1.
Dell Streak
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Dell Streak 5 is a smartphone/tablet hybrid from Dell that uses the Android operating system. It comes with a 5-inch capacitive touchscreen and two cameras, a 5MP one with flash on the back and a VGA-resolution one on the front for video calling. The development was first disclosed in June 2009 and in October 2009 it was known that the tablet is capable of making 3G phone calls, the three buttons at the bottom are capacitive. The Android buttons used are Home, Menu, and Back and it features a Dell skin on top and has a cradle adapter with HDMI out. The phone lacks the navigational trackball found in many previous Android devices, while FM radio support is not an official feature, an FM radio chip was found upon inspection of the Streaks internal hardware, and can be accessed though a users modification of the OS. The versions released previously have had Android 1.6 installed, customers on the British O2 mobile phone network were given the opportunity to install Android 2.1 in early September 2010 through an Over the Air update. This update, however, caused an uproar amongst consumers, over bugs, a seven-inch version of the Streak was announced at the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2011. The Wall Street Journal reviewed it unfavorably in February, a long-rumored ten-inch model went on sale in August in China. Following protests from users that Dell, by not including source code, had violated the terms of the GNU General Public License, there is a root method for the Dell Streak, and many roms are available, including iterations of the CyanogenMod ROM. These are available from the website along with other ROMS. Dell discontinued the Streak 5 on as of August 15,2011, customers attempting to purchase the device were directed to a Good Bye, Streak 5 landing page. The larger Streak 7 was discontinued on December 2,2011, the Streak 7 received a tepid reaction from one reviewer due to its poor display and software bugs/glitches at launch. The Streak was considered bulky, and the Android 2.2 Froyo that it ran was geared more for smartphones instead of tablets
2.
Subnotebook
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A subnotebook is a class of laptop computers that are smaller and lighter than a typical notebook. These computers are sometimes confused with the ultra-mobile PC category, which is the name of a platform of small form-factor tablet PCs, subnotebooks are also sometimes confused with netbooks which are a different category of devices that branched off from mini notebooks in general. Netbooks are most often less expensive than subnotebooks, as they are optimized for use as portable Internet capable devices. Netbooks typically have 9W TDP CPUs, sacrificing performance for power efficiency, subnotebooks are smaller than full sized laptops but larger than handheld computers. They often have smaller-sized screens, less than 14 inches, and weigh less than typical laptops, the savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports and optical disc drives. Many can be paired with docking stations to compensate. The Compaq was followed in October 1992 by the very popular IBM ThinkPad, portables with noticeably smaller form factors thus became known as subnotebooks. The term was applied to the NEC UltraLite, unveiled in 1988 — although its dimensions were very similar to the Compaq LTE. Smaller DOS-based PCs such as the Poqet PC and the Atari Portfolio—both released in 1989—were called either pocket PCs or handhelds. One early subnotebook was the PowerBook 100 released in 1991 by Apple Inc. measuring 8. 5″ deep by 11″ wide by 1. 8″ high and weighing 5.1 lbs. Apple followed-up with PowerBook Duo series in October 1992, which reduced their subnotebook line to 8. 5″ deep by 10. 9″ wide by 1. Another early subnotebook was the Hewlett-Packard OmniBook 300, which was launched as a superportable in 1993. It measured 1.4 ×6.4 ×11.1 inches, the version with an 8. 4″ monochrome screen measured just 1.7 ×7.9 ×9.8 inches and weighed 1.8 kg. Toshiba also introduced the T3400CT at this time which was the first subnotebook with a color screen, then Toshiba really put the subnotebook PC format on the map in 1995 with the Libretto 20. This featured a 6. 1″ screen and 270 MB hard disk, cNet reported about the Libretto 50CT that is the first full-fledged Windows 95 notebook in the United States weighing less than two pounds. In 1997, Apple launched the relatively light-weight but short-lived PowerBook 2400c and this was co-designed by IBM and made for Apple by IBM Japan to replace the aging PowerBook Duo line. However, it measured 1.9 ×8.5 ×10.5 inches, IBM had sold thin and light models in its ThinkPad range, such as the ThinkPad 560 ultraportable and best-selling ThinkPad 600. It finally entered the market in 1999 with the 1.3 kg ThinkPad 240
3.
