1.
York
–
York is a historic walled city at the confluence of the rivers Ouse and Foss in North Yorkshire, England. The municipality is the county town of Yorkshire to which it gives its name. The city has a heritage and has provided the backdrop to major political events in England throughout much of its two millennia of existence. The city offers a wealth of attractions, of which York Minster is the most prominent. The city was founded by the Romans as Eboracum in 71 AD and it became the capital of the Roman province of Britannia Inferior, and later of the kingdoms of Northumbria and Jórvík. In the Middle Ages, York grew as a wool trading centre and became the capital of the northern ecclesiastical province of the Church of England. In the 19th century, York became a hub of the railway network, in recent decades, the economy of York has moved from being dominated by its confectionery and railway-related industries to one that provides services. The University of York and health services have become major employers, from 1996, the term City of York describes a unitary authority area which includes rural areas beyond the old city boundaries. In 2011 the urban area had a population of 153,717, the word York derives from the Latinised name for the city, variously rendered as Eboracum, Eburacum or Eburaci. The first mention of York by this name is dated to circa 95–104 AD as an address on a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda in Northumberland, the toponymy of Eboracum is uncertain because the language of the pre-Roman indigenous population was never recorded. They are thought to have spoken a Celtic language related to modern Welsh, in his Historia Regum Britanniae the 12th century chronicler, Geoffrey of Monmouth, suggests the name derives from that of a pre-Roman city founded by the legendary king Ebraucus. Alternatively, the word already existed as an Old English word for wild swine. The Anglo-Saxon newcomers probably interpreted the part as eofor, and -rac as ric, while -um was a common abbreviation of the Saxon -heem. To them, it sounded as a home rich in boar, as is common in Saxon place names, the -um part gradually faded, eoforic. When the Danish army conquered the city in 866, its name became Jórvík, the Old French and Norman name of the city following the Norman Conquest was recorded as Everwic in works such as Waces Roman de Rou. The form York was first recorded in the 13th century, many company and place names, such as the Ebor race meeting, refer to the Roman name. The Archbishop of York uses Ebor as his surname in his signature, archaeological evidence suggests that Mesolithic people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known whether their settlements were permanent or temporary. By the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, the area was occupied by a known to the Romans as the Brigantes
York
–
York city centre from above
York
–
Roman wall and the west corner tower of
Eboracum. The top half is medieval.
York
–
Roman Emperor Constantine the Great proclaimed Emperor at York in AD 306.
York
–
Micklegate – York is famous for its medieval city walls.
2.
Old English
–
Old English or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest historical form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers probably in the mid 5th century, Old English developed from a set of Anglo-Frisian or North Sea Germanic dialects originally spoken by Germanic tribes traditionally known as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. As the Anglo-Saxons became dominant in England, their language replaced the languages of Roman Britain, Common Brittonic, a Celtic language, Old English had four main dialects, associated with particular Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish and West Saxon. It was West Saxon that formed the basis for the standard of the later Old English period, although the dominant forms of Middle. The speech of eastern and northern parts of England was subject to strong Old Norse influence due to Scandinavian rule, Old English is one of the West Germanic languages, and its closest relatives are Old Frisian and Old Saxon. Like other old Germanic languages, it is different from Modern English. Old English grammar is similar to that of modern German, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and verbs have many inflectional endings and forms. The oldest Old English inscriptions were using a runic system. Old English was not static, and its usage covered a period of 700 years, from the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain in the 5th century to the late 11th century, some time after the Norman invasion. While indicating that the establishment of dates is a process, Albert Baugh dates Old English from 450 to 1150, a period of full inflections. Perhaps around 85 per cent of Old English words are no longer in use, Old English is a West Germanic language, developing out of Ingvaeonic dialects from the 5th century. It came to be spoken over most of the territory of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms which became the Kingdom of England and this included most of present-day England, as well as part of what is now southeastern Scotland, which for several centuries belonged to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. Other parts of the island – Wales and most of Scotland – continued to use Celtic languages, Norse was also widely spoken in the parts of England which fell under Danish law. Anglo-Saxon literacy developed after Christianisation in the late 7th century, the oldest surviving text of Old English literature is Cædmons Hymn, composed between 658 and 680. There is a corpus of runic inscriptions from the 5th to 7th centuries. The Old English Latin alphabet was introduced around the 9th century, with the unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by Alfred the Great in the later 9th century, the language of government and literature became standardised around the West Saxon dialect. In Old English, typical of the development of literature, poetry arose before prose, a later literary standard, dating from the later 10th century, arose under the influence of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester, and was followed by such writers as the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham. This form of the language is known as the Winchester standard and it is considered to represent the classical form of Old English
Old English
–
A detail of the first page of the
Beowulf manuscript, showing the words "ofer hron rade", i.e. "over the whale's road (=sea)". It is an example of an Old English stylistic device, the
kenning.
Old English
–
North Germanic
Old English
–
"Her swutelað seo gecwydrædnes ðe" Old English inscription over the arch of the south porticus in the 10th-century
St Mary's parish church, Breamore, Hampshire
Old English
–
The first page of the
Beowulf manuscript with its opening Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
3.
Monarchy
–
The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic, to partial and restricted, to completely autocratic. Traditionally and in most cases, the monarchs post is inherited and lasts until death or abdication, occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy, Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Currently,47 sovereign nations in the world have monarchs acting as heads of state,19 of which are Commonwealth realms that recognise Queen Elizabeth II as their head of state. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia reign, the word monarch comes from the Greek language word μονάρχης, monárkhēs which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule. Depending on the held by the monarch, a monarchy may be known as a kingdom, principality, duchy, grand duchy, empire, tsardom, emirate, sultanate, khaganate. The form of societal hierarchy known as chiefdom or tribal kingship is prehistoric, the Greek term monarchia is classical, used by Herodotus. The monarch in classical antiquity is often identified as king, the Chinese, Japanese and Nepalese monarchs continued to be considered living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of democracy, where power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were abolished in favour of such assemblies in Rome, much of 19th century politics was characterised by the division between anti-monarchist Radicalism and monarchist Conservativism. Many countries abolished the monarchy in the 20th century and became republics, advocacy of republics is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchies is called monarchism. In the modern era, monarchies are more prevalent in small states than in large ones, most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, the centre of the royal household and court. Growing up in a family, future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule. Different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, and agnatic seniority. While most monarchs have been male, many female monarchs also have reigned in history, rule may be hereditary in practice without being considered a monarchy, such as that of family dictatorships or political families in many democracies. The principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of leadership
Monarchy
–
Richard I of England being anointed during his coronation in
Westminster Abbey, from a 13th-century chronicle.
Monarchy
–
Thutmose I, the third
Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.
Monarchy
–
King George III of the United Kingdom, Portrait by
Allan Ramsay, 1762
Monarchy
–
King
Salman of Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarch.
4.
Early Medieval
–
The Early Middle Ages marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history, lasting from the 6th to the 10th century CE. The Early Middle Ages followed the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Early Middle Ages largely overlap with Late Antiquity. The term Late Antiquity is used to emphasize elements of continuity with the Roman Empire, the period saw a continuation of trends begun during late classical antiquity, including population decline, especially in urban centres, a decline of trade, and increased immigration. The period has been labelled the Dark Ages, a characterization highlighting the relative scarcity of literary and cultural output from this time, especially in Northwestern Europe. However, the Eastern Roman Empire, or Byzantine Empire, continued to survive, many of these trends were reversed later in the period. In 800 the title of emperor was revived in Western Europe by Charlemagne, whose Carolingian Empire greatly affected later European social structure, Europe experienced a return to systematic agriculture in the form of the feudal system, which introduced such innovations as three-field planting and the heavy plow. Barbarian migration stabilized in much of Europe, although Northern Europe was greatly affected by the Viking expansion, starting in the 2nd century, various indicators of Roman civilization began to decline, including urbanization, seaborne commerce, and population. Archaeologists have identified only 40 percent as many Mediterranean shipwrecks from the 3rd century as from the first, estimates of the population of the Roman Empire during the period from 150 to 400 suggest a fall from 65 million to 50 million, a decline of more than 20 percent. Some scholars have connected this de-population to the Dark Ages Cold Period, Early in the 3rd century Germanic peoples migrated south from Scandinavia and reached the Black Sea, creating formidable confederations which opposed the local Sarmatians. In Dacia and on the north of the Black Sea the Goths. The arrival of the Huns in 372–375 ended the history of these kingdoms, the Huns, a confederation of central Asian tribes, founded an empire with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy. They had mastered the art of shooting composite recurve bows from horseback. The Goths sought refuge in Roman territory, agreeing to enter the Empire as unarmed settlers, however many bribed the Danube border-guards into allowing them to bring their weapons. The discipline and organization of a Roman legion made it a fighting unit. The Romans preferred infantry to cavalry because infantry could be trained to retain the formation in combat, while cavalry tended to scatter when faced with opposition. While a barbarian army could be raised and inspired by the promise of plunder, the legions required a government and taxation to pay for salaries, constant training, equipment. The decline in agricultural and economic activity reduced the empires taxable income, in the Gothic War, the Goths revolted and confronted the main Roman army in the Battle of Adrianople. The general decline in discipline also led to the use of smaller shields, not wanting to share the glory, Eastern Emperor Valens ordered an attack on the Therving infantry under Fritigern without waiting for Western Emperor Gratian, who was on the way with reinforcements
Early Medieval
–
Die Hunnen im Kampf mit den Alanen, (The Huns in battle with the Alans by
Johann Nepomuk Geiger, 1873). The
Alans, an
Iranian people who lived north and east of the
Black Sea, were Europe's first line of defence against the Asiatic Huns. They were dislocated and settled throughout the Roman Empire
Early Medieval
–
Charlemagne 's empire (814)
Early Medieval
–
The
Mausoleum of Theodoric in
Ravenna is the only extant example of
Ostrogothic architecture.
