil from Elaeis guineensis is also used as biofuel, human use of oil palms may date back about 5,000 years in coastal west Africa. Palm oil was discovered in the late 19th century by archaeologists in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3000 BCE. It is thought that Arab traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Elaeis guineensis is now extensively cultivated in tropical countries outside Africa, particularly Malaysia and Indonesia which together produce most of the world supply. Especially in Indonesia, there is growing pressure for palm oil producers to prove that they are not harming rare animals in the cultivation process. Attalea maripa, another oil-producing palm Journal of Oil Palm Research Energy and the environment List of Arecaceae genera Social and environmental impact of palm oil
2.
Deforestation
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Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestationinclude conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use, the most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About 30% of Earths land surface is covered by forests, Deforestation occurs for multiple reasons, trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. The removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage to habitat, biodiversity loss and it has adverse impacts on biosequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Deforestation has also used in war to deprive the enemy of cover for its forces. Modern examples of this were the use of Agent Orange by the British military in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, as of 2005, net deforestation rates have ceased to increase in countries with a per capita GDP of at least US$4,600. Deforested regions typically incur significant adverse soil erosion and frequently degrade into wasteland, disregard of ascribed value, lax forest management and deficient environmental laws are some of the factors that allow deforestation to occur on a large scale. In many countries, deforestation, both naturally occurring and human-induced, is an ongoing issue, Deforestation causes extinction, changes to climatic conditions, desertification, and displacement of populations as observed by current conditions and in the past through the fossil record. More than half of all plant and land animal species in the live in tropical forests. Between 2000 and 2012,2.3 million square kilometres of forests around the world were cut down, as a result of deforestation, only 6.2 million square kilometres remain of the original 16 million square kilometres of forest that formerly covered the Earth. Experts do not agree on whether industrial logging is an important contributor to global deforestation, some argue that poor people are more likely to clear forest because they have no alternatives, others that the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest. One study found that population increases due to fertility rates were a primary driver of tropical deforestation in only 8% of cases. Other causes of contemporary deforestation may include corruption of government institutions, the distribution of wealth and power, population growth and overpopulation. Globalization is often viewed as another cause of deforestation, though there are cases in which the impacts of globalization have promoted localized forest recovery. The degradation of forest ecosystems has also traced to economic incentives that make forest conversion appear more profitable than forest conservation. Some commentators have noted a shift in the drivers of deforestation over the past 30 years, Deforestation is ongoing and is shaping climate and geography. Deforestation is a contributor to global warming, and is cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect. Tropical deforestation is responsible for approximately 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change deforestation, mainly in tropical areas, could account for up to one-third of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions
3.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
4.
Biodiversity
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
5.
Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
6.
Democratic Republic of Congo
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The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as DR Congo, DRC, DROC, East Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo is a country located in Central Africa. From 1971 to 1997 it was named, and is still called, Zaire. It is the second-largest country in Africa by area and eleventh largest in the world, the Congolese Civil Wars, which began in 1996, brought about the end of Mobutu Sese Sekos 32-year reign and devastated the country. These wars ultimately involved nine African nations, multiple groups of UN peacekeepers and twenty armed groups, besides the capital, Kinshasa, the other major cities, Lubumbashi and Mbuji-Mayi, are both mining communities. DR Congos largest export is raw minerals, with China accepting over 50% of DRCs exports in 2012, as of 2015, according to the Human Development Index, DR Congo has a low level of human development, ranking 176 out of 187 countries. The country was known officially as the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 1965 to 27 October 1971, in 1992, the Sovereign National Conference voted to change the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the change was not put into practice. The countrys name was restored by former president Laurent-Désiré Kabila following the fall of longtime dictator Mobutu Sese Seko in 1997, some historians think that Bantu peoples began settling in the extreme northwest of Central Africa at the beginning of the 5th century and then gradually started to expand southward. Their propagation was accelerated by the transition from Stone Age to Iron Age techniques, the people living in the south and southwest were mostly San Bushmen and hunter-gatherer groups, whose technology involved only minimal use of metal technologies. The development of tools during this time period revolutionized agriculture. This led to the displacement of the groups in the east and southeast. The 10th century marked the expansion of the Bantu in West-Central Africa. Rising populations soon made intricate local, regional and foreign commercial networks that traded mostly in salt, iron. Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s and it was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who undertook his explorations under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. The eastern regions of the precolonial Congo were heavily disrupted by constant slave raiding, mainly from Arab–Swahili slave traders such as the infamous Tippu Tip, Leopold had designs on what was to become the Congo as a colony. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and he named it the Congo Free State. Leopolds rėgime began various infrastructure projects, such as construction of the railway ran from the coast to the capital of Leopoldville. Nearly all such projects were aimed at making it easier to increase the assets which Leopold. In the Free State, colonists brutalized the local population into producing rubber, for which the spread of automobiles, rubber sales made a fortune for Leopold, who built several buildings in Brussels and Ostend to honor himself and his country
7.
Tropical rainforest
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True rainforests are typically found between 10 degrees north and south of the equator, they are a sub-set of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28 degree latitudes. Within the World Wildlife Funds biome classification, tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest that includes the more extensive tropical seasonal forests. Tropical rainforests can be characterized in two words, hot and wet, mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year. Average annual rainfall is no less than 1,680 mm and this high level of precipitation often results in poor soils due to leaching of soluble nutrients in the ground. Tropical rainforests exhibit high levels of biodiversity, around 40% to 75% of all biotic species are indigenous to the rainforests. Rainforests are home to half of all the animal and plant species on the planet. Two-thirds of all flowering plants can be found in rainforests, a single hectare of rainforest may contain 42,000 different species of insect, up to 807 trees of 313 species and 1,500 species of higher plants. Tropical rainforests have been called the worlds largest pharmacy, because over one quarter of natural medicines have been discovered within them and it is likely that there may be many millions of species of plants, insects and microorganisms still undiscovered in tropical rainforests. Tropical rainforests are among the most threatened ecosystems globally due to large-scale fragmentation as a result of human activity, habitat fragmentation caused by geological processes such as volcanism and climate change occurred in the past, and have been identified as important drivers of speciation. However, fast human driven habitat destruction is suspected to be one of the causes of species extinction. Tropical rain forests have been subjected to heavy logging and agricultural clearance throughout the 20th century, tropical rainforests have existed on earth for hundreds of millions of years. Most tropical rainforests today are on fragments of the Mesozoic era supercontinent of Gondwana, the separation of the landmass resulted in a great loss of amphibian diversity while at the same time the drier climate spurred the diversification of reptiles. The division left tropical rainforests located in five regions of the world, tropical America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Madagascar. However, the specifics of the origin of rainforests remain uncertain due to a fossil record. Several biomes comprise the general term tropical forest, Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests are forests which receive rainfall throughout the year. These true rainforests occur in a belt around the equator, with the largest areas in the Amazon basin of South America, the Congo Basin of Central Africa, Borneo, Mindanao, Indonesia, and New Guinea. Moist tropical seasonal forests receive high rainfall with a warm summer wet season. Some trees in these forests drop some or all of their leaves during the dry season
8.
Asia Pulp and Paper
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Asia Pulp & Paper, also known in the paper industry as APP, based in Jakarta, Indonesia, is one of the largest pulp and paper companies in the world. Asia Pulp & Paper has its roots in 1972, when Eka Tjipta Widjaja founded a small caustic soda manufacturer called Tjiwi Kimia, in 1978, Tjiwi Kimia commenced paper production of 12,000 tons/year. In December 1976, Indah Kiat was formed as a joint venture between CV Berkat, Chung Hwa Pulp Corporation and Yuen Foong Yu Paper Manufacturing Company Ltd. from Taiwan. In April 1979, Indah Kiat Tangerang mills Paper Machine 1 and 2 started with a production of 100 tons/day of wood free paper, by March 1984, Indah Kiat Perawang mills Pulp Machine 1 started producing bleached hardwood kraft pulp with an initial capacity of 250 tons/day. In May 1986, Sinar Mas Group acquired 67% of Indah Kiats total shares by the order of Singgih Wahab Kwik, Chung Hwa and Yuen Foong Yu had 23% and 10% shares respectively. In 1987, the first cast coating machine installed at Tjiwi Kimia, in 1991, Tjiwi Kimias PM9 started operation with an annual capacity of 207,000 tons. The following year, Indah Kiat acquired PT Sinar Dunia Makmur, Tjiwi Kimia commissioned the Carbonless Paper Plant in March 1993 as an experiment. The company Pindo Deli under control of CPP in February 1994, in 1998, paper machine No.11 started tissue production in Pindo Deli with annual production capacity of 400,000 tons started to operate. APP-China began investing in China in 1992, with an emphasis on the Yangtze, aPP-Chinas pulp and paper mills now include Ningbo Zhonghua, Goldeast Paper, Ningbo Asia, Gold Huasheng, Gold Hongye, Hainan Jinhai Pulp and Paper, and Guangxi Jingui Pulp & Paper. APP-China was registered in Singapore in October 1994, aPP-China employs over 37,000 people and created 5,000 new jobs in 2009. On 4 January 2016, Asia Pulp and Paper announced that it had hired Jose Raymond as its Vice President of Corporate Affairs, Indah Kiat Perawang is APPs largest pulp mill in Indonesia. Pulp is sold to APP paper mills in Indonesia and China, Indah Kiat Perawang was increasing its pulp production from ~2 million tonnes in 2009 to an estimated ~2.3 million in 2010–2011. In 1994, the company moved its headquarters from Indonesia to Singapore and it was soon heavily leveraged, from 1996 to 1998, it only produced 1.5 times as much cash flow as its interest costs. In March 2001, during the Asian Debt Crises, it defaulted on its debt, various NGOs have criticized APP on environmental grounds. According to a Friends of the Earth report from 2005, APP has cleared over 280,000 hectares of rainforest in the past decade, and planned to cut another 300,000 over the next five years. The company has been at the center of environmental controversies and has been accused of being involved in illegal logging in Cambodia. The company is known for defaulting on debt repayments in 2001. Despite the failure of the WWF partnership, APP entered into a partnership with Rainforest Alliance in 2005
9.