Netbook
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Netbook is a generic name given to a category of small, lightweight, legacy-free, and inexpensive laptop computers that were introduced in 2007. Netbooks compete in the market segment as tablet computers and Chromebooks. Over the course of their evolution, netbooks have ranged in size from below 5 screen diagonal to 12, a typical weight is 1 kg. In the short period since their appearance, netbooks grew in size and features, by 2011, the increasing popularity of tablet computers —a different form factor, but with improved computing capabilities and lower production cost—had led to a decline in netbook sales. Many major netbook producing companies stopped producing them by the end of 2012, many netbook products were replaced on the market by Chromebooks, a variation on the network computer concept in the form of a netbook. With the rise of Chromebooks in 2014, Microsoft began a new effort at creating viable netbooks, HP re-entered the non-Chromebook netbook market with the Stream 11 in 2014. The origins of the netbook can be traced to the highly popular Toshiba range of Libretto sub-notebooks, the 6 Libretto 20 dates back to early 1996 and weighed only 840g. Apple also had a line of PowerBook Duos that were ultra-portable Macintosh laptops in the mid 90s, more recently, Psions now-discontinued netBook line, the OLPC XO-1 and the Palm Foleo were all small, portable, network-enabled computers. The generic use of the netbook, however, began in 2007 when Asus unveiled the Asus Eee PC. Originally designed for emerging markets, the 23 cm ×17 cm device weighed about 0, following the Eee PC, Everex launched its Linux-based CloudBook, Windows XP and Windows Vista models were also introduced and MSI released the Wind—others soon followed suit. When the first Asus Eee PC sold over 300,000 units in four months, companies such as Dell and Acer took note, and while the OLPC XO-1 targets a different audience than do the other manufacturers netbooks, it appears that OLPC is now facing competition. Developing countries now have a choice of vendors, from which they can choose which low-cost netbook they prefer. By late 2008, netbooks had begun to market share away from notebooks. This is illustrated by the fact that typical system performance of a netbook is on the level of a mainstream PC in 2001 and it is estimated that almost thirty times more netbooks were sold in 2008 than in 2007. This trend is reinforced by the rise of web-based applications as well as networking and, according to Wired Magazine. The ongoing recession is also helping with the sales of netbooks. These were provided under Prime Minister Kevin Rudds Digital Education Revolution, the netbooks ran Windows 7 Enterprise. These netbooks were secured with Computrace Lojack for laptops that the police can use to track the device if it is lost or stolen, the NSW DET retains ownership of these netbooks until the student graduates from Year 12, when the student can keep it
4.
Operating system
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An operating system is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require a system to function. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer – from cellular phones, the dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83. 3%. MacOS by Apple Inc. is in place, and the varieties of Linux is in third position. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors, other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many applications. A single-tasking system can run one program at a time. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types, in preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e. g. Solaris, Linux, cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking, 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking. Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem, a distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing, distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses, embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy and they are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design, Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. A real-time operating system is a system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could run different programs in succession to speed up processing
5.
Ubuntu Netbook Edition
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UNE was available starting with Ubuntu release 8.04. Canonical, the developers of Ubuntu, collaborated with the Moblin project to ensure optimization for lower hardware requirements, beginning with version 10.10, Ubuntu Netbook Edition used the Unity desktop as its desktop interface. The classic netbook interface was available in Ubuntus software repositories as an option, because Ubuntus desktop edition has moved to the same Unity interface as the netbook edition, starting with Ubuntu 11.04, the netbook edition was merged into the desktop edition. UNE could be installed in several ways, by first installing the regular Ubuntu package, then adding the UNE repository, starting with Ubuntu 10.04, the packages are available on main repositories. Starting with UNE10.10, the interface was switched to Unity, dell Ubuntu Netbook Edition is built specifically for the hardware profile of the Inspiron Mini 9, and is also available for the Inspiron Mini 12. It includes a custom interface and launcher as well as non-free codecs such as MPEG-4. It began shipping on September 22,2008, Ubuntu Netbook Edition installed and ran correctly on the original Celeron M900 MHz Asus Eee PC, but performance and graphical displays were hindered in comparison to Atom-based netbooks
6.
Windows XP
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Windows XP is a personal computer operating system that was produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It was released to manufacturing on August 24,2001, however, in January 2000, both projects were shelved in favor of a single OS codenamed Whistler, which would serve as a single OS platform for both consumer and business markets. Windows XP was an advance from the MS-DOS based versions of Windows in security, stability. It introduced a significantly redesigned graphical user interface and was the first version of Windows to use product activation in an effort to reduce its copyright infringement. Despite some initial concerns over the new licensing model and product activation system, Windows XP eventually proved to be popular and widely used. It is estimated that at least 400 million copies of Windows XP were sold globally within its first five years of availability, sales of Windows XP licenses to original equipment manufacturers ceased on June 30,2008, but continued for netbooks until October 2010. Windows XP remained popular even after the release of newer versions, vistas 2009 successor, Windows 7, only overtook XP in total market share at the end of 2011. Extended support for Windows XP ended on April 8,2014, as of November 2016, Windows XP desktop market share makes it the fourth most popular Windows version after Windows 7, Windows 10 and Windows 8.1. Windows XP is still popular in some countries, Africa as a whole and in Asia, e. g. in China. A number of activity centers were planned, serving as hubs for email communications, playing music, managing or viewing photos, searching the Internet, however, the project proved to be too ambitious. Microsoft discussed a plan to delay Neptune in favor of an interim OS known as Asteroid, which would have been an update to Windows 2000, and since Neptune and Odyssey would be based on the same code-base anyway, it made sense to combine them into a single project. In June 2000, Microsoft began the technical beta testing process, Whistler was expected to be available in Personal, Professional, Server, Advanced Server. At PDC on July 13,2000, Microsoft announced that Whistler would be released during the half of 2001. Build 2257 featured further refinements to the Watercolor theme, along with the introduction of the two-column Start menu. Microsoft released Whistler Beta 1, build 2296, on October 31,2000, build 2410 in January 2001 introduced Internet Explorer 6.0 and the Microsoft Product Activation system. Making it very friendly for the user to use. Builds 2416 and 2419 added the File and Transfer Settings Wizard, on February 5,2001, Microsoft officially announced that Whistler would be known as Windows XP, where XP stands for experience. As a complement, the version of Microsoft Office was also announced as Office XP
7.