Early Medieval
–
A
paten from the
Treasure of Gourdon
5.
Bernicia
–
Bernicia was an Anglo-Saxon kingdom established by Anglian settlers of the 6th century in what is now southeastern Scotland and North East England. In the early 7th century, it merged with its neighbour, Deira, to form the kingdom of Northumbria. Bernicia occurs in Old Welsh poetry as Bryneich or Brynaich and in the 9th-century Historia Brittonum and this was most likely the name of the native Brittonic kingdom, whose name was then adopted by the Anglian settlers who rendered it in Old English as Bernice or Beornice. Local linguistic evidence suggests continued political activity in the area before the arrival of the Angles, analysis of a potential derivation has not produced a consensus. The most commonly cited etymology gives the meaning as Land of the Mountain Passes or Land of the Gaps, an earlier derivation from the tribal name of the Brigantes has been dismissed as linguistically unsound. The Brythonic kingdom of the area was formed from what had once been the lands of the Votadini. This northern realm is referred to by Welsh scholars as Yr Hen Ogledd or, literally, the kingdom may have been ruled from the site that later became the English Bamburgh, which certainly features in Welsh sources as Din Guardi. Near this high-status residence lay the island of Lindisfarne, which became the seat of the Bernician bishops and it is unknown when the Angles finally conquered the whole region, but around 604 is likely. There are several Old Welsh pedigrees of princely Men of the North that may represent the kings of the British kingdom in the area, some of the Angles of Bernicia may have been employed as mercenaries along Hadrians Wall during the late Roman period. Others are thought to have migrated north from Deira in the early 6th century, the first Anglian king in the historical record is Ida, who is said to have obtained the throne and the kingdom about 547. His sons spent many years fighting a force from the surrounding Brythonic kingdoms until their alliance collapsed into civil war. Ida’s grandson, Æthelfrith, united Deira with his own kingdom by force around the year 604 and he ruled the two kingdoms until he was defeated and killed by Rædwald of East Anglia around the year 616. The early part of Edwins reign was spent finishing off the remaining resistance coming from the Brythonic exiles of the old British kingdom. After he had defeated the remaining Brythonic population of the area, Bernicia was then briefly ruled by Eanfrith, son of Æthelfrith, but after about a year he went to Cadwallon to sue for peace and was killed. Eanfriths brother Oswald then raised an army and finally defeated Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634, after this victory, Oswald appears to have been recognised by both Bernicians and Deirans as king of a properly united Northumbria. The kings of Bernicia were thereafter supreme in that kingdom, although Deira had its own sub-kings at times during the reigns of Oswiu, language and History in Early Britain. The Gododdin, The Oldest Scottish poem, the Gododdin of Aneurin, Text and context from Dark-Age North Britain. ISBN 0-7083-1374-4 Rollason, David W. Northumbria, 500–1100, Creation and Destruction of a Kingdom, Alcock, Leslie, Kings and Warriors, Craftsmen and Priests in Northern Britain AD 550–850
Bernicia
–
Y Hen Gogledd or "The Old North"
Bernicia
–
For other uses, see
Bernicia (disambiguation).
Bernicia
–
Eras
6.
Sub-Roman Britain
–
The term Post-Roman Britain is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts. It is now often used to denote this period of history instead. Gradually the latter assumed more control, the Picts in northern Scotland were outside the applicable area. The period of sub-Roman Britain traditionally covers the history of the area subsequently became England from the end of Roman imperial rule in 410 to the arrival of Saint Augustine in 597. The date taken for the end of period is arbitrary in that the sub-Roman culture continued in the West of England. This period has attracted a deal of academic and popular debate. The term post-Roman Britain is also used for the period, mainly in non-archaeological contexts, Britain south of the Forth–Clyde line. The history of the area between Hadrians Wall and the Forth–Clyde line is unclear, North of the line lay an area inhabited by tribes about whom so little is known that we resort to calling them by a generic name, Picts. The period may also be considered as part of the early Middle Ages, popular works use a range of more dramatic names for the period, the Dark Ages, the Brythonic Age, the Age of Tyrants, or the Age of Arthur. There is very little extant written material available from this period, a lot of what is available deals with the first few decades of the 5th century only. The sources can usefully be classified into British and continental, two primary contemporary British sources exist, the Confessio of Saint Patrick and Gildas De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Patricks Confessio and his Letter to Coroticus reveal aspects of life in Britain and it is particularly useful in highlighting the state of Christianity at the time. Gildas is the nearest to a source of Sub-Roman history but there are problems in using it. The document represents British history as he and his audience understood it, though a few other documents of the period do exist, such as Gildas letters on monasticism, they are not directly relevant to British history. The historical section of De Excidio is short, and the material in it is selected with Gildas purpose in mind. There are no dates given, and some of the details, such as those regarding the Hadrians. There are more continental contemporary sources that mention Britain, though these are highly problematic, the most famous is the so-called Rescript of Honorius, in which the Western Emperor Honorius tells the British civitates to look to their own defence. The work of Procopius, another 6th century Byzantine writer, makes references to Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
–
Barbury Castle, 6th century hill fort, near
Swindon, in
South West England
Sub-Roman Britain
–
Roman coins findings clearly indicate the areas of biggest "romanization" and presence in Roman Britain
Sub-Roman Britain
7.
Northumbria
–
The Kingdom of Northumbria was a medieval Anglian kingdom in what is now northern England and south-east Scotland, which subsequently became an earldom in a unified English kingdom. The name reflects the southern limit to the kingdoms territory. Northumbria was formed by Æthelfrith in central Great Britain in Anglo-Saxon times, at the beginning of the 7th century, the two kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira were unified. At its height, the kingdom extended at least from just south of the Humber to the River Mersey, the later earldom came about when the southern part of Northumbria was lost to the Danelaw. The earldom was bounded by the River Tees in the south, much of this land was debated between England and Scotland, but the Earldom of Northumbria was eventually recognised as part of England by the Anglo-Scottish Treaty of York in 1237. On the northern border, Berwick-upon-Tweed, which is north of the Tweed but had changed many times, was defined as subject to the laws of England by the Wales. The local Environment Agency office, located in Newcastle Business Park, otherwise, the term is not the official name for the UK and EU region of North East England. See also, List of monarchs of Northumbria and Timeline of Northumbria Northumbria was originally formed from the union of two independent kingdoms, Bernicia and Deira, Bernicia covered lands north of the Tees, while Deira corresponded roughly to modern-day Yorkshire. Bernicia and Deira were first united by Aethelfrith, a king of Bernicia who conquered Deira around the year 604. He was defeated and killed around the year 616 in battle at the River Idle by Raedwald of East Anglia, who installed Edwin, the son of Ælla, a former king of Deira, as king. Edwin, who accepted Christianity in 627, soon grew to become the most powerful king in England, he was recognised as Bretwalda and conquered the Isle of Man and Gwynedd in northern Wales. He was, however, himself defeated by an alliance of the king of Gwynedd, Cadwallon ap Cadfan. After Edwins death, Northumbria was split between Bernicia, where Eanfrith, a son of Aethelfrith, took power, and Deira, cumbria tended to remain a country frontier with the Britons. Both of these rulers were killed during the year that followed, after the murder of Eanfrith, his brother, Oswald, backed by warriors sent by Domnall Brecc of Dál Riata, defeated and killed Cadwallon at the Battle of Heavenfield in 634. He incorporated Gododdin lands northwards up to the Firth of Forth and also extended his reach westward, encroaching on the remaining Cumbric speaking kingdoms of Rheged. Thus, Northumbria became not only part of modern Englands far north, King Oswald re-introduced Christianity to the Kingdom by appointing St. Aidan, an Irish monk from the Scottish island of Iona to convert his people. This led to the introduction of the practices of Celtic Christianity, a monastery was established on Lindisfarne. In 642, Oswald was killed by the Mercians under Penda at the Battle of Maserfield and this battle marked a major turning point in Northumbrian fortunes, Penda died in the battle, and Oswiu gained supremacy over Mercia, making himself the most powerful king in England
Northumbria
–
Extent of Northumbria in 800
Northumbria
–
This article is about the medieval English kingdom. For the Old English dialect, see
Northumbrian dialect. For the modern county, see
Northumberland.