Logging industry
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Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
10.
Transmigration program
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This involved moving people permanently from the island of Java, but also to a lesser extent from Bali and Madura, to less densely populated areas including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi. The program, however, has been controversial as fears from native populations of Javanization and Islamization have strengthened separatist movements, the incomers are Madurese and Javanese. The policy was first initiated by the Dutch colonial government in the nineteenth century to reduce crowding. In the peak year, 1929Б in the Sumatras east coast more than 260,000 contract workers were brought,235,000 of them from Java. Workers entered into a contract as coolie, if a worker asked for the termination of the contract in the company, the mortality was very high among the coolies and abuse was common. After independence in 1949, under President Sukarno, the continued and was expanded to send migrants to more areas of the archipelago such as Papua. At its peak between 1979 and 1984,535,000 families moved under the transmigration program and it had a major impact on the demographics of some regions, for example, in 1981 sixty percent of the 3 million people in the southern Sumatra province of Lampung were transmigrants. During the 1980s, the program was funded by the World Bank, however, as a result of the 1979 energy crisis and increased transportation costs, the budget and plans for transmigration were severely reduced. In August 2000, after the Asian financial crisis and the fall of the Suharto regime, under the restructured Department of Manpower and Transmigration the Indonesian government maintains the transmigration program, although on a far smaller scale than in previous decades. The department assists in annually relocating approximately 15,000 families, the rate has shown gradual increases in recent years with funding for transmigration activities at $270 million and a target of relocating 20,500 families in 2006. The program has recently been abolished in 2015 by the new president Joko Widodo and this would alleviate poverty by providing land and new opportunities to generate income for poor landless settlers. It would also benefit the nation as a whole by increasing the utilization of the resources of the less-populous islands. The program may have intended to encourage the unification of the country through the creation of a single Indonesian national identity to augment or replace regional identities. It argues instead for the use of population groups which can include both tribal groups and the urban poor. In many examples, the program failed in its objective to improve the situation of the migrants, the soil and climate of their new locations were generally not nearly as productive as the volcanic soil of Java and Bali. The settlers were often landless people lacking in farming skills, let alone skills appropriate to the new land, Transmigration has also been blamed for accelerating the deforestation of sensitive rainforest areas, as formerly sparsely-populated areas experienced great increases in population. Migrants were often moved to entirely new villages, constructed in regions that had been relatively unimpacted by human activity. By settling on land, natural resources were used up
11.
Greenhouse gas
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A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range. This process is the cause of the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earths atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earths surface would be about −18 °C, rather than the present average of 15 °C. In the Solar System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars, human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution have produced a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 400 ppm in 2015. This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a portion of the emissions by various natural sinks involved in the carbon cycle. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions come from combustion of fuels, principally coal, oil. Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the range emitted by Earth. The proportion of an emission remaining in the atmosphere after a time is the airborne fraction. The annual airborne fraction is the ratio of the increase in a given year to that years total emissions. Over the last 50 years the annual airborne fraction for CO2 has been increasing at 0.25 ±0. 21%/year, therefore, they do not contribute significantly to the greenhouse effect and usually are omitted when discussing greenhouse gases. Some gases have indirect radiative effects and this happens in two main ways. One way is that when they break down in the atmosphere they produce another greenhouse gas, for example, methane and carbon monoxide are oxidized to give carbon dioxide. Oxidation of CO to CO2 directly produces an increase in radiative forcing although the reason is subtle. The peak of the thermal IR emission from Earths surface is close to a strong vibrational absorption band of CO2. On the other hand, the single CO vibrational band only absorbs IR at much higher frequencies, where the ~300 K thermal emission of the surface is at least a factor of ten lower. Oxidation of methane to CO2, which requires reactions with the OH radical, produces a reduction, since CO2 is a weaker greenhouse gas than methane. As described below this is not the story, since the oxidations of CO. In any case, the calculation of the radiative effect needs to include both the direct and indirect forcing
12.
Carbon sink
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A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is known as carbon sequestration, public awareness of the significance of CO2 sinks has grown since passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which promotes their use as a form of carbon offset. There are also different strategies used to enhance this process, because growing vegetation takes in carbon dioxide, the Kyoto Protocol allows Annex I countries with large areas of growing forests to issue Removal Units to recognize the sequestration of carbon. The additional units make it easier for them to achieve their target emission levels and it is estimated that forests absorb between 10 and 20 tons of carbon dioxide per hectare each year, through photosynthetic conversion into starch, cellulose, lignin, and wooden biomass. While this has been documented for temperate forests and plantations. Some countries seek to trade rights in carbon emission markets. If overall limits on greenhouse gas emission are put into place, cap, there is as yet no carbon audit regime for all such markets globally, and none is specified in the Kyoto Protocol. In the Clean Development Mechanism, only afforestation and reforestation are eligible to produce certified emission reductions in the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. Forest conservation activities or activities avoiding deforestation, which would result in emission reduction through the conservation of existing stocks, are not eligible at this time. Also, agricultural carbon sequestration is not possible yet, soils represent a short to long-term carbon storage medium, and contains more carbon than all terrestrial vegetation and the atmosphere combined. Plant litter and other biomass including charcoal accumulates as organic matter in soils, more recalcitrant organic carbon polymers such as cellulose, hemi-cellulose, lignin, aliphatic compounds, waxes and terpenoids are collectively retained as humus. Organic matter tends to accumulate in litter and soils of colder regions such as the forests of North America. Leaf litter and humus are rapidly oxidized and poorly retained in sub-tropical and tropical climate due to high temperatures. Areas where shifting cultivation or slash and burn agriculture are practiced are generally only fertile for 2–3 years before they are abandoned. These tropical jungles are similar to coral reefs in that they are efficient at conserving and circulating necessary nutrients. Much organic carbon retained in many areas worldwide has been severely depleted due to intensive farming practices. Grasslands contribute to organic matter, stored mainly in their extensive fibrous root mats. Due in part to the conditions of these regions, these soils can accumulate significant quantities of organic matter
13.
Old-growth forest
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Old-growth features include diverse tree-related structures that provide diverse wildlife habitat that increases the biodiversity of the forested ecosystem. The concept of tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, greatly varying tree heights and diameters. Old-growth forests are valuable, and logging of these forests has been a point of contention between the logging industry and environmentalists. Old-growth forests tend to have trees and standing dead trees, multi-layered canopies with gaps that result from the deaths of individual trees. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia, hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. In British Columbia, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia’s coastal rainforests, old growth is defined as more than 250 years. In Australia, eucalypt trees rarely exceed 350 years of age due to frequent fire disturbance, Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on circumstances, environmental variables. Logging in old-growth forests is an issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, a forest in old-growth stage has a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from other, because each one of them has different spatial location relative to the main canopy. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest succession, thus, uniformly aged stands are a less stable ecosystem. Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands, also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires. Because old-growth forest is structurally diverse it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages, thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forest, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages. The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds, mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals
14.
Peat swamp forest
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Peat swamp forests are tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing. Over time, this creates a layer of acidic peat. Large areas of forests are being logged at high rates. Peat swamp forests are surrounded by lowland rain forests on better-drained soils. Their stability has important implications for climate change, they are among the largest near-surface reserves of terrestrial organic carbon, unfortunately, peat swamp forests, which have ecological importance, are one of the most threatened, yet least studied and most poorly understood biotypes. Since the 1970s, peat swamp forest deforestation and drainage have increased exponentially, in addition, El Niño Southern Oscillation drought and large-scale fires are accelerating peatland devastation. This destruction enhances the decomposition of soil and organic matter, increasing the release to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. This phenomenon suggests that tropical peatlands have already become a large carbon-dioxide source, about 62% of the world’s tropical peat lands occur in the Indomalaya region. They are unusual ecosystems, with trees up to 70 m high - vastly different from the lands of the north temperate. The spongy, unstable, waterlogged, anaerobic beds of peat can be up to 20 m deep with low pH and low nutrients, the water is stained dark brown by the tannins that leach from the fallen leaves and peat – hence the name blackwater swamps. During the dry season, the peat remains waterlogged and pools remain among the trees, peat formation is a natural carbon sink, carbon is withdrawn out of the system and converted into peat through biological activity. Peat swamp forests originally represented major ecosystems in Indonesia and ranged between 16. 5–27 million hectares, in their original state, Indonesian peat swamp forests released between 0. 01–0.03 Gt of carbon annually. In recent years, however, these important ecosystems have been reduced through deforestation, drainage and their current status as carbon sequestering systems have thus also been reduced significantly. Over the past decade, under the Mega Rice Project, the government of Indonesia has drained over 1 million hectares of the Borneo peat swamp forests for conversion to agricultural land. Between 1996 and 1998, more than 4,000 kilometers of drainage and irrigation channels were dug, the water channels, and the roads and railways built for legal forestry, opened up the region to illegal forestry. In the MRP area, forest cover dropped from 64. 8% in 1991 to 45. 7% in 2000 and it appears that almost all the marketable trees have now been removed from the areas covered by the MRP. What happened was not what had expected, the channels drained the peat forests rather than irrigating them. Where the forests had often flooded up to 2 meters deep in the rainy season, the Indonesian government has now abandoned the MRP
15.