Dell
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Dell Inc. is a multinational computer technology company based in Round Rock, Texas, United States, that develops, sells, repairs, and supports computers and related products and services. The company is a subsidiary of Dell Technologies, which was formed by the 2016 merger of Dell Inc. eponymously named after its founder, Michael Dell, the company is one of the largest technological corporations in the world, employing more than 103,300 people worldwide. Dell sells personal computers, servers, data storage devices, network switches, software, computer peripherals, HDTVs, cameras, printers, MP3 players, and electronics built by other manufacturers. Dell was a pure hardware vendor for much of its existence, Dell was listed at number 51 in the Fortune 500 list, until 2014. After going private in 2013, the confidential nature of its financial information prevents the company from being ranked by Fortune. In 2015, it was the third largest PC vendor in the world after Lenovo, Dell is currently the #1 shipper of PC monitors in the world. Dell is the sixth largest company in Texas by total revenue and it is the second largest non-oil company in Texas – behind AT&T – and the largest company in the Greater Austin area. It was a traded company, as well as a component of the NASDAQ-100 and S&P500. On September 7,2016, Dell Inc. acquired EMC Corporation to form Dell Technologies, Michael Dell founded PCs Limited while a student of the University of Texas at Austin. The dorm-room headquartered company sold IBM PC-compatible computers built from stock components, Dell dropped out of school to focus full-time on his fledgling business, after getting $1,000 in expansion-capital from his family. In 1985, the company produced the first computer of its own design, the Turbo PC, Dell appeared in PCs Limited advertisements in national magazines, asking readers to give us a chance to show you what can do. Selling directly to consumers custom-assembled computers according to a selection of options, in 1986, Michael Dell brought in Lee Walker, a 51-year-old venture capitalist, as president and chief operating officer, to serve as mentor and to implement Dells ideas for growing the company. Walker was also instrumental in recruiting members to the board of directors when the company went public in 1988, the company dropped the PC’s Limited name in 1987 to become Dell Computer Corporation and began expanding globally. In June 1988, Dells market capitalization grew by $30 million to $80 million from its June 22 initial public offering of 3.5 million shares at $8.50 a share. In 1992, Fortune magazine included Dell Computer Corporation in its list of the worlds 500 largest companies, making Michael Dell the youngest CEO of a Fortune 500 company ever. In 1993, to complement its own direct sales channel, Dell planned to sell PCs at big-box retail outlets such as Wal-Mart, bain consultant Kevin Rollins persuaded Michael Dell to pull out of these deals, believing they would be money losers in the long run. Margins at retail were thin at best and Dell left the channel in 1994. Rollins would soon join Dell full-time and eventually become the company President, Dell found an opportunity among PC-savvy individuals who liked the convenience of buying direct, customizing their PC to their means, and having it delivered in days
8.
Solid-state drive
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A solid-state drive is a solid-state storage device that uses integrated circuit assemblies as memory to store data persistently. SSD technology primarily uses electronic interfaces compatible with traditional block input/output hard disk drives, additionally, new I/O interfaces like SATA Express and M.2 have been designed to address specific requirements of the SSD technology. SSDs have no moving mechanical components and this distinguishes them from traditional electromechanical magnetic disks such as hard disk drives or floppy disks, which contain spinning disks and movable read/write heads. Compared with electromechanical disks, SSDs are typically resistant to physical shock, run silently. However, while the price of SSDs has continued to decline over time, as of 2015, most SSDs use MLC NAND-based flash memory, which is a type of non-volatile memory that retains data when power is lost. For applications requiring fast access but not necessarily data persistence after power loss, such devices may employ batteries as integrated power sources to retain data for a certain amount of time after external power is lost. SSDs had origins in the 1950s with two similar technologies, magnetic core memory and charged capacitor read-only storage and these auxiliary memory units emerged during the era of vacuum-tube computers, though their use ceased with the introduction of cheaper drum storage units. Later, in the 1970s and 1980s, SSDs were implemented in memory for early supercomputers of IBM, Amdahl, and Cray. In the late 1970s, General Instruments produced an electrically alterable ROM which operated somewhat like the later NAND flash memory, unfortunately, a ten-year life was not achievable and many companies abandoned the technology. In 1976, Dataram started selling a product called Bulk Core, in 1978, Texas Memory Systems introduced a 16 kilobyte RAM solid-state drive to be used by oil companies for seismic data acquisition. The following year, StorageTek developed the first RAM solid-state drive, the Sharp PC-5000, introduced in 1983, used 128-kilobyte solid-state storage cartridges containing bubble memory. In 1984, Tallgrass Technologies Corporation had a backup unit of 40 MB with a solid state 20 MB unit built in. The 20 MB unit could be used instead of a hard drive, in September 1986, Santa Clara Systems introduced BatRam, a 4 megabyte mass storage system expandable to 20 MB using 4 MB memory modules. The package included a battery to preserve the memory chip contents when the array was not powered. 1987 saw the entry of EMC Corporation into the SSD market, however, by 1993, EMC had exited the SSD market. Software-based RAM disks remain in use as of 2016 because they are an order of faster than other technology, though they consume CPU resources. In 1989, the Psion MC400 laptop included four slots for removable storage in the form of flash-based solid-state disk cards, in 1991, SanDisk Corporation created a 20 MB solid state drive which sold for around $1,000. In 1994, STEC, Inc. bought Cirrus Logics flash controller operation, in 1995, M-Systems introduced flash-based solid-state drives
9.