Northumbria
–
Coin of Eric Bloodaxe at the
British Museum. The legend reads ERIC REX ("King Eric")
Northumbria
–
Page from the
Lindisfarne Gospels, c 700.
8.
Northern England
–
Northern England or the North of England, also known as the North Country or simply the North, is the northern part of England, when considered as a single cultural area. The area roughly spans from the River Trent and River Dee to the Scottish border in the north, Northern England roughly comprises three statistical regions, the North East, North West and Yorkshire and the Humber. These have a population of around 14.9 million as of the 2011 Census. The region has been controlled by groups from the Brigantes. After the Norman conquest in 1066, the Harrying of the North brought destruction, a Council of the North was in place during the Late Middle Ages until the Commonwealth after the Civil War. The area experienced Anglo–Scottish border fighting until the unification of Britain under the Stuarts, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the economy of the North was dominated by heavy industry such as weaving, shipbuilding, steelmaking and mining. The deindustrialisation that followed in the half of the 20th century hit Northern England hard. For government and statistical purposes, Northern England is defined as the covered by the three statistical regions of North East England, North West England and Yorkshire and the Humber. This definition will be used in article, except when otherwise stated. Using historic county boundaries, the North is generally taken to comprise Cumberland, Northumberland, Westmorland, County Durham, Lancashire and Yorkshire, the Isle of Man is occasionally included in definitions of the North, although it is politically and culturally distinct from England. Additionally, some areas of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire have been associated with the North. The geographer Danny Dorling includes most of the West Midlands and part of the East Midlands in his definition of the North, conversely, more restrictive definitions also exist, typically based on the extent of the historical Northumbria, which exclude Cheshire and Lincolnshire. Personal definitions of the North vary greatly and are sometimes passionately debated, when asked to draw a dividing line between North and South, Southerners tend to draw this line further south than Northerners do. Various towns have been described as or promoted themselves as the gateway to the North, including Crewe, Stoke-on-Trent, through the North of England run the Pennines, an upland chain often referred to as the backbone of England. This stretches from the Cheviot Hills on the border with Scotland to the Peak District, the geography of the North has been heavily shaped by the ice sheets of the Pleistocene era, which often reached as far south as the Midlands. On the other side of the Pennines, a glacial lake forms the Humberhead Levels, a large area of fenland which drains into the Humber. This has left the North a region of contrasts, the Lake District includes Englands highest peak, Scafell Pike, which rises to 978 m, its largest lake, Windermere, and its deepest lake, Wastwater. However, dense areas have emerged along the coasts and rivers
Northern England
–
St Bees Head, the most westerly point of Northern England
Northern England
–
Counties of northern England shown within
Great Britain, as defined by HM Revenue and Customs.
Northern England
–
Angel of the North
Northern England
–
The flat cap stereotypically associated with Northern England and still worn today.
9.
Humber
–
The Humber /ˈhʌmbər/ is a large tidal estuary on the east coast of Northern England. It is formed at Trent Falls, Faxfleet, by the confluence of the tidal rivers Ouse, from here to the North Sea, it forms part of the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire on the north bank and Lincolnshire on the south bank. Although the Humber is an estuary from the point at which it is formed, Ports on the Humber include the Port of Hull, Port of Grimsby, Port of Immingham, as well as lesser ports at New Holland and North Killingholme Haven. The estuary is navigable here for the largest of deep-sea vessels, inland connections for smaller craft are extensive but handle only one quarter of the goods traffic handled in the Thames. The Humber is now an estuary, when the world sea level was lower during the Ice Ages, the Humber had a long freshwater course across what was then the dry bed of the North Sea. In the Anglo-Saxon period, the Humber was a major boundary, the name Northumbria came from Anglo-Saxon Norðhymbre = the people north of the Humber. The Humber currently forms the boundary between the East Riding of Yorkshire, to the north and North and North East Lincolnshire, from 1974 to 1996, the areas now known as the East Riding of Yorkshire, North Lincolnshire and North East Lincolnshire constituted the county of Humberside. On 23 August 1921, the British airship R38 crashed into the estuary near Hull, the estuarys only modern crossing is the Humber Bridge, which was once the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world. Now it is the eighth longest, before the bridge was built in 1981, a series of paddle steamers operated from the Corporation Pier railway station at the Victoria Pier in Hull to the railway pier in New Holland. Steam ferries started in 1841, and in 1848 were purchased by the Manchester, Sheffield and they, and their successors, ran the ferry until the bridge opened in 1981. Although the railway to New Holland closed in 1977, passenger, the line of the bridge is similar to an ancient ferry route from Hessle to Barton upon Humber, which is noted in the Domesday Book and in a charter of 1281. The ferry was recorded as operating in 1856, into the railway era. The Humber was then one mile across, the Humber Forts were built in the mouth of the river for the First World War. Planned in 1914, their construction started in 1915 and they were not completed until 1919, a coastal battery at Easington, Fort Goodwin or Kilnsea Battery, faced the Bull Sands Fort. They were also garrisoned during the Second World War, and were abandoned for military use in 1956. Fort Paull is further downstream, a Napoleonic-era emplacement replaced in the early 20th century by Stallinborough Battery opposite Sunk Island, graham Boanas, a Hull man, is believed to be the first man to succeed in wading across the Humber since ancient Roman times. The feat, in August 2005, was attempted to cash and awareness for the medical research charity. He started his trek on the bank at Brough, four hours later
Humber
–
River Hull tidal barrier. Situated at the end of the River Hull where it meets the Humber
Humber
–
Humber Bridge suspension bridge viewed from the south-east.
Humber
–
The Humber Estuary and Spurn Head looking north-east from over North Lincolnshire
Humber
–
Railway era map of Hull showing Ferry route and layout of docks
10.
River Tees
–
The River Tees is in northern England. It rises on the slope of Cross Fell in the North Pennines. The river drains 710 square miles and has a number of tributaries including the River Greta, River Lune, River Balder, River Leven, before the reorganisation of the historic English counties, the river formed the boundary between County Durham and Yorkshire. The head of the valley, whose upper portion is known as Teesdale, has a grandeur, surrounded by moorland and hills. This area is part of the North Pennine Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the source of the river at Teeshead just below Cross Fell lies at an elevation of approximately 2,401 feet. It flows east-north-east through an area of shake holes through Carboniferous Limestone, below Viewing Hill, it turns south to the Cow Green Reservoir constructed to store water to be released in dry conditions to satisfy the industrial need for water on Teesside. Emerging from the reservoir at Cauldron Snout the river traverses a series of black basalt and dolerite rocks that intrude through the softer limestone. From this point downstream the Tees forms the boundary between the counties of Durham and Yorkshire almost without a break, although since 1974 much of it lies wholly in Durham. The dale widens below Cauldron Snout, and trees appear, contrasting with the rocks where the water descends over High Force. After a short turn northwards, the continues to meander south-easterly. Close to where the B6277 road begins to run parallel to the river is the 98-foot High Force waterfall, about 1 1⁄2 miles downstream is the smaller Low Force waterfall. The scenery becomes gentler and more picturesque as the river descends past Middleton-in-Teesdale and this locality has lead and ironstone resources. Just to the east of Middleton-in-Teesdale, the River Lune joins the Tees, after passing the village of Romaldkirk to the west, the river is joined by the River Balder at Cotherstone. The ancient town of Barnard Castle, Egglestone Abbey, and Rokeby Park, at Rokeby the Tees is joined by the River Greta. From the area near Eggleston, the river is crossing over millstone grit, from here the valley begins to open out, and traverses the rich plain east and south of Darlington in large meandering curves. The course of the valley down to here has been generally east-south-east, passing Ovington and Winston it runs parallel to the A67 south-east past Gainford and Piercebridge to Darlington, passing under the A1 and A66. The section from Piercebridge to Hurworth flows over magnesian limestone and it is at Croft-on-Tees that the River Skerne joins the Tees. The river now flows south past Croft-on-Tees before swinging northwards past Hurworth-on-Tees, a series of large meanders takes the course past Neasham, Low Dinsdale and Sockburn to Middleton St George
River Tees
–
High Force on the River Tees
River Tees
–
The
confluence of the
River Greta and the River Tees
River Tees
–
The River Tees (Portrack Cut) passing through the Green-Blue Heart of the Tees Corridor between
Middlesbrough and
Stockton District.