Deforestation in Brazil
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Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 600,000 square kilometers of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed, in 2012, the Amazon was approximately 5.4 million square kilometres, which is only 87% of the Amazons original state. Rainforests have decreased in size due to deforestation. Despite reductions in the rate of deforestation in the last ten years, between May 2000 and August 2006, Brazil lost nearly 150,000 square kilometres of forest, an area larger than that of Greece. According to the Living Planet Report 2010, deforestation is continuing at an alarming rate, in the 1940s Brazil began a program of national development for the Amazon Basin. Everything which has up to now been done in Amazonas, whether in agriculture or extractive industry, must be transformed into rational exploitation. Extensive transportation projects, such as the Trans-Amazon Highway, were promoted in 1970, before the 1960s, much of the forest remained intact due to the restrictions in access to the Amazon aside from partial clearing along the river banks. The poor soil also made plantation-based agriculture unprofitable, the key point in deforestation of the Amazon was when the colonists established farms within the forest during the 1960s. Their farming system was based on cultivation and the slash. The colonists were unable to manage their fields and the crops due to the loss of soil fertility. The soils in the Amazon are productive for just a short period of time. However, the results of farming have led to deforestation and have caused extensive environmental damage. This emphasizes the importance of using previously cleared land for agricultural use, in the Brazilian Amazon, the number of small farmers versus large landholders changes frequently with economic and demographic pressures. This act paved the way for clearing areas of forest for cattle production as developers sought to gain a financial profit from land with which they were provided. The forest was also exploited for timber, which provided Brazil a way of paying off international debt, by the late 1980s, an area the size of England, Scotland and Wales was being removed annually. The annual rate of deforestation in the Amazon region has continued to increase from 1990 to 2003 because of factors at local, national, 70% of formerly forested land in the Amazon, and 91% of land deforested since 1970, is used for livestock pasture. The Brazilian government initially attributed 38% of all forest loss between 1966 and 1975 to large-scale cattle ranching, the removal of forest to make way for cattle ranching was the leading cause of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon from the mid-1960s. Cattle Ranching is not an environmental investment though, cattle emit large amounts of methane into the environment
16.
Biodiverse
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Biodiversity, a contraction of biological diversity, generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species and it is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation within an area, biome, terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth, and is richest in the tropics and these tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 10 per cent of earths surface, and contain about 90 percent of the worlds species. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, there are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is a component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines. The richness of biodiversity depends on the conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 300,000 species of plants are known to date, all species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc. Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions, more than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earths current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. More recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described, the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the Last Universal Common Ancestor of all living on Earth. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old, there are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old meta-sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, remains of life were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, If life arose relatively quickly on Earth, then it could be common in the universe
17.
Pulp and paper industry
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The pulp and paper industry comprises companies that use wood as raw material and produce pulp, paper, paperboard and other cellulose-based products. The industry is dominated by North American, northern European and East Asian countries, australasia and Brazil also have significant pulp and paper enterprises. The United States had been the leading producer of paper until it was overtaken by China in 2009. The industry is criticized by groups like the Natural Resources Defense Council for unsustainable deforestation. The industry trend is to expand globally to countries like Russia, China and Indonesia with low wages, considering that the pulp and paper industry is a practitioner of nanotechnology, then it is easily the worlds largest. The pulp is fed to a machine where it is formed as a paper web. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer, the first mechanised paper machine was installed at Frogmore Mill, Apsley, Hertfordshire in 1803, followed by another in 1804. The site operates currently as a museum
18.
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
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Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono GCB AC DUT is an Indonesian politician and retired Army general officer who was the President of Indonesia from 2004 to 2014. He is currently the chairman of the Democratic Party of Indonesia and President of the Assembly, Yudhoyono won the 2004 presidential election, defeating incumbent President Megawati Sukarnoputri. Widely known in Indonesia by his initials SBY, he was sworn into office on 20 October 2004 and he was born in Tremas, a village in Arjosari, Pacitan Regency, East Java, to a lower-middle-class family and is the son of Raden Soekotjo and Siti Habibah. His name is Javanese, with Sanskrit roots, Susilo comes from the words su-, meaning good and -sila, meaning behaviour, conduct or moral. Bambang is a male name in Javanese, meaning knight. Yudhoyono comes from the words yuddha -meaning battle, fight, and yana, thus his name roughly translates to well behaved knight. Yudhoyono had wanted to join the army since he was a child, in school, he developed a reputation as an academic achiever, excelling in writing poems, short stories, and play-acting. Yudhoyono was also talented in music and sport, reflected when he and his friends established a club called Klub Rajawali. When he was in grade, Yudhoyono visited the Indonesian Armed Forces Academy. After seeing the training there and perhaps inspired by his own fathers career, Yudhoyono became determined to join Indonesian Armed Forces. Yudhoyono planned to enlist after graduating high school in 1968, however. There, he was able to prepare everything for the phase of his education at Akabri. Yudhoyono officially entered AKABRI in 1970 after passing the test in Bandung, Yudhoyono spent three years at Indonesian Armed Forces Academy and became the Commander of the Cadet Corps Division there. He graduated from AKABRI as second lieutenant in 1973, and as the best graduate of the year, after graduating, Yudhoyono joined the Army Strategic Reserve and became a platoon commander in the 330th Airborne Battalion. Aside from leading his troops, Yudhoyono was also tasked with giving the battalion soldiers lessons on general knowledge, Yudhoyonos proficiency in English was one of the reasons why he was sent to the United States to undertake the Airborne and Ranger Courses at Fort Benning in 1975. Yudhoyono returned to Indonesia in 1976 where he became a commander in the 305th Battalion. Yudhoyono had several tours of duty there and, like many other Indonesian officers involved in the occupation of East Timor, was accused of committing war crimes, however, Yudhoyono has never been charged with any specific act. From East Timor, Yudhoyono became a platoon commander in 1977, an operations officer for an airborne brigade from 1977 to 1978
19.
Palm oil production in Indonesia
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Palm oil production is important to the economy of Indonesia as the country is the worlds biggest producer and consumer of the commodity, providing about half the world supply. Oil palm plantations stretch across 6 million hectares, Indonesia plans by 2015 to add 4 million additional hectares towards oil palm biofuel production. As of 2012, Indonesia produces 35 percent of the worlds certified sustainable palm oil, in addition to servicing traditional markets, Indonesia is looking to put more effort into producing biodiesel. China and India are the major importers of oil, accounting for more than a third of global palm oil imports. Production of palm oil in Indonesia has, since 1964, recorded an increase from 157,000 tonnes to 33.5 million tonnes in 2014. Palm oil accounts for 11% of Indonesias export earnings of $5. 7bn, maintaining its status as the world’s largest producer of palm oil, Indonesia has projected a figure of 40 million tonnes by 2020. In this context, the global production figure given by Food and Agricultural Organization was 50 million tonnes for 2012, double the production of 2002. This increase is reflected also in increases of Indonesia’s production of oil for the same period. The entire production of the oil is derived from Indonesias rainforest which ranks third in the world, according to the Indonesian Palm Oil Association, one third of this production is attributed to smallholder farmers and the remaining to the multinationals. Borneo and Sumatra are the two islands which account for 96 percent of Indonesia’s palm oil production, Palm oil use in Asia is very wide as cooking medium and for noodles which has created a $44 billion industry. According to trade reports one third of oil production in the world is exported to China. Major local and global companies are building mills and refineries, including PT Astra Agro Lestari Terbuka, PT Bakrie Group, robert Kuoks Wilmar International Limited has plantations and 25 refineries across Indonesia, to supply feedstock to new biodiesel refineries in Singapore, Riau, Indonesia and Rotterdam. Musim Mas Group has plantations and refineries in Malaysia and Indonesia - Kalimantan, Medan etc. although they are headquartered in Singapore, in the past Marihat Reaserch Station which located in Pematang Siantar known as the first research centre for Palm Oil Plantation for Indonesia. One of its experts in the soil was Ir. Indonesian palm oil producer Triputra Agro Persada will reportedly increase its area by about two-thirds from 2013 by 2015. A major environmental threat that palm oil production faces is the destruction of rainforests in Indonesia and Malaysia, also reported are human rights abuse in the form of using child labour and debt bondage in the plantations of Borneo and Sumatra. In Kalimantan, deforestation for oil palm plantation development is said to endanger the living space of indigenous tribes, a government moratorium on the clearing of new forest has become effective from 2011 which will be effective till 2015. Of the total logging in Indonesia, up to 80% is reported to be performed illegally, the Indonesian Palm Oil Board has planned to adopt new planting materials on the older plantations which could double the yield from the present annual rate of four tonnes of oil per hectare
20.
Sulawesi
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Sulawesi, formerly known as Celebes, is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the worlds eleventh-largest island, within Indonesia, only Sumatra, Borneo and Papua are larger in territory, and only Java and Sumatra have larger populations. The landmass of Sulawesi includes four peninsulas, the northern Minahasa Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the South Peninsula, the Strait of Makassar runs along the western side of the island and separates the island from Borneo. The name Sulawesi possibly comes from the words sula and besi, the term sula also means tines, horn or spikes, derived from Sanskrit, as trishula refer to trident. Thus sulawesi means iron spikes, which suggested that the island was also a producer of iron edged weapons, the name came into common use in English following Indonesian independence. The name Celebes was originally given to the island by Portuguese explorers and it is widely considered a Portuguese rendering of the native name Sulawesi. Sulawesi is the worlds eleventh-largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km2, the central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the islands peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The three bays that divide Sulawesis peninsulas are, from north to south, the Tomini, the Tolo and these separate the Minahassa or Northern Peninsula, the East Peninsula, the Southeast Peninsula and the South Peninsula. The Strait of Makassar runs along the side of the island. The island is surrounded by Borneo to the west, by the Philippines to the north, by Maluku to the east, the Selayar Islands make up a peninsula stretching southwards from Southwest Sulawesi into the Flores Sea are administratively part of Sulawesi. All the above-mentioned islands, and many smaller ones, are part of Sulawesis six provinces. The island slopes up from the shores of the seas surrounding the island to a high, mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern Minahassa Peninsula, stretching north to the Sangihe Islands, the northern peninsula contains several active volcanoes such as Mount Lokon, Mount Awu, Soputan and Karangetang. Because of its several tectonic origin, faults scar the land, as a result, Sulawesi, in contrast to most of the other islands in the biogeographical region of Wallacea, is not truly oceanic, but a composite island at the centre of the Asia-Australia collision zone. Parts of the island were attached to either the Asian or Australian continental margin. In the west, the opening of the Makassar Strait separated West Sulawesi from Sundaland in the Eocene c.45 Mya. Before October 2014, the settlement of South Sulawesi by modern humans had been dated to c.30,000 BC on the basis of dates obtained from rock shelters in Maros. Initial settlement was probably around the mouth of the Sadan river, on the northwest coast of the peninsula, although the south coast has also been suggested
21.