Moblin
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Moblin, short for mobile Linux, was an open source operating system and application stack for Mobile Internet Devices, netbooks, nettops and embedded devices. It first merged with the Maemo effort and then both were integrated with the MeeGo project, Nokia stopped all MeeGo development after switching to Windows Phone. Intel discontinued work on MeeGo using Tizen instead, after the MeeGo project was scrapped, a group of people left Nokia and formed their own company, Jolla Oy. Jolla is currently developing the successor of MeeGo, Sailfish OS, built around the Intel Atom processor, all builds were designed to minimize boot times and power consumption as a netbook and MID-centric operating system. The netbook/desktop version of Moblin supported other chipsets based on the SSSE3 instruction set, such as the Core2, dell also once accepted orders for its Ubuntu Moblin Remix, a Canonical Ltd. which built Moblin on top of Ubuntu distribution as base. Few commercial products existed around Moblin 2 most prominently a Foxconn netbook, Mandriva offered Moblins v2 version to all Mandriva distribution and netbook owners. At the Consumer Electronics Show in January 2010, MSI and Novell announced SUSE Moblin preloaded on the MSI U135 netbook and it was demonstrated at both the MSI and Intel booths at the show. In addition, Samsung showed four netbooks preloaded with SUSE Moblin, at the Mobile World Congress in February 2010, it was announced that the Moblin project would be merging with Maemo to create the MeeGo mobile software platform. Intel launched the Moblin. org site in July 2007 and significantly updated the site in April 2008 with the launch of the Intel Atom processor family at the Intel Developer Forum in Shanghai, a custom software development kit is available on the site. The Moblin 2 OS was specifically designed to run on an Intel Atom processor in a netbook, in April 2009, Intel turned Moblin over to the Linux Foundation. Subsequently, Moblin was merged with Maemo, becoming MeeGo, meeGos development was also hosted by the Linux Foundation, and initially governed by a Technical Steering Group overseen by Imad Sousou of Intel and Nokias Valtteri Halla. The Linux Foundation canceled MeeGo in September 2011 in favor of Tizen, on May 19,2009, Imad Sousou announced the release of Moblin v2.0 beta for Netbooks and Nettops for developer testing. Moblin 2s Core distribution is based on recent builds of Fedora, the new UI also includes an integrated Gecko web browser. The Register was impressed by the interface but noted the presence of quite a few apparent bugs, Moblin Image Creator, allows developers to create a custom Linux file system for a device. Kernel, platform-specific patches to the Linux kernel and various other device drivers, UI Framework, screen interface and its underlying Clutter- and GTK+-based framework. The Moblin browser supports key plug-ins like Adobe Flash, multimedia, audio and video playback and photo viewing including Helix or GStreamer multimedia frameworks with Universal Plug and Play support through the GUPnP library. Linux Connection Manager, Internet connections that can be extended through plug-ins to support various wired or wireless technologies, myzone is a variation on the desktop or home screen. It provides an overview of the user’s latest activities on the system. fm, a custom toolbar provides more personalized content on the screens it navigates to, than most toolbars do
10.
Central processing unit
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The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called cores, in that context, one can speak of such single chips as sockets. Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, there also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources. Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be rewired to perform different tasks. Since the term CPU is generally defined as a device for software execution, the idea of a stored-program computer was already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchlys ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30,1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC and it was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a number of instructions of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time, with von Neumanns design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger, however, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit. The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers, both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, the so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. Relays and vacuum tubes were used as switching elements, a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches, tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube-based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems, most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, the design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices
11.
Hertz
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The hertz is the unit of frequency in the International System of Units and is defined as one cycle per second. It is named for Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, the first person to provide proof of the existence of electromagnetic waves. Hertz are commonly expressed in SI multiples kilohertz, megahertz, gigahertz, kilo means thousand, mega meaning million, giga meaning billion and tera for trillion. Some of the units most common uses are in the description of waves and musical tones, particularly those used in radio-. It is also used to describe the speeds at which computers, the hertz is equivalent to cycles per second, i. e. 1/second or s −1. In English, hertz is also used as the plural form, as an SI unit, Hz can be prefixed, commonly used multiples are kHz, MHz, GHz and THz. One hertz simply means one cycle per second,100 Hz means one hundred cycles per second, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event—for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1 Hz, the rate of aperiodic or stochastic events occur is expressed in reciprocal second or inverse second in general or, the specific case of radioactive decay, becquerels. Whereas 1 Hz is 1 cycle per second,1 Bq is 1 aperiodic radionuclide event per second, the conversion between a frequency f measured in hertz and an angular velocity ω measured in radians per second is ω =2 π f and f = ω2 π. This SI unit is named after Heinrich Hertz, as with every International System of Units unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case. Note that degree Celsius conforms to this rule because the d is lowercase. — Based on The International System of Units, the hertz is named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, who made important scientific contributions to the study of electromagnetism. The name was established by the International Electrotechnical Commission in 1930, the term cycles per second was largely replaced by hertz by the 1970s. One hobby magazine, Electronics Illustrated, declared their intention to stick with the traditional kc. Mc. etc. units, sound is a traveling longitudinal wave which is an oscillation of pressure. Humans perceive frequency of waves as pitch. Each musical note corresponds to a frequency which can be measured in hertz. An infants ear is able to perceive frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz, the range of ultrasound, infrasound and other physical vibrations such as molecular and atomic vibrations extends from a few femtoHz into the terahertz range and beyond. Electromagnetic radiation is described by its frequency—the number of oscillations of the perpendicular electric and magnetic fields per second—expressed in hertz. Radio frequency radiation is measured in kilohertz, megahertz, or gigahertz
12.