11.
Vale of York
–
This article is about the geographical area. For the UK parliamentary constituency, see Vale of York and for the racehorse, the Vale of York is an area of flat land in the northeast of England. The vale is an agricultural area and serves as the main north-south transport corridor for Northern England. The Vale of York is often supposed to stretch from the River Tees in the north to the Humber estuary in the south. More properly it is just the part of this area which is truly the Vale of York, with the Vale of Mowbray to its north. It is bounded by the Howardian Hills and Yorkshire Wolds to the east, the low-lying ridge of the Escrick moraine marks its southern boundary. York lies in the middle of the area, as part of Great Britain, the Vale of York generally has cool summers and relatively mild winters. Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as season to season. Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather, in winter anticyclones bring cold dry weather. In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought, for its latitude this area is mild in winter and cooler in summer due to the influence of the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic. Air temperature varies on a daily and seasonal basis, the temperature is usually lower at night and January is the coldest time of the year. The vale is in the shadow of the Pennines so has a lower rainfall total than areas to the west. It is also subject to fog and frosts in winter than other areas because of the tendency of cold air to drain into the vale from surrounding higher ground. Beneath the drift deposits of the Vale of York lie Triassic sandstone and mudstone and these deposits include glacial till, sand and gravel and both terminal and recessional moraines left by receding ice sheets at the end of the last ice age. The Escrick moraine extends across the vale from west to east, to the north of these ridges are deposits of clay, sand and gravel left by a glacial lake. There are also areas of river alluvium consisting of clay, silt and sand deposited by the main rivers, the Vale of York is drained southwards by the River Ouse and its tributaries, the Ure, the Nidd and the Foss. To the east of the area the River Derwent drains southwards into the Ouse, there are also frequent stream courses and drainage channels which link with the main rivers crossing the vale. Many of these watercourses are maintained and managed by internal drainage boards to ensure sustainable water levels are kept across the vale
Vale of York
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Sketch map of the location of the Vale of York.
Vale of York
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Open farmland in the Vale of York
Vale of York
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The Battle of Marston Moor
12.
River Derwent, Yorkshire
–
The Derwent is a river in Yorkshire in the north of England. The confluence is unusual in that the Derwent converges on the Ouse at an angle in an upstream direction. The old course of the used to flow further east. The River Derwent catchment area includes the Upper Derwent, River Rye, River Hertford, Bielby Beck and Pocklington canal and it covers an area of 2,057 square kilometres and includes the towns of Stamford Bridge, Malton, Pickering, Helmsley, Filey and Scarborough. The area around the river is primarily rural in nature with grazing moorland in the upland areas, there are large areas of designated conservation sites throughout the area. It is used for water abstraction, leisure and sporting activities and it is the subject of conflicting interests as well as having an interesting ice age past and a long recorded history. Water abstracted from the Derwent supplies towns and cities such as Hull, Leeds, York, the river is of generally good quality with BOD levels remaining below 2 mg/l all year round. It is typical of Northerly British rivers in that it exhibits acid flushes at peak times of rainfall, there are also several effluent sites scattered along this river at Malton, Stamford Bridge, Elvington, Wheldrake and Bubwith. At its source on the North York Moors the River Derwent, downstream of Stamford Bridge the catchment area is mainly of Sherwood sandstone from the Triassic period. To the east this sandstone dips under Mercia mudstone, also of the Triassic period, some of the underlying rocks are major aquifers and provide a valuable source for water supply in the area. The major aquifers are the Corallian limestone, chalk and Sherwood sandstone, the Corallian limestone outcrops on the hills surrounding the Vale of Pickering and is made up of a series of limestones and sandstones. This aquifer is unconfined in parts and gets water from the River Rye, rainfall and climate conditions vary slightly across the Derwent catchment area due to the topography. Annual rainfall ranges from averages of 600 millimetres at Barmby Barrage to over 1,100 millimetres at its source on the North York Moors, for management purposes the catchment area has been divided into ten smaller units. Two of these relate to the River Rye which is the subject of a separate article. The other eight, starting at the source, are, West Ayton The Derwent starts its course at Lilla Rig on the North York Moors a few miles from the east coast of Yorkshire. After collecting the waters of the Jugger Howe Beck, Black Beck, from there it continues across lower ground to where it is joined by the River Hertford. The Sea Cut, a man made channel, connects the Derwent to the North Sea near Scarborough to alleviate flooding in the reaches of the Derwent. This management area is about 127 km² and largely rural with no major settlements, Corallian limestone lies beneath this area
River Derwent, Yorkshire
–
Barmby on the Marsh Tidal Barrage at the mouth of the River Derwent
River Derwent, Yorkshire
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Map of the Catchment Area of the River Derwent
River Derwent, Yorkshire
–
The geology of Yorkshire including the River Derwent catchment area
River Derwent, Yorkshire
–
The Sea Cut Weir drains the Derwent floodwaters to the sea at Scalby.
13.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
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Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
14.
Malton, North Yorkshire
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Malton is a market town, civil parish and electoral ward in North Yorkshire, England. It is located to the north of the River Derwent which forms the boundary between the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire. Facing Malton on the side of the Derwent is Norton. The Karro Food Group, Malton bus station and Malton railway station are located in Norton-on-Derwent, Malton is the local areas commercial and retail centre. In the town there are small traditional independent shops and high street names. The market place has become a meeting area with a number of coffee bars. The earliest established building at Malton comes from the late first century AD, the Roman auxiliary fort of Derventio was established under the governor Agricola around the same time as Eboracum. The site was established on the bank of the River Derwent. A large civilian settlement grew up alongside the fort, on the bank of the river. A single Roman cavalry unit, the Ala Gallorum Picentiana is recorded from the site, in the 11th century, a wooden Norman castle, Malton Castle, was built in what is now Castle Garden. This had been rebuilt in stone by Eustace de Vescy by the time Richard the Lionheart visited the castle in 1189, other visitors included Edward II, in 1307 and Robert the Bruce in 1322. The great house subsequently became ruined, the castle site was inherited by Lord William Eure in 1544, when he was also made a baron. In 1569 Ralph Eure built a new house on the site and in 1602. This was a property and it was described by the diarist and gunpowder plotter Sir Henry Slingsby as the rival of many other great houses. The house was demolished in 1674 and the stones divided between two sisters, Mary and Margaret Eure. They had quarrelled over their inheritance and the demolition was the settlement ordered by Sheriff Henry Marwood, the Old Lodge Hotel is the remaining fragment of the original Jacobean prodigy house and its size hints at the grandeur of the complete structure. According to contemporary archives, during the 18th century attention was paid to improving the facilities for traders in Malton, in particular for the numerous butchers. The town’s Shambles, currently opposite Malton Town Hall, used to be located on the side of St Michaels Church
Malton, North Yorkshire
–
Food stalls in Malton
15.