Sumatra
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Sumatra is a large island in western Indonesia that is part of the Sunda Islands. It is the largest island that is entirely in Indonesia and the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2, Sumatra is an elongated landmass spanning a diagonal northwest-southeast axis. The Indian Ocean borders the west, northwest, and southwest sides of Sumatra with the chain of Simeulue, Nias. On the northeast side the narrow Strait of Malacca separates the island from the Malay Peninsula, on the southeast the narrow Sunda Strait separates Sumatra from Java. The northern tip of Sumatra borders the Andaman Islands, while on the eastern side are the islands of Bangka and Belitung, Karimata Strait. The Bukit Barisan mountains, which several active volcanoes, form the backbone of the island, while the northeast sides are outlying lowlands with swamps, mangrove. The equator crosses the island at its center on West Sumatra, the climate of the island is tropical, hot and humid with lush tropical rain forest once dominating the landscape. Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Swarnadwīpa and Swarnabhūmi, the first word mentioning the name of Sumatra was the name of Srivijayan Haji Sumatrabhumi, who sent an envoy to China in 1017. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, late in the 14th century the name Sumatra became popular in reference to the kingdom of Samudra Pasai, which was a rising power until it was replaced by Sultanate of Aceh. Sultan Alauddin Shah of Aceh, on letters written in 1602 addressed to Queen Elizabeth I of England, referred to himself as king of Aceh, the word itself is from Sanskrit Samudra, meaning gathering together of waters, sea or ocean. European writers in the 19th century found that the inhabitants did not have a name for the island. The Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya, Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centred in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region trade and conquest throughout the 7th to 9th centuries. The empire was a thalassocracy or maritime power that extended its influence from island to island, Palembang was a center for scholarly learning, and it was there the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching studied Sanskrit in 671 CE before departing for India. On his journey to China, he spent four years in Palembang translating Buddhist texts, Srivijayan influence waned in the 11th century after it was defeated by the Chola Empire of southern India. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra through Arabs, by the late 13th century, the monarch of the Samudra kingdom had converted to Islam. Marco Polo visited the island in 1292, and Ibn Battuta visited twice during 1345–1346, Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states fell under their control
22.
Kalimantan
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Kalimantan is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It comprises 73% of the islands area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are Brunei and East Malaysia. In Indonesian, the term Kalimantan refers to the island of Borneo. It consists of the two words kal and manthan, the word Kalamanthana is spelled Kalmantan, and then the indigenous people fixed it into Klemantan. The Indonesian territory makes up 73% of the island by area, the non-Indonesian parts of Borneo are of Brunei and East Malaysia, the latter comprising the states of Sabah, Sarawak and the federal territory of Labuan. The region within Indonesia is also known as Indonesian Borneo, kalimantans total area is 544,150 square kilometres. Kalimantan is divided into five provinces, 1)North Kalimantan split off East Kalimantan with resulting population, languages of Kalimantan Kalimantan travel guide from Wikivoyage
23.
Illegal logging
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Illegal logging is the harvest, transportation, purchase or sale of timber in violation of laws. Illegality may also occur during transport, such as processing and export, fraudulent declaration to customs, the avoidance of taxes and other charges. Illegal logging is a problem, causing enormous damage to forests, local communities. Therefore, a basis for normative acts against timber imports or other products manufactured out of illegal wood is missing. Scientific methods to pinpoint the origin of timber are currently under development. Possible actions to restrict imports cannot meet with WTO regulations of non-discrimination and they must instead be arranged in bilateral agreements. TRAFFIC, the wildlife monitoring network, strives to monitor the illegal trade of timber and provide expertise in policy. It is estimated that illegal logging on public land alone causes losses in assets, available figures and estimates must be treated with caution. On the other hand, environmental NGOs publish alarming figures to raise awareness, however, for many countries, NGOs are the only source of information apart from state institutions, which probably clearly underestimate the true figures. For example, the Republic of Estonia calculated a rate of 1% illegally harvested timber in 2003, in Latvia, the situation is comparable, anecdotal evidence points towards 25% of logging being illegal. Illegal logging contributes to deforestation and by extension global warming, causes loss of biodiversity, Illegal logging has serious economic and social implications for the poor and disadvantaged with millions of dollars worth of timber revenue being lost each year. This unfair competition affects those European companies, especially the small and medium-sized companies that are behaving responsibly, a joint UK-Indonesian study of the timber industry in Indonesia in 1998 suggested that about 40% of throughput was illegal, with a value in excess of $365 million. More recent estimates, comparing legal harvesting against known domestic consumption plus exports, malaysia is the key transit country for illegal wood products from Indonesia. In Brazil, 80% of logging in the Amazon violates government controls, at the core of illegal logging is widespread corruption. Often referred to as ‘green gold’, mahogany can fetch over US$1,600 m-3, Illegal mahogany facilitates the illegal logging of other species, and widespread exploitation of the Brazilian Amazon. Recent Greenpeace investigations in the Brazilian state of Pará reveal just how deeply rooted the problem remains, no reliable legal chain of custody exists for mahogany, and the key players in its trade are ruthless. The World Bank estimates that 80% of logging operations are illegal in Bolivia and 42% in Colombia,10 while in Peru, WWF estimates that illegal logging in Russia is at least 20%, reaching up to 50% in its far eastern regions. Between 50% and 90% of logging from the key countries in these regions is being carried out by organised criminal entities, the East Asia Forest Law Enforcement and Governance Ministerial Conference took place in Bali in September 2001
24.
Terra satellite
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Terra is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit around the Earth. It is the flagship of the Earth Observing System, the name Terra comes from the Latin word for Earth. The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on December 18,1999, aboard an Atlas IIAS vehicle and it was placed into a near-polar, sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 705km, with a 10, 30am descending node. Studies have used instruments on Terra to examine trends in global carbon monoxide, the data collected by Terra will ultimately become a new, 15-year global data set. In June and October 2008 the spacecraft was targeted by hackers who gained unauthorized access to its command and control systems, aqua Aura Man-made structures visible from space NASA Terra site
25.
Borneo
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Borneo is the third-largest island in the world and the largest island in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, the island is politically divided among three countries, Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to the south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on an island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei, located on the north coast, antipodal to an area of Amazon rainforest, Borneo is itself home to one of the oldest rainforests in the world, and to Bornean orangutans. The island is known by names, internationally it is known as Borneo, after Brunei. The name Brunei possibly was derived from the Sanskrit word váruṇa, meaning either ocean or the mythological Varuna. Indonesian natives called it Kalimantan, which was derived from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana, prior to that the island was also known by other names. In 977 Chinese records began to use the term Po-ni to refer to Borneo or Brunei, in 1225 it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua. The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, to the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia, Java and Sulawesi, to the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of 743,330 square kilometres, it is the third-largest island in the world and its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m. The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan, with a length of 1,143 km, other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan, the Barito in South Kalimantan, and Rajang in Sarawak. Clearwater Cave, for example, has one of the worlds longest underground rivers, deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over 100 metres deep. The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula, the Borneo rainforest is 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees,221 species of mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo and it is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals. The Borneo rainforest is one of the few remaining habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan
26.
Climate change
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Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in weather conditions. Climate change is caused by such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics. Certain human activities have also identified as significant causes of recent climate change. Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations, more recent data are provided by the instrumental record. The most general definition of change is a change in the statistical properties of the climate system when considered over long periods of time. Accordingly, fluctuations over periods shorter than a few decades, such as El Niño, the term climate change is often used to refer specifically to anthropogenic climate change. Anthropogenic climate change is caused by activity, as opposed to changes in climate that may have resulted as part of Earths natural processes. In this sense, especially in the context of environmental policy, within scientific journals, global warming refers to surface temperature increases while climate change includes global warming and everything else that increasing greenhouse gas levels affect. A related term is climatic change, in 1966, the World Meteorological Organization proposed the term climatic change to encompass all forms of climatic variability on time-scales longer than 10 years, regardless of cause. Change was a given and climatic was used as an adjective to describe this kind of change, when it was realized that human activities had a potential to drastically alter the climate, the term climate change replaced climatic change as the dominant term to reflect an anthropogenic cause. Climate change was incorporated in the title of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate change, used as a noun, became an issue rather than the technical description of changing weather. On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the Sun and this energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions. Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or forcing mechanisms, there are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings. There are also key factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change. Forcing mechanisms can be internal or external. Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the system itself
27.
REDD
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Most of the key REDD+ decisions were completed by 2013, with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015. In the last two decades, various studies estimate that land use change, including deforestation and forest degradation, for this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC. What remained on forestry was Afforestation and Reforestation, sectoral scope 14 of the CDM, under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species. In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the Afforestation and Reforestation scope of the CDM, the cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake. Beyond the CDM, all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests, the United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests. COP11 entered the request to consider the document as agenda item 6, REDD received substantial attention from the UNFCCC – and the attending community – at COP13, December 2007, where the first substantial decision on REDD+ was adopted, Decision 2/CP. Perhaps more interestingly, REDD+ was also referenced in decision 1/CP.13, the call for demonstration activities in decision 2/CP. All of these were based on guidance from the UNFCCC. In 2009 at COP15, decision 4/CP, specifically, the national forest monitoring system was introduced, with elements of measurement, reporting and verification. A year later at COP16 decision 1/CP.16 was adopted and these safeguards were introduced to ensure that implementation of REDD+ at the national level would not lead to detrimental effects for the environment or the local population. Countries are required to provide summaries of information on how these safeguards are implemented throughout the three phases of REDD+, details are provided on preparation and submission of reference levels and guidance on providing information on safeguards. In December 2013, COP19 produced no fewer than seven decisions on REDD+, with these decisions the overall framework for REDD+ implementation appears to be complete, although many details still need to be provided. COP20 in December 2014 did not produce any new decisions on REDD+, a reference was made to REDD+ in decision 8/CP. Finally, the remaining outstanding decisions on REDD+ were completed at COP21 in 2015, with the conclusion of decisions on reporting on the safeguards, non-market approaches, and non-carbon benefits, the UNFCCC rulebook on REDD+ was completed. All countries were encouraged to implement and support REDD+in Article 5 of the Paris Agreement. This was part of a broader Article that specified that all countries should take action to protect and enhance their greenhouse gas sinks, the approach detailed under the UNFCCC is commonly referred to as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, abbreviated as REDD+. This title and the acronyms, however, are not used by the COP itself, the name for the agenda item was also used at COP13 in Bali, December 2007.16. At COP19 the titles of decisions 9 and 12 refer back to decision 1/CP.16, paragraph 70 and appendix I respectively, while the other decisions only mention the topic under consideration
28.