Megabyte
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The megabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. Its recommended unit symbol is MB, but sometimes MByte is used, the unit prefix mega is a multiplier of 1000000 in the International System of Units. Therefore, one megabyte is one million bytes of information and this definition has been incorporated into the International System of Quantities. However, in the computer and information fields, several other definitions are used that arose for historical reasons of convenience. A common usage has been to one megabyte as 1048576bytes. However, most standards bodies have deprecated this usage in favor of a set of binary prefixes, less common is a convention that used the megabyte to mean 1000×1024 bytes. The megabyte is commonly used to measure either 10002 bytes or 10242 bytes, the interpretation of using base 1024 originated as a compromise technical jargon for the byte multiples that needed to be expressed by the powers of 2 but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 approximates 1000, roughly corresponding to the SI prefix kilo-, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission proposed standards for binary prefixes requiring the use of megabyte to strictly denote 10002 bytes and mebibyte to denote 10242 bytes. By the end of 2009, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, ISO, the Mac OS X10.6 file manager is a notable example of this usage in software. Since Snow Leopard, file sizes are reported in decimal units, base 21 MB =1048576 bytes is the definition used by Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory, such as RAM. This definition is synonymous with the binary prefix mebibyte. Mixed 1 MB =1024000 bytes is the used to describe the formatted capacity of the 1.44 MB3. 5inch HD floppy disk. Semiconductor memory doubles in size for each address lane added to an integrated circuit package, the capacity of a disk drive is the product of the sector size, number of sectors per track, number of tracks per side, and the number of disk platters in the drive. Changes in any of these factors would not usually double the size, sector sizes were set as powers of two for convenience in processing. It was an extension to give the capacity of a disk drive in multiples of the sector size, giving a mix of decimal. Depending on compression methods and file format, a megabyte of data can roughly be, a 4 megapixel JPEG image with normal compression. Approximately 1 minute of 128 kbit/s MP3 compressed music,6 seconds of uncompressed CD audio. A typical English book volume in plain text format, the human genome consists of DNA representing 800 MB of data
13.
Gigabyte
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The gigabyte is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 109 in the International System of Units, the unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB. However, the term is used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote 1073741824 bytes. The use of gigabyte may thus be ambiguous, to address this ambiguity, the International System of Quantities standardizes the binary prefixes which denote a series of integer powers of 1024. With these prefixes, a module that is labeled as having the size 1GB has one gibibyte of storage capacity. The term gigabyte is commonly used to mean either 10003 bytes or 10243 bytes, the latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 is approximately 1000, roughly corresponding to SI multiples, in 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission published standards for binary prefixes, requiring that the gigabyte strictly denote 10003 bytes and gibibyte denote 10243 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE, EU, and NIST and this is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission. The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are an example of this usage in software. The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as is the principle of binary computers. This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems, such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory and this definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte. Since the first disk drive, the IBM350, disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes, with the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers based most consumer hard drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as 500 GB. The exact capacity of a given model is usually slightly larger than the class designation. Practically all manufacturers of disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as 1000000000bytes. Some operating systems such as OS X express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers and this discrepancy causes confusion, as a disk with an advertised capacity of, for example,400 GB might be reported by the operating system as 372 GB, meaning 372 GiB. The JEDEC memory standards use IEEE100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as 1073741824bytes and this means that a 300 GB hard disk might be indicated variously as 300 GB,279 GB or 279 GiB, depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences even more pronounced. Some legal challenges have been waged over this confusion such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital, Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity
14.
Liquid-crystal display
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A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
15.
Dots per inch
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Dots per inch is a measure of spatial printing or video dot density, in particular the number of individual dots that can be placed in a line within the span of 1 inch. Monitors do not have dots, but do have pixels, the related concept for monitors. Many resources, including the Android developer guide, use the terms DPI and PPI interchangeably, old CRT type video displays were almost universally rated in dot pitch, which refers to the spacing between the sub-pixel red, green and blue dots which made up the pixels themselves. Monitor manufacturers used the term dot trio pitch, the measurement of the distance between the centers of adjacent groups of three dots/rectangles/squares on the CRT screen. Monitors commonly used dot pitches of 0.39,0.33,0.32,0.29,0.27,0.25, LCD monitors have a trio of sub pixels, which are more easily measured. This is caused by the spreading of ink on the surface of the media, up to a point, printers with higher DPI produce clearer and more detailed output. A printer does not necessarily have a single DPI measurement, it is dependent on print mode, the range of DPI supported by a printer is most dependent on the print head technology it uses. A dot matrix printer, for example, applies ink via tiny rods striking an ink ribbon, an inkjet printer sprays ink through tiny nozzles, and is typically capable of 300–720 DPI. A laser printer applies toner through an electrostatic charge. The DP measurement of a printer often needs to be higher than the pixels per inch measurement of a video display in order to produce similar-quality output. This is due to the range of colors for each dot typically available on a printer. Higher-end inkjet printers can offer 5,6 or 7 ink colors giving 32,64 or 128 possible tones per dot location, contrast this to a standard sRGB monitor where each pixel produces 256 intensities of light in each of three channels. While some color printers can produce variable drop volumes at each dot position, and may use additional ink-color channels and this dithered printing process could require a region of four to six dots in order to faithfully reproduce the color in a single pixel. Fittingly,600 dpi is now the output resolution of entry-level laser printers and some utility inkjet printers, with 1200/1440. In printing, DPI refers to the resolution of a printer or imagesetter. DPI refers to the dot density of an image when it is reproduced as a real physical entity. A digitally stored image has no inherent physical dimensions, measured in inches or centimeters, some digital file formats record a DPI value, or more commonly a PPI value, which is to be used when printing the image. This number lets the printer or software know the size of the image, or in the case of scanned images
16.