River Tyne
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The River Tyne /ˈtaɪn/ is a river in North East England and its length is 73 miles. It is formed by the confluence of two rivers, the North Tyne and the South Tyne and these two rivers converge at Warden Rock near Hexham in Northumberland at a place dubbed The Meeting of the Waters. The North Tyne rises on the Scottish border, north of Kielder Water and it flows through Kielder Forest, and passes through the village of Bellingham before reaching Hexham. The South Tyne rises on Alston Moor, Cumbria and flows through the towns of Haltwhistle and Haydon Bridge, hadrians Wall lies to the north of the Tyne Gap. Coincidentally the source of the South Tyne is very close to the sources of the two great rivers of the industrial north east namely the Tees and the Wear. The South Tyne Valley falls within the North Pennines Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty - the second largest of the 40 AONBs in England, to the east of Gateshead and Newcastle, the Tyne divides Hebburn and Jarrow on the south bank from Walker and Wallsend on the north bank. Jarrow and Wallsend are linked underneath the river by the Tyne Tunnel, finally it flows between South Shields and Tynemouth into the North Sea. The Tyne Rivers Trust measure the whole Tyne catchment as 2,936 square kilometres, the River Tyne is believed to be around 30 million years old. The largest coal staithes were located at Dunston in Gateshead, Hebburn and Tyne Dock, the dramatic wooden staithes at Dunston, built in 1890, have been preserved, although they were partially destroyed by fire in 2006. And to this day in 2016 Tyne Dock, South Shields is still involved with coal, the tidal river is now managed by the Port of Tyne Authority. Nothing definite is known of the origin of the designation Tyne, nor is the known by that name until the Saxon period. There is a theory that Tīn was a word that meant river in the local Celtic language or in a language spoken in England before the Celts came, there is also a river Tyne that rises in Midlothian in Scotland and flows through East Lothian into the North Sea. The River Vedra on the Roman map of Britain may be the Tyne, the late Thomas John Taylor supposed that the main course of the river anciently flowed through what is now Team Valley, its outlet into the tidal river being by a waterfall at Bill Point. His theory is not far from the truth, as there is evidence that prior to the last Ice Age, Ice diverted the course of the Wear to its current location, flowing east the course of the Tyne) and joining the North Sea at Sunderland. Sculpted by David Wynne, the bronze figure incorporates flowing water into its design. The Environment Agency is currently working with architects and cultural consultancy xsite, in collaboration with Commissions North, the Tyne Salmon Trail will serve as a celebration of the river, its heritage and its increasingly diverse ecosystem. FINS, REFLECTION and JOURNEY were the first 3 cubes to be launched in December 2007 from a family of 10, each cube is inspired by the textures, changing colours, movement and journey of the salmon. With each offering a modern day keepsake to take away, in the form of a designed Bluetooth message, for three days, between 18–20 July 2008, a temporary bamboo artwork was installed over the Tyne close to the Gateshead Millennium Bridge
River Tyne
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River Tyne Quayside
River Tyne
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Abandoned drydocks on South Shields river front
River Tyne
–
The River Tyne at
Bill Quay
River Tyne
–
The Tyne Bridge across the River Tyne between
Newcastle upon Tyne and
Gateshead. Taken from the deck of the Gateshead Millennium Bridge, looking west and upstream.
16.
Ebrauc
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The Vikings, who took over the area later, in turn adapted the name by folk etymology to Norse Jórvík meaning horse bay. The modern Welsh name is Efrog, following the Norman Conquest of 1066 York was substantially damaged, but in time became an important urban centre as the administrative centre of the county of Yorkshire. York prospered during much of the medieval era, the later years of the 14th. During the English Civil War, the city was regarded as a Royalist stronghold and was besieged, after the war, York slowly regained its former pre-eminence in the North, and, by 1660, was the third-largest city in England after London and Norwich. Modern York has 34 Conservation Areas,2,084 Listed buildings and 22 Scheduled Ancient Monuments in its care, every year, thousands of tourists come to see the surviving medieval buildings, interspersed with Roman and Viking remains and Georgian architecture. Archaeological evidence suggests that people settled in the region of York between 8000 and 7000 BC, although it is not known if these were permanent or temporary settlements. Iron Age burials have been found near the area on the south-west bank of the Ouse where the concentration of Neolithic axes was found. Few other finds from this period have been found in York itself, the Romans called the tribes in the region around York the Brigantes and the Parisii and York may have been on the border between these two tribes. York was founded in 71 AD when Cerialis and the Ninth Legion constructed a fortress on flat ground above the River Ouse near its junction with the River Foss. The fortress was rebuilt in stone, covered an area of 50 acres. The earliest known mention of Eburacum by name is from a wooden stylus tablet from the Roman fortress of Vindolanda along Hadrians Wall, 95–104 AD, where it is called Eburaci. Much of the Roman fortress lies under the foundations of York Minster, at some time between 109 AD and 122 AD the garrison of the Ninth Legion was replaced by the Sixth Legion. There is no documented trace of the Ninth Legion after 117 AD, the Sixth Legion remained in York until the end of Roman occupation about 400 AD. The Emperors Hadrian, Septimius Severus and Constantius I all held court in York during their various campaigns. During his stay, the Emperor Severus proclaimed York capital of the province of Britannia Inferior, Constantius I died during his stay in York, and his son Constantine the Great was proclaimed Emperor by the troops based in the fortress. Economically the military presence was important with workshops growing up to supply the needs of the 5,000 troops garrisoned there, new trading opportunities led local people to create a permanent civilian settlement on the south-west bank of the River Ouse opposite the fortress. By 237 it had made a colonia one of only four in Britain. York was self-governing, with a made up of rich locals, including merchants
Ebrauc
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Roman wall and the west corner tower of the fort at York, with medieval additions
Ebrauc
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York within England
Ebrauc
–
Anglian Tower
Ebrauc
–
St Mary Bishophill Junior
17.
Angles
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The Angles were one of the main Germanic peoples who settled in Great Britain in the post-Roman period. They founded several of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon England, and their name is the root of the name England, the name comes from the district of Angeln, an area located on the Baltic shore of what is now Schleswig-Holstein. The name of the Angles may have been first recorded in Latinised form, as Anglii and it is thought to derive from the name of the area they originally inhabited, Angeln in modern German, Angel in Danish. This name has been hypothesised to originate from the Germanic root for narrow, meaning the Narrow, i. e. the Schlei estuary, the root would be angh, tight. Another theory is that the name meant hook, as in angling for fish, Julius Pokorny, Gregory the Great in an epistle simplified the Latinised name Anglii to Angli, the latter form developing into the preferred form of the word. The country remained Anglia in Latin, the earliest recorded mention of the Angles may be in chapter 40 of Tacituss Germania written around AD98. Tacitus describes the Anglii as one of the more remote Suebic tribes compared to the Semnones and Langobardi and he grouped the Angles with several other tribes in that region, the Reudigni, Aviones, Varini, Eudoses, Suarini and Nuitones. These were all living behind ramparts of rivers and woods and therefore inaccessible to attack, the Eudoses are the Jutes, these names probably refer to localities in Jutland or on the Baltic coast. The majority of scholars believe that the Anglii lived on the coasts of the Baltic Sea and these Suevi Angili would have been in Lower Saxony or near it, but they are not coastal. The three Suebic peoples are separated from the coastal Chauci, and Saxones, by a series of tribes including, Ptolemy describes the coast to the east of the Saxons as inhabited by the Farodini, a name not known from any other sources. Owing to the uncertainty of this passage, there has been speculation regarding the original home of the Anglii. The ethnic names of Frisians and Warines are also attested in these Saxon districts, a second possible solution is that these Angles of Ptolemy are not those of Schleswig at all. According to Julius Pokorny the Angri- in Angrivarii, the -angr in Hardanger and the Angl- in Anglii all come from the root meaning bend. In other words, the similarity of the names is strictly coincidental, on the other hand, Gudmund Schütte, in his analysis of Ptolemy, believes that the Angles have simply been moved by an error coming from Ptolemys use of imperfect sources. Bede states that the Anglii, before coming to Great Britain, dwelt in a land called Angulus, similar evidence is given by the Historia Brittonum. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, Frowinus and Wigo, from whom the royal family of Wessex claimed descent. During the 5th century, the Anglii invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of Suevi Angili. The Angles are the subject of a legend about Pope Gregory I, as the story would later be told by the Anglo-Saxon monk and historian Bede, Gregory was struck by the unusual appearance of the slaves and asked about their background
Angles
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Manuscript of Bede
Angles
–
Map of the
Roman Empire under
Hadrian (ruled 117–138), showing the then homeland of the Angles (Anglii) on the
Jutland peninsula in today's Germany and Denmark
18.