Center for Global Development
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The Center for Global Development is a U. S. nonprofit think tank based in Washington, D. C. that focuses on international development. It was founded in November 2001 by former senior U. S. official Edward W. Scott, director of the Peterson Institute for International Economics, C. Birdsall, the former Vice President of the Inter-American Development Bank and former Director of the Policy Research Department at the World Bank, became the Centers first President. Lawrence Summers was unanimously elected in March 2014 by the CGD Board of Directors to succeed founding Board Chair Edward Scott, CGD was ranked the 13th most prominent think tank in the international development sphere by University of Pennsylvanias 2015 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report. In 2009, Foreign Policy Magazines Think-Tank Index listed CGD as one of the top 15 overall think-tanks in the USA, the Center considers itself to be a think and do tank, with an emphasis on producing research that is channeled into practical policy proposals. CGD is well known for leading debt-relief programs, specifically in Nigeria and Liberia, CGD Vice President Todd Moss first proposed the Nigerian debt buy-back, which resulted in the Paris Club of rich nations forgiving 60% of $31 billion of debt. Former CGD senior fellow Steve Radelet advised Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf and her senior advisors on debt relief, CGD is also known for creating the program called advance market commitments to encourage vaccine development for specific diseases. The G7 endorsed the approach and the Gates Foundation and five countries gave $1.5 billion to create a vaccine against strains of pneumonia, in cooperation with Foreign Policy, CGD has published the Commitment to Development Index since 2003. The annual index ranks countries based on how their foreign aid, trade, migration, investment, environment, security, CGD in Europe research initiatives include Europe Beyond Aid, Development Impact Bonds, and Illicit Financial Flows. In November 2013, CGD purchased a new headquarters includes a 170-seat state-of-the-art conference center, a 60-seat boardroom/ideas lab. CGD conducts research within a range of topics that impact global poverty, topics include aid effectiveness, education, globalization and global health, as well as the impact of trade and migration on development. The Center is well known for its research on aid effectiveness, CGD President Nancy Birdsall recently developed Cash on Delivery Aid, an initiative aimed to improve aid effectiveness by focusing foreign aid on outcomes, not inputs. In 2008, CGD produced a compilation of essays edited by Nancy Birdsall called The White House and these essays give policy recommendations to solve international problems, such as global health, foreign aid policy, migration, global warming and foreign direct investment. CGD recently published a report on the dangers of drug resistance in “The Race against Drug Resistance, When Medicines Fail”, which the Global Health team launched on June 14,2010. The Centers Migration and Development Initiative aims to study the labor movement has not only on the receiving country, but also on the country of origin. However, they argue that the misperception that development is about places rather than people often leads policymakers as well as economists to ignore the benefits to the migrants themselves. Rich countries immigration policies are also a factor in the Commitment to Development Index, CGD has advocated for temporary visas for Haitians to seasonally work in US agriculture and participated in an initiative to that end. In 2016, they issued a report on how policymakers can manage migration between the United States and Mexico to the benefit of both countries, in addition to print publications, CGD maintains several blogs, including Views From the Center and the Global Health Policy blog
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Monitoring (medicine)
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In medicine, monitoring is the observation of a disease, condition or one or several medical parameters over time. It can be performed by continuously measuring certain parameters by using a monitor, and/or by repeatedly performing medical tests. Transmitting data from a monitor to a distant monitoring station is known as telemetry or biotelemetry, a small monitor worn by an ambulatory patient for this purpose is known as a Holter monitor. Cardiac monitoring can also involve cardiac output monitoring via an invasive Swan-Ganz catheter, hemodynamic monitoring, which monitors the blood pressure and blood flow within the circulatory system. Blood pressure can be measured either invasively through a blood pressure transducer assembly. Also, there are special patient monitors which incorporate the monitoring of brain waves, gas concentrations, bispectral index. They are usually incorporated into anesthesia machines, in neurosurgery intensive care units, brain EEG monitors have a larger multichannel capability and can monitor other physiological events, as well. Blood glucose monitoring Childbirth monitoring Body temperature monitoring through an adhesive pad containing a thermoelectric transducer and these allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being continuously informed of the changes in general condition of a patient. Some monitors can even warn of pending fatal cardiac conditions before visible signs are noticeable to clinical staff, a medical monitor or physiological monitor is a medical device used for monitoring. It can consist of one or more sensors, processing components, display devices, sensors of medical monitors include biosensors and mechanical sensors. Besides the tracings of physiological parameters along time, digital medical displays have automated numeric readouts of the peak and/or average parameters displayed on the screen, old analog patient displays, in contrast, were based on oscilloscopes, and had one channel only, usually reserved for electrocardiographic monitoring. Therefore, medical monitors tended to be highly specialized, one monitor would track a patients blood pressure, while another would measure pulse oximetry, another the ECG. Later analog models had a second or third channel displayed in the screen, usually to monitor respiration movements. Ambulatory telemetry can also be achieved by portable, battery-operated models which are carried by the patient and this newer method of charting patient data reduces the likelihood of human documentation error and will eventually reduce overall paper consumption. In addition, automated ECG interpretation incorporates diagnostic codes automatically into the charts, long-distance connectivity can avail for telemedicine, which involves provision of clinical health care at a distance. A medical monitor can also have the function to produce an alarm to alert the staff when certain criteria are set, an entirely new scope is opened with mobile carried monitors, even such in sub-skin carriage. This class of monitors delivers information gathered in body-area networking to e. g. smart phones, monitoring of clinical parameters is primarily intended to detect changes in the clinical status of an individual. For example, the parameter of oxygen saturation is usually monitored to detect changes in respiratory capability of an individual, when monitoring a clinical parameters, differences between test results can reflect either an actual change in the status of the condition or a test-retest variability of the test method
30.
Palm oil
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Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit. The differences are in color, and in saturated fat content, palm oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature, Palm oil is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost. In 2004, a group called the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil was formed to work with the palm oil industry to address these concerns. It is believed that traders brought the oil palm to Egypt, Palm oil from E. guineensiss has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and is widely used as a cooking oil. European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as an oil in Europe. Palm oil became a highly sought-after commodity by British traders, for use as a lubricant for machinery during Britains Industrial Revolution. Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers Sunlight soap, by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically, of the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source of tocotrienol, part of the vitamin E family. The approximate concentration of fatty acids in palm oil is, Red palm oil is rich in carotenes, such as alpha-carotene, beta-carotene and lycopene, many processed foods either contain palm oil or various ingredients derived from it. After milling, various oil products are made using refining processes. First is fractionation, with crystallization and separation processes to obtain solid, then melting and degumming removes impurities. Then the oil is filtered and bleached, RBDPO is the basic palm oil product sold on the worlds commodity markets. Many companies fractionate it further to produce palm olein for cooking oil, since the mid-1990s, red palm oil has been cold-pressed and bottled for use as cooking oil, and blended into mayonnaise and salad oil
31.
Papua (province)
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Special Region of Papua is the largest and easternmost province of Indonesia, comprising most of western New Guinea. Papua is bordered by the nation of Papua New Guinea to the east and it was formerly called Irian Jaya and comprised all of Indonesian New Guinea. In 2002 the current name was adopted and in 2003 West Papua province was created from parts of Papua province. Papua is the official Indonesian and internationally recognised name for the province, during the Dutch colonial era the region was known as part of Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea. Since its annexation in 1969, it known as West Irian or Irian Barat until 1973. This was the name until the name Papua was adopted in 2002. Today, the inhabitants of this province prefer to call themselves Papuans. The name West Papua was adopted in 1961 by the New Guinea Council until the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority transferred administration to the Republic of Indonesia in 1963. West Papua has since used by Papuans as a self-identifying term, especially by those demanding self-determination. The other Indonesian province that shares New Guinea, West Irian Jaya, has been renamed as West Papua. The entire western New Guinea is often referred to as West Papua internationally – especially among networks of solidarity with the West Papuan independence movement. The province of Papua is governed by an elected governor. Nevertheless, the agreement with the UN was nominally upheld, and was recognised by the community in spite of protests. This intensified the movement among indigenous West Papuans, deepening the Papua conflict. The conflict has continued to the present, with Indonesian security forces being accused of human rights abuses in their suppression of the independence movement. The Indonesian government maintains control over the region, barring foreign journalists or rights monitors from entering. In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests, in January 2003 President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces, Central Irian Jaya, Papua, and West Papua. The creation of this separate Central Irian Jaya Province was blocked by Indonesian courts, the previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact
32.