Computer keyboard
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In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys to act as a mechanical lever or electronic switch. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape, interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the input device for computers. A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys, however, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs, other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands. In normal usage, the keyboard is used as a text entry interface to type text and numbers into a word processor, in a modern computer, the interpretation of key presses is generally left to the software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and reports all key presses to the controlling software, Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is used to give commands to the operating system of a computer, such as Windows Control-Alt-Delete combination. A command-line interface is a type of user interface operated entirely through a keyboard and it was through such devices that modern computer keyboards inherited their layouts. Earlier models were developed separately by individuals such as Royal Earl House, earlier, Herman Hollerith developed the first keypunch devices, which soon evolved to include keys for text and number entry akin to normal typewriters by the 1930s. From the 1940s until the late 1960s, typewriters were the means of data entry. The keyboard remained the primary, most integrated computer peripheral well into the era of personal computing until the introduction of the mouse as a device in 1984. By this time, text-only user interfaces with sparse graphics gave way to comparatively graphics-rich icons on screen, One factor determining the size of a keyboard is the presence of duplicate keys, such as a separate numeric keyboard, for convenience. A keyboard with few keys is called a keypad, another factor determining the size of a keyboard is the size and spacing of the keys. Reduction is limited by the consideration that the keys must be large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Alternatively a tool is used for pressing small keys, standard alphanumeric keyboards have keys that are on three-quarter inch centers, and have a key travel of at least 0.150 inches. Desktop computer keyboards, such as the 101-key US traditional keyboards or the 104-key Windows keyboards, include characters, punctuation symbols, numbers. The internationally common 102/104 key keyboards have a left shift key. Also the enter key is usually shaped differently, computer keyboards are similar to electric-typewriter keyboards but contain additional keys, such as the command or Windows keys
17.
Touchpad
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Touchpads are a common feature of laptop computers, and are also used as a substitute for a mouse where desk space is scarce. Because they vary in size, they can also be found on personal digital assistants, wireless touchpads are also available as detached accessories. Touchpads operate in one of several ways, including capacitive sensing, the most common technology used as of 2010 entails sensing the capacitive virtual ground effect of a finger, or the capacitance between sensors. Capacitance-based touchpads will not sense the tip of a pencil or other similar implement, gloved fingers may also be problematic. While touchpads, like touchscreens, are able to sense absolute position, resolution is limited by their size, hardware buttons equivalent to a standard mouses left and right buttons are positioned below, above, or beside the touchpad. Some touchpads and associated device driver software may interpret tapping the pad as a click, Tactile touchpads allow for clicking and dragging by incorporating button functionality into the surface of the touchpad itself. To select, one presses down on the touchpad instead of a physical button, to drag, instead performing the click-and-a-half technique, one presses down while on the object, drags without releasing pressure and lets go when done. Touchpad drivers can also allow the use of fingers to facilitate the other mouse buttons. Some touchpads have hotspots, locations on the used for functionality beyond a mouse. Many touchpads use two-finger dragging for scrolling, also, some touchpad drivers support tap zones, regions where a tap will execute a function, for example, pausing a media player or launching an application. All of these functions are implemented in the device driver software. By 1982 Apollo desktop computers were equipped with a touchpad on the side of the keyboard. Introduced a year later, the Gavilan SC included a touchpad above its keyboard, a touchpad was first developed for Psions MC 200/400/600/WORD Series in 1989. Olivetti and Triumph-Adler introduced the first laptops with touchpad in 1992. Cirque introduced the first widely available touchpad, branded as GlidePoint, in 1994. Apple Inc introduced touchpads to the laptop in the PowerBook series in 1994, using Cirque’s GlidePoint technology. Another early adopter of the GlidePoint pointing device was Sharp, later, Synaptics introduced their touchpad into the marketplace, branded the TouchPad. Epson was an early adopter of this product, as touchpads began to be introduced in laptops in the 1990s, there was often confusion as to what the product should be called. No consistent term was used, and references varied, such as, glidepoint, touch sensitive input device, touchpad, trackpad, users were often presented the option to purchase a pointing stick, touchpad, or trackball
18.