Aethelfrith of Northumbria
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Æthelfrith was King of Bernicia from c.593 until his death. Around 604 he became the first Bernician king to rule the neighboring land of Deira. He was especially notable for his successes against the Britons and his victory over the Gaels of Dál Riata, although he was defeated and killed in battle and replaced by a dynastic rival, his line was eventually restored to power in the 630s. His predecessors are obscure, Æthelfrith is the earliest Bernician ruler about whom any significant details are known. For he conquered more territories from the Britons, either making them tributary, or driving the inhabitants clean out and it may have been Æthelfrith who destroyed the British army at the Battle of Catraeth, the battle is described in the early poem Gododdin. The Britons called him Flesaur, or the twister and it was under Æthelfrith that Bernicias boundaries pushed significantly inland from the coast, and penetrated further into British territory. Áedán mac Gabráin, the Irish king of Dál Riata, was alarmed by Æthelfriths successes, although Æthelfrith commanded an inferior force, according to Bede, he won a crushing victory at a place called Degsastan, most of Áedáns army was killed, and Áedán himself fled. Bede says that Æthelfriths victory was so great that the Irish kings in Britain would not make war on the English again, right up to Bedes own time. The battle appears to have been costly for Æthelfrith as well, however, Bede says that Æthelfriths brother Theodbald was killed, the appearance of Hering, son of Hussa, Æthelfriths predecessor, on the side of the invaders seems to indicate dynastic rivalry among the Bernicians. Æthelfrith gained control of Deira around 604, the circumstances of this are unknown, on the other hand, D. P. Kirby suggested that Æthelfriths rule of both kingdoms may have represented a formalization of an existing relationship of cooperation between the two. Kirby also pointed out that Edwin did not necessarily go into exile immediately, Edwin, apparently seeking safety from Æthelfrith, seems to have travelled between many different kingdoms during his period of exile. He may have spent time during his exile in the British kingdom of Gwynedd, ultimately, he took refuge in East Anglia, where his presence precipitated the events that caused Æthelfriths downfall. It was also around 604 that Æthelfriths son Oswald was born, oswalds mother was Acha, daughter of Ælla, and thus Edwins sister. It has been suggested that she was probably Æthelfriths first and most important wife and he also massacred the monks of Bangor-Is-Coed who were assembled to aid the Britons by their prayers. Bede says that he decided to attack them because, although they were not armed, the number of dead monks was said to be about 1200, with only fifty escaping. It has been suggested that Æthelfrith may have done this for reasons, to catch the Britons by surprise. After first killing the monks, Æthelfrith prevailed over the enemy army, the Deiran exile Hereric was poisoned while at the court of Ceretic, king of Elmet, Æthelfrith may have been responsible for this killing. Edwin ended up in East Anglia, under the protection of its king, while presented by Bede as being fought simply over the issue of Edwin, this war may have actually involved questions of power and territory between the two rulers
Aethelfrith of Northumbria
–
The main Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms in the 7th century.
19.
Edwin of Northumbria
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Edwin, also known as Eadwine or Æduinus, was the King of Deira and Bernicia – which later became known as Northumbria – from about 616 until his death. He converted to Christianity and was baptised in 627, after he fell at the Battle of Hatfield Chase, Edwin was the son of Ælle king of Deira and seems to have had two siblings. His sister Acha was married to Æthelfrith, king of neighbouring Bernicia, an otherwise unknown sibling fathered Hereric, who in turn fathered Abbess Hilda of Whitby and Hereswith, wife to Æthelric, the brother of king Anna of East Anglia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that on Ælles death a certain Æthelric assumed power, the exact identity of Æthelric is uncertain. He may have been a brother of Ælle, a brother of Edwin. Æthelfrith himself appears to have been king of Northumbria—both Deira and Bernicia—by no later than 604, during the reign of Æthelfrith, Edwin was an exile. By the 610s he was certainly in Mercia under the protection of king Cearl, by around 616, Edwin was in East Anglia under the protection of king Raedwald. Bede reports that Æthelfrith tried to have Raedwald murder his rival. Æthelfrith faced Raedwald in battle by the River Idle in 616, Raedwalds son Raegenhere may have been killed at this battle, but the exact date or manner of Raedwalds death are not known. He likely died between the years 616–627, and the efficacy of Edwin’s kingship ostensibly depended greatly on his fealty to Raedwald, Edwin was installed as king of Northumbria, effectively confirming Raedwald as bretwalda, Æthelfriths sons went into exile in Irish Dál Riata and Pictland. Edwins reign marks an interruption of the otherwise consistent domination of Northumbria by the Bernicians and has seen as contrary to the prevailing tendency. Edwin expelled Ceretic from the minor British kingdom of Elmet in either 616 or 626, Elmet had probably been subject to Mercia and then to Edwin. The larger kingdom of Lindsey appears to have taken over c. 625, after the death of king Raedwald, Edwin and Eadbald of Kent were allies at this time, and Edwin arranged to marry Eadbalds sister Æthelburg. Bede notes that Eadbald would agree to marry his sister to Edwin only if he converted to Christianity, the marriage of Eadbalds Merovingian mother Bertha had resulted in the conversion of Kent and Æthelburgs would do the same in Northumbria. Edwins expansion to the west may have begun early in his reign, there is firm evidence of a war waged in the early 620s between Edwin and Fiachnae mac Báetáin of the Dál nAraidi, king of the Ulaid in Ireland. A lost poem is known to have existed recounting Fiachnaes campaigns against the Saxons, and this should presumably be placed in the context of Edwins designs on the Isle of Man, a target of Ulaid ambitions. The routine of kingship in Edwins time involved regular, probably annual, wars with neighbours to obtain tribute, submission, and slaves
Edwin of Northumbria
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St. Edwin of Northumbria depiction at St Mary, Sledmere, Yorkshire.
Edwin of Northumbria
–
Depiction of Edwin from
John Speed 's 1611 "Saxon Heptarchy".
20.
Oswine of Deira
–
Oswine, Oswin or Osuine was a King of Deira in northern England. Oswine succeeded King Oswald of Northumbria, probably around the year 644, Oswine was the son of Osric. His succession, perhaps the choice of the people of Deira, Oswiu was the successor of Bernicia to the north. After seven years of rule, Oswiu declared war on Oswine. Oswine refused to engage in battle, instead retreating to Gilling, Humwald betrayed Oswine, delivering him to Oswius soldiers by whom Oswine was put to death. In Anglo-Saxon culture, it was assumed that the nearest kinsmen to a person would seek to avenge the death or require some other kind of justice on account of it. However, Oswines nearest kinsman was Oswius own wife, Oswiu was also related to the slain. It was from the monastery, many years later, that Oswine was later claimed to be a saint. Oswine is one of many Anglo-Saxon royals who were honoured in monasteries, another example is Edward the Martyr. Oswine was buried at Tynemouth, but the place of burial was later forgotten and it is said that his burial place was made known by an apparition to a monk named Edmund, and his relics were translated to an honorable place in Tynemouth Priory in 1065. There was a cult of Saint Oswin as a Christian martyr because he had died if not for the faith of Christ, the Anglican Parish Church of Wylam, Northumberland, England is dedicated to Saint Oswin. The church was built in 1886 and currently has a congregation of about 150, the church has a peal of 6 bells and has regular Sunday services with ringing. St. Oswin is co-patron of the Catholic parish of Tynemouth with a church at the end of Front Street not far from the ruins of the priory where Oswin was buried, Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, ed. and tr. B. Mynors, Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People, anonymous, Vita Oswini, ed. James Raine, Miscellanea Biographica. Publications of the Surtees Society 8, Beowulf, Bede, and St. Oswine, The Heros Pride in Old English Hagiography. Synthesis and Achievement, ed. J. Douglas Woods and David A. E. Pelteret, reprinted in The Beowulf Reader, ed. Peter S. Baker. Oswine 1 at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
Oswine of Deira
–
Oswine of Deira
Oswine of Deira
–
St Oswins, Wylam, Northumberland
21.