Deforestation in Borneo
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In the 1980s and 1990s the forests of Borneo underwent a dramatic transition. They were levelled at a rate unparalleled in history, burned, logged and cleared. Half of the annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Furthermore, palm oil plantations are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest, much of the forest clearance is illegal. The Borneo mountain rainforests lie in the highlands of the island. These areas represent habitat for endangered species, such as orangutans and elephants. As well as Borneos importance in biodiversity conservation and as a carbon sink, the Malaysian states of Sarawak and Sabah, in the north, occupy about 26% of the island. The forested area here shrank rapidly due to heavy logging for the Malaysian plywood industry, indigenous peoples of Malaysia have been impacted by logging without their free, prior and informed consent in their ancestral forests. They have used peaceful demonstrations and social media advocacy to raise awareness of their rights to the forest, questions about how and why logging licenses were granted without community consent remain unaddressed. During the great fire, hotspots could be seen on satellite images, in February 2008, the Malaysian government announced the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy plan to harvest the virgin hinterlands of northern Borneo. Further deforestation and destruction of the biodiversity are anticipated in the wake of logging commissions, hydroelectric dams and other mining of minerals and resources. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory, the Indonesian name for the island, the Mega Rice Project was initiated in 1996 in the southern sections of Kalimantan. The goal was to one million hectares of unproductive and sparsely populated peat swamp forest into rice paddies in an effort to alleviate Indonesias growing food shortage. The government made an investment in constructing irrigation canals and removing trees. The project did not succeed, and was abandoned after causing considerable damage to the environment. The peat swamp forest in the south of Kalimantan is an ecology that is home to many unique or rare species such as orangutans, as well as to slow-growing. Peat is a store of carbon. If broken down and burned it contributes to CO2 emissions, considered a source of global warming, the water channels, and the roads and railways built for legal forestry, opened up the region to illegal forestry
33.
Deforestation in Papua New Guinea
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Deforestation in Papua New Guinea has been extensive in recent decades and is continuing at an estimated rate of 1. 4% of tropical forest being lost annually. Deforestation in Papua New Guinea is mainly a result of illegal logging, illegal logging is linked to corruption, environmental issues and human rights concerns. The exportation of timber and the licensing of logging activity in Papua New Guinea is managed by the Papua New Guinea Forestry Authority, the PNG Government is interested in turning the asset into carbon trading revenue through the REDD programme. PNG’s logging industry negatively affects food sources, water supply and the property of communities. On 28 May 2010 PNG’s Parliament amended the Environment and Conservation Act, the land equates to over 11% of the country and over 16% of accessible commercial forests. In 2011 forestry exports grew by approximately 20%, almost solely due to logging within SPABLS, there has been a marked increase in deforestation of primary forests particularly for palm oil through SPABLs. According to the report, 75% of the SPABLS are held by foreign owned companies, particularly based in Malaysia and Australia. The government also ordered a Commission of Inquiry into the granting of SPABLs. The findings of the report are expected to be tabled before parliament in August 2012, the logging industry has influence in PNG through political donations, public sponsorship, lobbying and media ownership. According to the governmental report corruption included bribery, non-compliance with regulations, extensive violations of landowners’ rights, logging industry provide a ground for arms smuggling. There are human rights abuses of the forest communities and labour, a review of fourteen logging operations 2001-2006 was highly critical, with the exception of a Japanese company. Forest minister, Belden Namah, addressed logging and corruption in the parliament for the first time in 2008 and he found that many responsible persons for monitoring forestry operations had ignored the law and were ‘in the pockets’ of logging companies. He suspended two forestry licences and announced that no permits are to be issued for log exports after 2010, unnamed PNG politicians are linked in the media to US$45 million in a Singapore bank account, allegedly money earned through secret logging deals. Malaysian timber conglomerate Rimbunan Hijau is one of the logging companies. In October 2008 it admitted in court that it had been awarded logging rights in PNG illegally, operating subsidiary of Rimbunan Hijau include Wawoi Guavi Timbers. There is no domestic policy or legislation on carbon trading in PNG, the Office for Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability was created in 2008 under the Prime Minister’s Office, to manage the REDD funds. In March 2008 PNG signed an agreement with Australia to cooperate on REDD, in 2009 the OCCES issued certificates for at least 40 future REDD credits for 1 million tonnes of carbon each. One of the projects is in the 800,000 hectares of virgin rainforest in Kamula Duso, the controversies and complexity pose management and governance challenges
34.
Environmental issues in Indonesia
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Deforestation and the destruction of peatlands make Indonesia the worlds third largest emitter of greenhouse gases. For centuries, the resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the worst virtual disappearance of the fish in some areas. Effluent from fertiliser plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry, the danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait. The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland, soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and into the sea. As Indonesian fishermen improved their technological capacity to catch fish, they threatened the total supply. The 1997 Indonesian forest fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra caused the 1997 Southeast Asian haze and it was a large-scale air quality disaster. The total costs are estimated at US$9 billion to care, air travel. In 2013, the air quality in Singapore sank to its lowest in 15 years due to smoke from Sumatran fires, Singapore urged Indonesia to do more to prevent illegal burning. A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s among the peasants living in the plains. Rising population densities and the consequent demand for arable land gave rise to soil erosion, deforestation due to the need for firewood. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in areas and poisoned fish ponds. Major problems faced the mountainous regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, in 1983 some 30,000 km2 of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10 billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. In many areas of Kalimantan large sections of forest were cleared, although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. The use of fires to clear land for agriculture has contributed to Indonesia being the third largest emitter of greenhouse gases, after China. Forest fires destroy carbon sinks in old-growth rainforests and peatlands, one such monitoring system is the Center for Global Developments Forest Monitoring for Action platform, which currently displays monthly-updating data on deforestation throughout Indonesia
35.
1997 Indonesian forest fires
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The 1997 group of forest fires in Indonesia that lasted well into 1998 were probably among the two or three, if not the largest forest fires group in the last two centuries of recorded history. In the middle of 1997 forest fires burning in Indonesia began to affect neighbouring countries, spreading thick clouds of smoke and haze to Malaysia and this is to mitigate the effect of the Haze to Malaysia economy. The value of the Haze damage to Malaysian GDP is estimated to be 0.30 per cent, seasonal rains in early December brought a brief respite but soon after the dry conditions and fires returned. By 1998 Brunei and to a lesser extent Thailand, Vietnam, by the time the 1997-98 forest fires were finally over some 8 million hectares of land had burned while countless millions of people suffered from air pollution. The 1997 Indonesian forest fires were caused mainly by slash and burn techniques adopted by farmers in Indonesia, slash and burn has been extensively used for many years as the cheapest and easiest means to clear the lands for traditional agriculture. Fire may also be used as a weapon to claim property on the islands and provinces where land ownership is not clear. After burning out its previous owner, the smallholder or large operator plants their own crops there, during the fire season, dry fuels readily ignite and lead to large wild fires. In cases like this, fire suppression can be very difficult, NASA has linked El Niño to then that causes drier conditions in much of Indonesia. Historically its arrival has been welcomed as time of bounty when mass fruiting of Dipterocarp trees spawn a boom in wildlife activity and bring prosperity to indigenous seed collectors. Underlying and perhaps more far-reaching contributors to this shift in use and agriculture are the use of old woods, such as mahogany and teak. Both are considered unsustainable and though not directly linked to the catastrophic forest fires, the total economic value of the damages are conservatively estimated to be US$4.47 billion by far the largest share of which borne by Indonesia herself. This figure excludes a number of damages that are difficult to measure or to value in monetary terms, such as loss of human life, long term health impacts
36.
The Burning Season (2008 film)
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The Burning Season is a documentary about the burning of rainforests in Indonesia which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2008. Every year, there is a season in Indonesia. Areas of rainforest the size of Denmark are cut down and set alight by farmers, a 30-year-old Australian environmental entrepreneur, Dorjee Sun, sets out to find a solution. Using expertise gained during the boom, Dorjee forms a small carbon-trading firm. His idea involves selling the carbon credits represented by large forest areas in Aceh, despite the scepticism surrounding carbon trading, Dorjee’s quest for a ‘big deal’ takes him from Sydney to New York, Washington DC, San Jose, San Francisco and London. Meanwhile, another burning season is underway, achmadi, a small-scale Indonesian farmer, sets fire to his newly acquired piece of forest to clear it for palm oil. But he too has to face up to the impact of his burning on the global climate, and in Borneo, Danish-born Lone Drøscher-Nielsen rescues and cares for orangutans injured or orphaned by the fires. As she prepares for the release of rehabilitated orangutans back into the wild, everything hinges on whether all the countries of the world can agree on the wording of a new climate change protocol and whether protection of forests will be included. As the drama of this historic moment plays out, Dorjee relentlessly pursues his deal, is he a pioneer or a profiteer. What value does his concept offer to the forests of the world. The film was updated in 2009 with a new ending which included the impacts of the financial crisis. The film had a release in Australia and a digital release in the USA through FilmBuff. The DVD remains widely used in the education sector, the production attracted philanthropic support through the Documentary Australia Foundation, including from an unnamed Melbourne family trust. Broadcast partners were ABC, BBC and CBC with National Geographic as distributor, financial support was also provided by the Film Finance Corporation Australia, the NSW Film and TV Office and the Australian Film Commission. A total production budget of $755,529 was raised, deforestation in Indonesia Social and environmental impact of palm oil Asian brown haze Rise of the Eco-Warriors Cathy Henkels latest film, also about the forests of Indonesia. The Burning Season website The Burning Season at the Internet Movie Database
37.