Microphone
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A microphone, colloquially nicknamed mic or mike, is a transducer that converts sound into an electrical signal. Several different types of microphone are in use, which employ different methods to convert the air pressure variations of a wave to an electrical signal. Microphones typically need to be connected to a preamplifier before the signal can be recorded or reproduced, in order to speak to larger groups of people, a need arose to increase the volume of the human voice. The earliest devices used to achieve this were acoustic megaphones, some of the first examples, from fifth century BC Greece, were theater masks with horn-shaped mouth openings that acoustically amplified the voice of actors in amphitheatres. In 1665, the English physicist Robert Hooke was the first to experiment with an other than air with the invention of the lovers telephone made of stretched wire with a cup attached at each end. German inventor Johann Philipp Reis designed an early sound transmitter that used a strip attached to a vibrating membrane that would produce intermittent current. Better results were achieved with the transmitter design in Scottish-American Alexander Graham Bells telephone of 1876 – the diaphragm was attached to a conductive rod in an acid solution. These systems, however, gave a poor sound quality. The first microphone that enabled proper voice telephony was the carbon microphone and this was independently developed by David Edward Hughes in England and Emile Berliner and Thomas Edison in the US. Although Edison was awarded the first patent in mid-1877, Hughes had demonstrated his working device in front of many witnesses some years earlier, the carbon microphone is the direct prototype of todays microphones and was critical in the development of telephony, broadcasting and the recording industries. Thomas Edison refined the carbon microphone into his carbon-button transmitter of 1886 and this microphone was employed at the first ever radio broadcast, a performance at the New York Metropolitan Opera House in 1910. In 1916, E. C. Wente of Western Electric developed the next breakthrough with the first condenser microphone, in 1923, the first practical moving coil microphone was built. The Marconi Skykes or magnetophon, developed by Captain H. J. Round, was the standard for BBC studios in London and this was improved in 1930 by Alan Blumlein and Herbert Holman who released the HB1A and was the best standard of the day. Also in 1923, the microphone was introduced, another electromagnetic type, believed to have been developed by Harry F. Olson. Over the years these microphones were developed by companies, most notably RCA that made large advancements in pattern control. With television and film technology booming there was demand for high fidelity microphones, electro-Voice responded with their Academy Award-winning shotgun microphone in 1963. During the second half of 20th century development advanced quickly with the Shure Brothers bringing out the SM58, digital was pioneered by Milab in 1999 with the DM-1001. The latest research developments include the use of optics, lasers and interferometers
19.
Pixel
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The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, McFarland said simply it was in use at the time. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera. This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as,2400 pixels per inch,640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image
20.
Camera
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Thumb|A2016 Nikon D810 A camera is an optical instrument for recording or capturing images, which may be stored locally, transmitted to another location, or both. The images may be individual still photographs or sequences of images constituting videos or movies, the camera is a remote sensing device as it senses subjects without physical contact. The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means dark chamber and is the Latin name of the device for projecting an image of external reality onto a flat surface. The modern photographic camera evolved from the camera obscura, the functioning of the camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye. A camera may work with the light of the spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A still camera is a device which creates a single image of an object or scene. All cameras use the basic design, light enters an enclosed box through a converging lens/convex lens. A shutter mechanism controls the length of time that light can enter the camera, a display, often a liquid crystal display, permits the user to view scene to be recorded and settings such as ISO speed, exposure, and shutter speed. A movie camera or a video camera operates similarly to a camera, except it records a series of static images in rapid succession. When the images are combined and displayed in order, the illusion of motion is achieved, the forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi, Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham s wrote very influential essays about experiments with light through an opening in a darkened room. The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents, before the development of the photographic camera, it had been known for hundreds of years that some substances, such as silver salts, darkened when exposed to sunlight. The first person to use this chemistry to create images was Thomas Wedgwood, to create images, Wedgwood placed items, such as leaves and insect wings, on ceramic pots coated with silver nitrate, and exposed the set-up to light. These images werent permanent, however, as Wedgwood didnt employ a fixing mechanism and he ultimately failed at his goal of using the process to create fixed images created by a camera obscura. The first permanent photograph of an image was made in 1826 by Joseph Nicéphore Niépce using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles. Niépce had been experimenting with ways to fix the images of a camera obscura since 1816, the photograph Niépce succeeded in creating shows the view from his window
21.
Ethernet
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Ethernet /ˈiːθərnɛt/ is a family of computer networking technologies commonly used in local area networks, metropolitan area networks and wide area networks. It was commercially introduced in 1980 and first standardized in 1983 as IEEE802.3, over time, Ethernet has largely replaced competing wired LAN technologies such as token ring, FDDI and ARCNET. The original 10BASE5 Ethernet uses coaxial cable as a medium, while the newer Ethernet variants use twisted pair. Over the course of its history, Ethernet data transfer rates have increased from the original 2.94 megabits per second to the latest 100 gigabits per second. The Ethernet standards comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI physical layer in use with Ethernet, systems communicating over Ethernet divide a stream of data into shorter pieces called frames. As per the OSI model, Ethernet provides services up to, since its commercial release, Ethernet has retained a good degree of backward compatibility. Features such as the 48-bit MAC address and Ethernet frame format have influenced other networking protocols, the primary alternative for some uses of contemporary LANs is Wi-Fi, a wireless protocol standardized as IEEE802.11. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC between 1973 and 1974 and it was inspired by ALOHAnet, which Robert Metcalfe had studied as part of his PhD dissertation. In 1975, Xerox filed a patent application listing Metcalfe, David Boggs, Chuck Thacker, in 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper. Metcalfe left Xerox in June 1979 to form 3Com and he convinced Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel, and Xerox to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard. The so-called DIX standard, for Digital/Intel/Xerox, specified 10 Mbit/s Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and it was published on September 30,1980 as The Ethernet, A Local Area Network. Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specifications, version 2 was published in November,1982 and defines what has become known as Ethernet II. Formal standardization efforts proceeded at the time and resulted in the publication of IEEE802.3 on June 23,1983. Ethernet initially competed with two largely proprietary systems, Token Ring and Token Bus, in the process, 3Com became a major company. 3Com shipped its first 10 Mbit/s Ethernet 3C100 NIC in March 1981, an Ethernet adapter card for the IBM PC was released in 1982, and, by 1985, 3Com had sold 100,000. Parallel port based Ethernet adapters were produced for a time, with drivers for DOS, by the early 1990s, Ethernet became so prevalent that it was a must-have feature for modern computers, and Ethernet ports began to appear on some PCs and most workstations. This process was sped up with the introduction of 10BASE-T and its relatively small modular connector. Since then, Ethernet technology has evolved to meet new bandwidth, in addition to computers, Ethernet is now used to interconnect appliances and other personal devices
22.