Oswiu of Northumbria
–
Oswiu, also known as Oswy or Oswig, was King of Bernicia from 642 until his death. One of the sons of Æthelfrith of Bernicia, he became king following the death of his brother Oswald in 642, unlike Oswald, Oswiu struggled to exert authority over Deira, the other Anglo-Saxon kingdom comprising medieval Northumbria, for much of his reign. Oswiu and his brothers were raised in exile in the Scottish kingdom of Dál Riata after their fathers death at the hands of Edwin of Deira, Oswiu rose to the kingship when his brother Oswald was killed in battle against Penda of Mercia. The early part of his reign was defined by struggles to control over Deira and his contentious relationship with Penda. In 655, Oswius forces killed Penda in a victory at the Battle of the Winwæd. He secured control of Deira, with his son Alhfrith serving as a sub-king, Oswiu was a devoted Christian, promoting the faith among his subjects and establishing a number of monasteries, including Gilling Abbey and Whitby Abbey. Oswiu died in 670 and was succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith, Oswiu was born circa 612, as he was 58 at his death in 670, according to Bede. He was the child of Æthelfrith, then King of Bernicia, his siblings included older brothers Eanfrith and Oswald. Oswius mother may have been Æthelfriths only recorded wife, Acha, if so, his heritage did nothing to endear him to the Deiran nobility, while they accepted Oswald as king apparently on account of his mother, they resisted Oswiu throughout his reign. At the time of Oswius birth, Æthelfrith was at the height of his power, in 604 he had taken control of Deira, evidently by conquest, he killed the previous king, married Acha, a member of the kingly line, and exhiled Achas brother Edwin. His authority ran from the lands of the Picts and the Dál Riata in modern Scotland to Wales, on Æthelfriths death, his sons and their supporters fled Northumbria, finding sanctuary among the Gaels and Picts of northern Britain and Ireland. Here they would remain until Edwins death at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in 633, in exile, the sons of Æthelfrith were converted to Christianity, or raised as Christians. In Oswius case, he became an exile at the age of four, Bede writes that Oswiu was fluent in the Old Irish language and Irish in his faith. The Irish annals name one Oisiric mac Albruit, rigdomna Saxan—ætheling Osric—among the dead, alongside Connad Cerr, King of Dál Riata, and others of the Cenél nGabráin, at the Battle of Fid Eóin. Whether Oswius marriage with the Uí Néill princess Fín of the Cenél nEógain, equally uncertain is the date of Oswius return to Northumbria. He may have returned with Eanfrith on Edwins death in 633, Oswald died in battle against Penda of Mercia at the Battle of Maserfield, dated by Bede to 5 August 642. Oswalds son Œthelwald may have been his successor, but Œthelwald cannot have been an adult in 642. So, the kingship came to Oswiu, unlike Eanfrith and Osric, Oswiu held to the Christian faith in spite of his brothers defeat by the pagan Penda
Oswiu of Northumbria
–
Kingdom of Mercia 527–918
Oswiu of Northumbria
–
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of the early 7th century
22.
Oswald of Bernicia
–
Oswald was King of Northumbria from 634 until his death, and is venerated as a saint, of whom there was a particular cult in the Middle Ages. After eight years of rule, in which he was the most powerful ruler in Britain and it would, however, be anachronistic to refer to a Northumbrian people or identity at this early stage, when the Bernicians and the Deirans were still clearly distinct peoples. Oswalds mother, Acha, was a member of the Deiran royal line whom Æthelfrith apparently married as part of his acquisition of Deira or consolidation of power there. Oswald was apparently born in or around the year 604, since Bede says that he was killed at the age of 38 in 642, Æthelfriths acquisition of Deira is also believed to have occurred around 604. Æthelfrith, who was for years a successful war-leader, especially against the native British, was killed in battle around 616 by Raedwald of East Anglia at the River Idle. This defeat meant that a member of the Deiran royal line, Edwin, became king of Northumbria, Oswald. Oswald thus spent the remainder of his youth in the Scottish kingdom of Dál Riata in northern Britain and he may also have fought in Ireland during this period of exile. It has been considered that Oswald is one of the three Saxon princes mentioned in the Irish poem Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, being named as Osalt in that work. Oswalds brother Eanfrith became king of Bernicia, but he was killed by Cadwallon in 634 after attempting to negotiate peace, subsequently, Oswald, at the head of a small army, met Cadwallon in battle at Heavenfield, near Hexham. Before the battle, Oswald had a cross erected, he knelt down. He then prayed and asked his army to join in, adomnán in his Life of Saint Columba offers a longer account, which Abbot Ségéne had heard from Oswald himself. Oswald, he says, had a vision of Columba the night before the battle, in which he was told Be strong, behold, I will be with thee. Oswald described his vision to his council and all agreed that they would be baptised, in the battle that followed, the British were routed despite their superior numbers, Cadwallon himself was killed. Following the victory at Heavenfield, Oswald reunited Northumbria and re-established the Bernician supremacy which had been interrupted by Edwin, Bede says that Oswald held imperium for the eight years of his rule, and was the most powerful king in Britain. In the 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he is referred to as a Bretwalda, adomnán describes Oswald as ordained by God as Emperor of all Britain. Oswald seems to have widely recognized as overlord, although the extent of his authority is uncertain. It may have been to appease Oswald that Penda had Eadfrith, to the north, it may have been Oswald who conquered the Gododdin. Oswald seems to have been on terms with the West Saxons, he stood as sponsor to the baptism of their king, Cynegils
Oswald of Bernicia
–
A 12th-century painting of St Oswald in
Durham Cathedral
Oswald of Bernicia
–
Oswald crowned as a king from a 13th-century manuscript
Oswald of Bernicia
–
St. Oswald relic receptacle,
Hildesheim, 12th century
Oswald of Bernicia
–
Saint Oswald's church,
Bad Kleinkirchheim,
Carinthia, one of many churches and place names which commemorate Oswald
23.
Bede
–
He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Ecclesiastical History of the English People gained him the title The Father of English History. Bedes monastery had access to a library which included works by Eusebius, Orosius. Almost everything that is known of Bedes life is contained in the last chapter of his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a history of the church in England. It was completed in about 731, and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, a minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bedes death. Bede, in the Historia, gives his birthplace as on the lands of this monastery, Bede says nothing of his origins, but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well-to-do. Bedes first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names Biscop, Bedes name reflects West Saxon Bīeda. It is an Anglo-Saxon short name formed on the root of bēodan to bid, the name also occurs in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s. a. 501, as Bieda, one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth, the Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name, one of whom is presumably Bede himself. Some manuscripts of the Life of Cuthbert, one of Bedes works, mention that Cuthberts own priest was named Bede, at the age of seven, Bede was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith. Bede does not say whether it was intended at that point that he would be a monk. Monkwearmouths sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682, in 686, plague broke out at Jarrow. The two managed to do the service of the liturgy until others could be trained. The young boy was almost certainly Bede, who would have been about 14, when Bede was about 17 years old, Adomnán, the abbot of Iona Abbey, visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow. Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit, in about 692, in Bedes nineteenth year, Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop, John, who was bishop of Hexham. There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon, in Bedes thirtieth year, he became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John. In about 701 Bede wrote his first works, the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis and he continued to write for the rest of his life, eventually completing over 60 books, most of which have survived. Not all his output can be dated, and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years. His last-surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York, a former student, Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence
Bede
–
The Venerable Bede Translates John by J. D. Penrose (ca 1902)
Bede
–
Stained glass at
Gloucester Cathedral depicting Bede dictating to a scribe
Bede
–
Bede's tomb in Durham Cathedral
Bede
–
Depiction of the Venerable Bede (on CLVIIIv) from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493
24.
Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
–
It is believed to have been completed in 731 when Bede was approximately 59 years old. The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People is Bedes best-known work, the first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesars invasion in 55 BC. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the progress of Christianity in Kent. These encountered a setback when Penda, the king of Mercia. The setback was temporary, and the book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald. The climax of the book is the account of the Council of Whitby. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, the fifth book brings the story up to Bedes day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia, and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, the preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book, presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. Divided into five books, the Historia covers the history of England, ecclesiastical and political and this is impressive, nevertheless, the Historia, like other historical writing from this period has a lower degree of objectivity than modern historical writings. It seems to be a mixture of fact, legend and literature, the monastery at Jarrow had an excellent library. Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the Continent, for the period prior to Augustines arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Orosius, Eutropius, Pliny, and Solinus. He used Constantiuss Life of Germanus as a source for Germanuss visits to Britain, Bedes account of the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons is drawn largely from Gildass De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae. Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Eddius Stephanuss Life of Wilfrid and he also drew on Josephuss Antiquities, and the works of Cassiodorus, and there was a copy of the Liber Pontificalis in Bedes monastery. Bede also had correspondents who supplied him with material, almost all of Bedes information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters, which includes the Libellus responsionum, as chapter 27 of book 1 is often known. Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, the historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the Historia on three works, using them as the framework around which the three main sections of the work were structured. For the early part of the work, up until the Gregorian mission, the second section, detailing the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury was framed on the anonymous Life of Gregory the Great written at Whitby. The last section, detailing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart asserts were modelled on Stephen of Ripons Life of Wilfrid, the History of the English Church and People has a clear polemical and didactic purpose. Bede sets out not just to tell the story of the English, in political terms he is a partisan of his native Northumbria, amplifying its role in English history over and above that of Mercia, its great southern rival
Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum
–
Folio 3v from the
St Petersburg Bede
25.