Asia Pulp & Paper
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Asia Pulp & Paper, also known in the paper industry as APP, based in Jakarta, Indonesia, is one of the largest pulp and paper companies in the world. Asia Pulp & Paper has its roots in 1972, when Eka Tjipta Widjaja founded a small caustic soda manufacturer called Tjiwi Kimia, in 1978, Tjiwi Kimia commenced paper production of 12,000 tons/year. In December 1976, Indah Kiat was formed as a joint venture between CV Berkat, Chung Hwa Pulp Corporation and Yuen Foong Yu Paper Manufacturing Company Ltd. from Taiwan. In April 1979, Indah Kiat Tangerang mills Paper Machine 1 and 2 started with a production of 100 tons/day of wood free paper, by March 1984, Indah Kiat Perawang mills Pulp Machine 1 started producing bleached hardwood kraft pulp with an initial capacity of 250 tons/day. In May 1986, Sinar Mas Group acquired 67% of Indah Kiats total shares by the order of Singgih Wahab Kwik, Chung Hwa and Yuen Foong Yu had 23% and 10% shares respectively. In 1987, the first cast coating machine installed at Tjiwi Kimia, in 1991, Tjiwi Kimias PM9 started operation with an annual capacity of 207,000 tons. The following year, Indah Kiat acquired PT Sinar Dunia Makmur, Tjiwi Kimia commissioned the Carbonless Paper Plant in March 1993 as an experiment. The company Pindo Deli under control of CPP in February 1994, in 1998, paper machine No.11 started tissue production in Pindo Deli with annual production capacity of 400,000 tons started to operate. APP-China began investing in China in 1992, with an emphasis on the Yangtze, aPP-Chinas pulp and paper mills now include Ningbo Zhonghua, Goldeast Paper, Ningbo Asia, Gold Huasheng, Gold Hongye, Hainan Jinhai Pulp and Paper, and Guangxi Jingui Pulp & Paper. APP-China was registered in Singapore in October 1994, aPP-China employs over 37,000 people and created 5,000 new jobs in 2009. On 4 January 2016, Asia Pulp and Paper announced that it had hired Jose Raymond as its Vice President of Corporate Affairs, Indah Kiat Perawang is APPs largest pulp mill in Indonesia. Pulp is sold to APP paper mills in Indonesia and China, Indah Kiat Perawang was increasing its pulp production from ~2 million tonnes in 2009 to an estimated ~2.3 million in 2010–2011. In 1994, the company moved its headquarters from Indonesia to Singapore and it was soon heavily leveraged, from 1996 to 1998, it only produced 1.5 times as much cash flow as its interest costs. In March 2001, during the Asian Debt Crises, it defaulted on its debt, various NGOs have criticized APP on environmental grounds. According to a Friends of the Earth report from 2005, APP has cleared over 280,000 hectares of rainforest in the past decade, and planned to cut another 300,000 over the next five years. The company has been at the center of environmental controversies and has been accused of being involved in illegal logging in Cambodia. The company is known for defaulting on debt repayments in 2001. Despite the failure of the WWF partnership, APP entered into a partnership with Rainforest Alliance in 2005
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Friends of the Earth
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Friends of the Earth International is an international network of environmental organizations in 74 countries. FOTE main mission was to lock up and prevent further development of nuclear energy and their first employee was Amory Lovins, who kicked off FOE in the UK. It became a network in 1971 with a meeting of representatives from the U. S. Sweden. For further historical details, see articles on the national FOE organizations, FoEI is assisted by a small secretariat which provides support for the network and its agreed major campaigns. The executive committee of elected representatives from national groups sets policy, in 2016, Uruguayan activist Karin Nansen was elected to serve as chair of Friends of the Earth International. Friends of the Earth considers environmental issues in their social, political and their campaigns stretch beyond the traditional arena of the conservation movement and seek to address the economic and development aspects of sustainability. Originally based largely in North America and Europe, its membership is now heavily weighted toward groups in the developing world, in addition to the priority campaign areas Friends of the Earth International has a number of other campaign areas which are active internationally. S. The groups and activists at all levels also carry out educational and these are conditions of remaining a member of FOEI. The national groups work on the issues affecting their own country. In turn, the local campaigners can work on local, national and/or international campaigns, the member organization in a particular country may name itself Friends of the Earth or an equivalent translated phrase in the national language, e. g. Friends of the Earth, Friends of the Earth, Amigos de la Tierra, Friends of the Earth International is supported by a secretariat based in Amsterdam, and an executive committee known as ExCom. The ExCom is elected by all member groups at a meeting held every two years, and it is the ExCom which employs the secretariat. At the same meeting, overall policies and priority activities are agreed. Diet for a Small Planet by Frances Moore Lappé,1971 The Meat Atlas is a report on the methods. The publication consists of 27 short essays and, with the help of graphs, the Meat Atlas is jointly published by Friends of the Earth and Heinrich Böll Foundation. Rock musician George Harrison became associated with Friends of the Earth after attending their anti-nuclear demonstrations in London in 1980 and he dedicated his 1989 greatest hits album, Best of Dark Horse, to Friends of the Earth, among other environmental organisations. Jay Kay, frontman of the jazz group Jamiroquai, is known for donating a part of the profits earned from his album sales to Friends of the Earth and Oxfam. Dominique Voynet, who ran in the 1995 and 2007 French presidential elections in the les verts parti, thom Yorke, lead singer of Radiohead, has publicly supported a number of Friends of the Earth campaigns
39.
The Sydney Morning Herald
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The Sydney Morning Herald is a daily compact newspaper published by Fairfax Media in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1831 as the Sydney Herald, the SMH is the oldest continuously published newspaper in Australia, the newspaper is published six days a week. It is available at outlets in Sydney, regional New South Wales, Canberra, the Sydney Morning Herald includes a variety of supplements, including the magazines Good Weekend, and Sunday Life. By February 2016, average circulation had fallen to 104,000, similarWeb rates the site as the fifth most visited news website in Australia and as the 42nd newspapers website globally, attracting more than 15 million visitors per month. In 1931 a Centenary Supplement was published, the original four-page weekly had a print run of 750. In 1840, the newspaper began to publish daily, in 1841, an Englishman named John Fairfax purchased the operation, renaming it The Sydney Morning Herald the following year. Fairfax, whose family were to control the newspaper for almost 150 years, based his editorial policies upon principles of candour, honesty and we have no wish to mislead, no interest to gratify by unsparing abuse or indiscriminate approbation. During the decade 1890, Donald Murray worked there, the SMH was late to the trend of printing news rather than just advertising on the front page, doing so from 15 April 1944. Of the countrys metropolitan dailies, only The West Australian was later in making the switch, in 1949, the newspaper launched a Sunday edition, The Sunday Herald. Four years later, this was merged with the newly acquired Sun newspaper to create The Sun-Herald, in 1995, the company launched the newspapers web edition smh. com. au. The site has grown to include interactive and multimedia features beyond the content in the print edition. Around the same time, the organisation moved from Jones Street to new offices at Darling Park and built a new printing press at Chullora, the SMH has since moved with other Sydney Fairfax divisions to a building at Darling Island. In May 2007, Fairfax Media announced it would be moving from a format to the smaller compact or tabloid-size, in the footsteps of The Times. Fairfax Media dumped these plans later in the year, however, in June 2012, Fairfax Media again announced it planned to shift both broadsheet newspapers to tabloid size, in March 2013. Fairfax also announced it would cut staff across the group by 1,900 over three years and erect paywalls around the papers websites. The subscription type is to be a model, limiting readers to a number of free stories per month, with a payment required for further access. In July 2013 it was announced that the SMHs news director, Darren Goodsir, would become Editor-in-Chief, on 22 February 2014, the final Saturday edition was produced in broadsheet format with this too converted to compact format on 1 March 2014. Ahead of the decommissioning of the plant at Chullora in June 2014
40.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
41.
New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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Al Jazeera
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Al Jazeera, also known as JSC, is a Doha-based state-funded broadcaster owned by the Al Jazeera Media Network, which is partly funded by the House of Thani, the ruling family of Qatar. Al Jazeera is among the largest news organizations with 80 bureaus around the world, Al Jazeera is owned by the government of Qatar. While Al Jazeera officials have stated that they are independent from the government of Qatar. Nonetheless, Al Jazeera declared the exposure and denunciation of the lies which brought the State of Israel into existence as its mission, the original Al Jazeera channels willingness to broadcast dissenting views, for example on call-in shows, created controversies in the Arab States of the Persian Gulf. The station gained attention following the outbreak of war in Afghanistan. Al Jazeera has been called a propaganda outlet for the Qatari government and its policy, by analysts and by news reporters. The network is sometimes perceived to have mainly Islamist perspectives, promoting the Muslim Brotherhood, and having a pro-Sunni and it is also accused of having an anti-Western bias. However, Al Jazeera insists it covers all sides of a debate, it says it presents Israels view, Irans view, in Arabic, al-ǧazīrah literally means the island. However, it here to the Arabian Peninsula, which is شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-ğazīrah al-ʿarabiyyah. Al Jazeera Satellite Channel now known as was launched on 1 November 1996 following the closure of the BBCs Arabic language television station, a joint venture with Orbit Communications Company. The BBC channel had closed after a year and a half when the Saudi government attempted to suppress information, including a report on executions. Shares were held by investors as well as the Qatar government. Al Jazeeras first day on the air was 1 November 1996 and it offered 6 hours of programming per day, increased to 12 hours by the end of 1997. A more powerful Ku-band transponder became available as a peace-offering after its user, Canal France International, accidentally beamed 30 minutes of pornography into ultraconservative Saudi Arabia. Al Jazeera was not the first such broadcaster in the Middle East, a number had appeared since the Arabsat satellite, the unfolding of Operation Desert Storm on CNN International underscored the power of live television in current events. In presenting The opinion and the opinion, it did not take long for Al Jazeera to shock local viewers by presenting Israelis speaking Hebrew on Arab TV for the first time. Lively and far-ranging talk shows, particularly a popular, confrontational one called The Opposite Direction, were a constant source of controversy regarding issues of morality and this prompted a torrent of criticism from the conservative voices among the regions press. It also led to complaints and censures from neighboring governments
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Deforestation by region
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Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, 2/3 of the forests were in 10 top countries, 1) Russia, 2) Brazil, 3) Canada, 4) United States, 5) China, 6) Australia, 7) Congo, 8) Indonesia, 9) Peru. World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year, only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth. In addition to directly human-induced deforestation, the forests have also been affected by climate change, increasing risks of storms. Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it, Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90% of West Africas original forests, Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa. According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of forests of any continent during the 1980s, 1990s. According to the figures from the FAO, only 22. 8% of West Africas moist forests remain, Nigeria has lost 81% of its old-growth forests in just 15 years. Massive deforestation threatens food security in some African countries, one factor contributing to the continents high rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90% of its population on wood as fuel for heating and cooking. Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated logging and mining, in the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a days walk from Virunga National Park. Wood from the forests is used by many of those people as firewood, as lumber for construction. Deforestation caused by subsistence living is a threat to the park in general. The main cause of deforestation in the East African country of Ethiopia is a population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production. Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government, although the current government has taken steps to tackle deforestation. Organizations such as Farm Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest management, Ethiopia, the third largest country in Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of getting rain, which is already low, bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer, offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of wildlife, Ethiopia has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km² or 35% of Ethiopias land was covered with forests, recent reports indicate that forests cover less than 14. 2% or even only 11. 9% as of 2005
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Deforestation in Africa
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Rates and causes of deforestation vary from region to region around the world. In 2009, 2/3 of the forests were in 10 top countries, 1) Russia, 2) Brazil, 3) Canada, 4) United States, 5) China, 6) Australia, 7) Congo, 8) Indonesia, 9) Peru. World annual deforestation is estimated as 13.7 million hectares a year, only half of this area is compensated by new forests or forest growth. In addition to directly human-induced deforestation, the forests have also been affected by climate change, increasing risks of storms. Kyoto protocol includes the agreement to prevent deforestation but not the actions to fulfill it, Africa is suffering deforestation at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme. Some sources claim that deforestation has already wiped out roughly 90% of West Africas original forests, Deforestation is accelerating in Central Africa. According to the FAO, Africa lost the highest percentage of forests of any continent during the 1980s, 1990s. According to the figures from the FAO, only 22. 8% of West Africas moist forests remain, Nigeria has lost 81% of its old-growth forests in just 15 years. Massive deforestation threatens food security in some African countries, one factor contributing to the continents high rates of deforestation is the dependence of 90% of its population on wood as fuel for heating and cooking. Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated logging and mining, in the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a days walk from Virunga National Park. Wood from the forests is used by many of those people as firewood, as lumber for construction. Deforestation caused by subsistence living is a threat to the park in general. The main cause of deforestation in the East African country of Ethiopia is a population and subsequent higher demand for agriculture, livestock production. Other reasons include low education and inactivity from the government, although the current government has taken steps to tackle deforestation. Organizations such as Farm Africa are working with the federal and local governments to create a system of forest management, Ethiopia, the third largest country in Africa by population, has been hit by famine many times because of shortages of rain and a depletion of natural resources. Deforestation has lowered the chance of getting rain, which is already low, bercele Bayisa, an Ethiopian farmer, offers one example why deforestation occurs. He said that his district was forested and full of wildlife, Ethiopia has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km² or 35% of Ethiopias land was covered with forests, recent reports indicate that forests cover less than 14. 2% or even only 11. 9% as of 2005
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Deforestation in Ethiopia
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Deforestation in Ethiopia is due to locals clearing forests for their personal needs, such as for fuel, hunting, agriculture, and at times for religious reasons. The main causes of deforestation in Ethiopia are shifting agriculture, livestock production, deforestation is the process of removing the forest ecosystem by cutting the trees and changing the shape of the land to suit different uses. Among developing countries, especially in Africa, Ethiopia is exceptionally rich in history and it is home to one of the earliest ancestors of the human species, around 80 languages are spoken by various ethnic groups, and it is home to two globally important biodiversity hotspots. However, this cultural and natural heritage is threatened, especially in the form of deforestation. Ethiopia has the second largest population in Africa and has been hit by many times due to rain shortages. Deforestation may have lowered the already meagre rainfall. Growing populations are increasing deforestation which is leading the country to famine, as the population continues to grow, the needs of the people increase. The country has lost 98% of its forested regions in the last 50 years, forests in Ethiopia play a big role in protecting erosion, as tree roots protect against washouts. Trees also help to keep water in the soil and reduce global warming by uptake of carbon dioxide, because there are not enough trees, the Blue Nile is carrying all the soil and nutrients in the water to the neighboring countries of Sudan and Egypt. Historically, forests have been important for the livelihoods of the people of Ethiopia. The Ethiopian people used trees for lumber for construction, and to fuel their cooking fires and they also made traditional medicines from trees and other forest plants. Forests were also important in Ethiopian religious beliefs, the believed in holy spirits in the forest that they treat in the same way as human beings. Mitchell Page states that over 6603 plant species live in Ethiopia, at the beginning of the twentieth century around 420,000 square kilometres was covered by trees but recent research indicates that forest cover is now less than 14. 2% due to population growth. Despite the growing need for forested lands, lack of education among locals has led to a decline of forested areas. Earth trends estimated that in 2000 Ethiopia had 43,440 km² of natural forest area, compared to other East African countries Ethiopia’s deforestation rate is about average. However, the rates in East Africa are second highest of the continent. Moreover, it has the smallest fraction of its forest area designated primarily for conservation, apart from Northern Africa, East African countries show the second highest decline rates of conservation forests in the continent. In a forest resource assessment of Ethiopia, Reusing found that within 17 years high-forest cover decreased from 54,410 to 45,055 km² or from 4.75 to 3. 96% of the land area
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Deforestation in Kenya
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Deforestation in Kenya describes deforestation in Kenya. In 1963, forest covered 10% of land in Kenya and by 2006 that dropped to 1. 7%, the Kenya Forestry Working Group has estimated that Kenya will lose ca US$300 million each year by deforestation from the tourism, tea and energy sectors. Forests are basis of water catchments in Kenya and their destruction increases pressure on a population grappling with hunger, water shortage, and power shortage. Forests are important for protecting ecological diversity, regulating climate patterns, according to Nobelist Wangari Maathai 20 per cent of global warming emissions may be due to deforestation. In 2009 in Kenya’s Rift Valley 400,000 hectare Mau Forest was destroyed, between 2004 and 2006 more than 100,000 people were forcibly evicted from their homes in forested areas in Kenya. In August 2009 Kenya Forestry Service issued a 14-day eviction notice on people living in the Mau Forest, environmental issues in Kenya Corruption in Kenya
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Deforestation in Madagascar
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Deforestation in Madagascar is an ongoing environmental issue. Deforestation creates agricultural or pastoral land but can result in desertification, water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss. It has been noticed that Madagascar has lost 80 or 90% of its original or pre-human forest cover, what is certain is that the arrival of humans on Madagascar some 2000+ years ago began a process of fire, cultivation, logging and grazing that has reduced forest cover. Industrial forest exploitation during the Merina monarchy and French colonialism contributed to forest loss, evidence from air photography and remote sensing suggest that by c. 2000, around 40% to 50% of the forest cover present in 1950 was lost, current hotspots for deforestation include dry forests in the southwest being converted for maize cultivation and rain forests in the northeast exploited for tropical hardwoods. Illegal logging in Madagascar has been a problem for decades and is perpetuated by extreme poverty, often taking the form of selective logging, the trade has been driven by high international demand for expensive, fine-grained lumber such as rosewood and ebony. Historically, logging and exporting in Madagascar have been regulated by the Malagasy government, since then, government orders and memos have intermittently alternated between permitting and banning exports of precious woods. The most commonly cited reason for permitting exports is to salvage wood from cyclone damage. Despite the deforestation trend, tree cover is increasing in parts of the country, though largely of introduced species such as Eucalyptus, pine silver wattle, silky oak. Some of these trees are planted by foresters and farmers, others have become invasive of their own accord, reforestation by eucalypts, pines, and wattles has been demonstrated, for instance, in the central highlands. Reforestation efforts with native species, particularly in rainforest corridors, have had mixed success, some reforestation efforts have been conducted by Rio Tinto, a mining organization. This effort includes the set-up of 2 tree nurseries near Fort Dauphin, the nurseries are called the Rio Tinto QMMs nurseries. The nurseries plant some 600 tree species native to Madagascar, however, in 2003, Rio Tinto also announced plans to mine ilmenite in southern Madagascar. These plans included the creation of a new port, roads, mostly migrant workers would be employed, despite high levels of unemployment in the region. This unemployment and poverty drives charcoal production, which is a factor in deforestation in that region. Environment of Madagascar Forestry in Madagascar Deforestation by region
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Deforestation in Nigeria
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As of 2005, Nigeria has the highest rate of deforestation in the world according to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Between 2000 and 2005 the country lost 55. 7% of its forests. Forest has been cleared for logging, timber export, subsistence agriculture, in 200512. 2%, the equivalent of 11,089,000 hectares had been forested in Nigeria. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares of forest every year equal to an annual deforestation rate of 2. 38%. Between 1990 and 2005, in total Nigeria lost 35. 7% of its forest cover, Deforestation is a process where vegetation is cut down without any simultaneous replanting for economic or social reasons. Deforestation has negative implications on the environment in terms of erosion, loss of biodiversity ecosystems, loss of wildlife. Deforestation also has impacts on aspects of the country, specifically regarding economic issues, agriculture, conflict and most importantly. According to data taken over 2000 to 2005 Nigeria, located in the region of Africa, has the largest deforestation rates in the world. Mongabay defines primary forests as forests with no signs of past or present human activities. The annual rate of deforestation in Nigeria is 3. 5%, approximately 350, many aspects of the outline are currently not being met and will continue to have detrimental effects if not quickly addressed. A lot of damage has been done to Nigeria’s land through the processes of deforestation, desertification is the encroachment of the desert on land what was once fertile. A study conducted from 1901 to 2005 gathered that there was a increase in Nigeria of 1.1 °C. The same study found in the same period of time that the amount of rainfall in the country decreased by 81mm. It was noticed that both of these trends simultaneously had sharp changes in the 1970s, from 1990 to 2010 Nigeria nearly halved their amount of Forest Cover, moving from 17,234 to 9041 hectares. The combination of high deforestation rates, increased temperatures and decreasing rainfall are all contributing to the desertification of the country. The carbon emissions from deforestation is also said to account for 87% of the carbon emissions of the country. The numbers of the rare Cross River gorilla have decreased to around 300 individuals because of poaching by locals, although much of the motivation of deforestation stems from economic reasons it has also led to a lot of economic problems in an already unstable country. Along with economic issues, deforestation has made it so that the land is incapable of as much agricultural production which is part of many people’s survival, much of the allowance for deforestation in Nigeria comes from their demand for fuel wood