Penda of Mercia
–
Penda was a 7th-century King of Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in what is today the English Midlands. He repeatedly defeated the East Angles and drove Cenwalh the king of Wessex into exile for three years and he continued to wage war against the Bernicians of Northumbria. The etymology of the name Penda is unknown, Penda of Mercia is the only monarch with this name, but a number of Mercian commoners with the same name are on record. Suggestions for etymologies of the name are divided between a Celtic and a Germanic origin. The names of members of a Northumbrian brotherhood are recorded in the ninth century Liber vitae Dunelmensis, the name Penda occurs in this list and is categorised as a British name. John T. Koch noted that, Penda and a number of royal names from early Anglian Mercia have more obvious Brythonic than German explanations. These royal names include those of Pendas father Pybba, and of his son Peada and it has been suggested that the firm alliance between Penda and various British princes might be the result of a racial cause. Continental Germanic comparanda for the name include a feminine Penta and a toponym Penti-lingen, Penda was a son of Pybba of Mercia and said to be an Icling, with a lineage purportedly extending back to Wōden. The Historia Brittonum says that Pybba had 12 sons, including Penda, besides Eowa, the pedigrees also give Penda a brother named Coenwalh from whom two later kings were said to descend, although this may instead represent his brother-in-law Cenwalh of Wessex. The time at which Penda became king is uncertain, as are the circumstances, another Mercian king, Cearl, is mentioned by Bede as ruling at the same time as the Northumbrian king Æthelfrith, in the early part of the 7th century. It is also possible that Cearl and Penda were dynastic rivals, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Penda became king in 626, ruled for 30 years, and was 50 years old at the time of his accession. Furthermore, that Penda was truly 50 years old at the beginning of his reign is generally doubted by historians, the idea that Penda, at about 80 years of age, would have left behind children who were still young has been widely considered implausible. The possibility has been suggested that the Chronicle actually meant to say that Penda was 50 years old at the time of his death, the noted 20th-century historian Frank Stenton was of the opinion that the language used by Bede leaves no doubt that. Penda, though descended from the family of the Mercians. Given the apparent problems with the dates given by the Chronicle, on the other hand, he might have been one of multiple rulers among the Mercians at the time, ruling only a part of their territory. The Chronicle says that after the battle, Penda and the West Saxons came to an agreement and it has been speculated that this agreement marked a victory for Penda, ceding to him Cirencester and the areas along the lower River Severn. These lands to the southwest of Mercia had apparently taken by the West Saxons from the Britons in 577. In the late 620s or early 630s, Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the British king of Gwynedd, became involved in a war with Edwin of Northumbria, the most powerful king in Britain at the time
Penda of Mercia
–
Stained glass window, depicting Penda's death at the
Battle of the Winwaed,
Worcester Cathedral.
Penda of Mercia
–
A map showing the general locations of the
Anglo-Saxon peoples around the year 600
Penda of Mercia
–
Kingdom of Mercia 527–918
26.
Oswald of Northumbria
–
Oswald was King of Northumbria from 634 until his death, and is venerated as a saint, of whom there was a particular cult in the Middle Ages. After eight years of rule, in which he was the most powerful ruler in Britain and it would, however, be anachronistic to refer to a Northumbrian people or identity at this early stage, when the Bernicians and the Deirans were still clearly distinct peoples. Oswalds mother, Acha, was a member of the Deiran royal line whom Æthelfrith apparently married as part of his acquisition of Deira or consolidation of power there. Oswald was apparently born in or around the year 604, since Bede says that he was killed at the age of 38 in 642, Æthelfriths acquisition of Deira is also believed to have occurred around 604. Æthelfrith, who was for years a successful war-leader, especially against the native British, was killed in battle around 616 by Raedwald of East Anglia at the River Idle. This defeat meant that a member of the Deiran royal line, Edwin, became king of Northumbria, Oswald. Oswald thus spent the remainder of his youth in the Scottish kingdom of Dál Riata in northern Britain and he may also have fought in Ireland during this period of exile. It has been considered that Oswald is one of the three Saxon princes mentioned in the Irish poem Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, being named as Osalt in that work. Oswalds brother Eanfrith became king of Bernicia, but he was killed by Cadwallon in 634 after attempting to negotiate peace, subsequently, Oswald, at the head of a small army, met Cadwallon in battle at Heavenfield, near Hexham. Before the battle, Oswald had a cross erected, he knelt down. He then prayed and asked his army to join in, adomnán in his Life of Saint Columba offers a longer account, which Abbot Ségéne had heard from Oswald himself. Oswald, he says, had a vision of Columba the night before the battle, in which he was told Be strong, behold, I will be with thee. Oswald described his vision to his council and all agreed that they would be baptised, in the battle that followed, the British were routed despite their superior numbers, Cadwallon himself was killed. Following the victory at Heavenfield, Oswald reunited Northumbria and re-established the Bernician supremacy which had been interrupted by Edwin, Bede says that Oswald held imperium for the eight years of his rule, and was the most powerful king in Britain. In the 9th-century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle he is referred to as a Bretwalda, adomnán describes Oswald as ordained by God as Emperor of all Britain. Oswald seems to have widely recognized as overlord, although the extent of his authority is uncertain. It may have been to appease Oswald that Penda had Eadfrith, to the north, it may have been Oswald who conquered the Gododdin. Oswald seems to have been on terms with the West Saxons, he stood as sponsor to the baptism of their king, Cynegils
Oswald of Northumbria
–
A 12th-century painting of St Oswald in
Durham Cathedral
Oswald of Northumbria
–
Oswald crowned as a king from a 13th-century manuscript
Oswald of Northumbria
–
St. Oswald relic receptacle,
Hildesheim, 12th century
Oswald of Northumbria
–
Saint Oswald's church,
Bad Kleinkirchheim,
Carinthia, one of many churches and place names which commemorate Oswald
27.
Kings of Mercia
–
The Kingdom of Mercia was a state in the English Midlands from the 6th century to the 10th. For some two hundred years from the century onwards it was the dominant member of the Heptarchy. During this period its rulers became the first English monarchs to assume such wide ranging titles as King of Britain, spellings varied widely in this period, even within a single document, and a number of variants exist for the names given below. For example, the sound th was usually represented with the Old English letters ð or þ, for the Continental predecessors of the Mercians in Angeln, see List of kings of the Angles. For their successors see List of English monarchs, the traditional rulers of Mercia were known as the Iclingas, descendants of the kings of the Angles. When the Iclingas became extinct in the line, a number of other families, labelled B, C and W by historians. All the following are kings, unless specified and those in italics are probably legendary, are of dubious authenticity, or may not have reigned. The chief magnate of Mercia as an English province held the title of ealdorman until 1023/32, both offices were royal appointments, but the latter in effect became hereditary. The title Earl of March was created in the western Midlands for Roger Mortimer in 1328 and it has fallen extinct, and been recreated, three times since then, and exists today as a subsidiary title of the Duke of Richmond and Lennox
Kings of Mercia
–
Kingdom of Mercia 527–918
28.
Helen Geake
–
Geake was born in Wolverhampton in 1967 but grew up in Bath. She originally trained as a secretary, however, reading archaeology books and attending lectures by Mick Aston led her to study medieval archaeology at University College London. Subsequently she took a DPhil at the University of York in Anglo-Saxon cemeteries contemporary with the ship burial at Sutton Hoo. In 2014 she became the PASs adviser to its voluntary finds recorders and she first worked for Time Team in 1998 as a digger, and took part occasionally thereafter as an Anglo-Saxon specialist. She joined the team of presenters for the 2006 series. She has contributed a number of articles on her specialist field, in 2003 she was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. She is also a member of the Council of Rescue. In November 2014 it was announced that Geake would contest the Bury St Edmunds constituency for the Green Party at the 2015 General Election, she came fourth with 7.9 per cent of the vote. Geake is married to Angus Wainwright, the National Trust archaeologist for the East of England and she is a cousin of the late John E Geake, after whom the asteroid 9298 Geake is named. Burial Practice in Seventh- and Eighth-Century England in Martin Carver, The Age of Sutton Hoo, Boydell Press, ISBN0851153305 The Use of Grave Goods in conversion-Period England c. 600-c.850, British Archaeological Reports, Oxford,1997. ISBN 0-86054-917-8 Why were hanging bowls deposited in Anglo-Saxon graves. in Medieval Archaeology vol, early Deira, Archaeological Studies of the East Riding in the Fourth to Ninth Centuries AD, Oxbow Books, Oxford,2000. ISBN 1-902653-65-3 The control of burial practice in Anglo-Saxon England in Martin Carver, The Cross Goes North, Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe, AD 300–1300, York Medieval Press,2003
Helen Geake
–
Helen Geake with
Stewart Ainsworth while shooting a
Time Team in 2007