IEEE 802.11g-2003
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IEEE802. 11g-2003 or 802. 11g is an amendment to the IEEE802.11 specification that extended throughput to up to 54 Mbit/s using the same 2.4 GHz band as 802. 11b. This specification under the name of Wi-Fi has been implemented all over the world. The 802. 11g protocol is now Clause 19 of the published IEEE802. 11-2007 standard,802.11 is a set of IEEE standards that govern wireless networking transmission methods. They are commonly used today in their 802. 11a,802. 11b,802. 11g,802. 11n and 802. 11ac versions to provide connectivity in the home, office. 802. 11g is the modulation standard for wireless LANs. It works in the 2.4 GHz band but operates at a raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s. Using the CSMA/CA transmission scheme,31.4 Mbit/s is the maximum net throughput possible for packets of 1500 bytes in size and a 54 Mbit/s wireless rate. In practice, access points may not have an ideal implementation,1500 bytes is the usual limit for packets on the Internet and therefore a relevant size to benchmark against. Smaller packets give even lower theoretical throughput, down to 3 Mbit/s using 54 Mbit/s rate and 64 byte packets,802. 11g hardware is fully backwards compatible with 802. 11b hardware. Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the technical process. In an 802. 11g network, however, the presence of a legacy 802. 11b participant will significantly reduce the speed of the overall 802. 11g network, some 802. 11g routers employ a back-compatible mode for 802. 11b clients called 54g LRS. Even though 802. 11g operates in the frequency band as 802. 11b. Of the 52 OFDM subcarriers,48 are for data and 4 are pilot subcarriers with a separation of 0.3125 MHz. Each of these subcarriers can be a BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM, the total bandwidth is 20 MHz with an occupied bandwidth of 16.6 MHz. Symbol duration is 4 microseconds, which includes an interval of 0.8 microseconds. The actual generation and decoding of orthogonal components is done in baseband using DSP which is then upconverted to 2.4 GHz at the transmitter, each of the subcarriers could be represented as a complex number. The time domain signal is generated by taking an Inverse Fast Fourier transform, correspondingly the receiver downconverts, samples at 20 MHz and does an FFT to retrieve the original coefficients. The advantages of using OFDM include reduced multipath effects in reception, the then-proposed 802. 11g standard was rapidly adopted by consumers starting in January 2003, well before ratification, due to the desire for higher speeds and reductions in manufacturing costs
23.
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks. Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, the IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, a manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices, the development of the short-link radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE9202239, issued 1992-07-24, Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund, the specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers, at the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtssons historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, the Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes and, Haralds initials. Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels, each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping enabled, Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying modulation was the modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2. 0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices, devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, the combination of these modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. Bluetooth is a protocol with a master-slave structure
24.
VGA
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Video Graphics Array is the display hardware first introduced with the IBM PS/2 line of computers in 1987. Today, the VGA analog interface is used for high definition video, including resolutions of 1080p, while the transmission bandwidth of VGA is high enough to support even higher resolution playback, there can be picture quality degradation depending on cable quality and length. How discernible this degradation is depends on the individuals eyesight and the display, though it is noticeable when switching to. The VGA supports both All Points Addressable graphics modes, and alphanumeric text modes, the other color modes defaulted to standard EGA or CGA compatible palettes, but could still be redefined if desired using VGA-specific programming. g. 400×600 or 360×480, and thin pixels,16 colors and the 70 Hz refresh rate with e. g. 736×410 mode. Its single-chip implementation allowed the VGA to be placed directly on a PC′s motherboard with a minimum of difficulty, since it only required video memory, timing crystals, the original VGA specifications are as follows,256 KB Video RAM 16-color and 256-color paletted display modes. 262, 144-color global palette Selectable 25.175 MHz or 28.322 MHz master pixel clock Usual line rate fixed at 31, compatibility is almost full at BIOS level, but even at register level, a very high value of compatibility is reached. The formula for the VGA horizontal frequency is thus ×525 kHz =4500 ÷143 kHz ≈31.4685 kHz, All other frequencies used by the VGA card are derived from this value by integer multiplication or division. Since the exactness of quartz oscillators is limited, real cards will have higher or lower frequency. All derived VGA timings can be varied widely by software that bypasses the VGA firmware interface and communicates directly with the VGA hardware, the use of other timings may in fact damage such monitors and thus was usually avoided by software publishers. For the most common VGA mode, the timings are. The figures shown in this image may be inaccurate and not match the above table exactly. The same general layout applies, merely at a lower frequency and these timings are the same in the higher frequency mode, but all pixel counts are correspondingly multiplied by 9/8ths – thus,720 active pixels,900 total per line, and a 54 pixel back porch. The monitor is triggered into synchronising at the higher frame rate by use of a positive-polarity VSync pulse. Depending on manufacturer, the details of active period and front/back porch widths, particularly in the horizontal domain. 640×400 @70 Hz is traditionally the video used for booting most VGA-compatible x86 personal computers which show a graphical boot screen. 640×480 @60 Hz is the default Windows graphics mode, up to Windows 2000 and it remains an option in XP and later versions via the boot menu low resolution video option and per-application compatibility mode settings. 320×200 @70 Hz is the most common mode for VGA-era PC games, using exactly the same timings as the 640×400 mode, the actual timings vary slightly from the defined standard
25.
USB
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It is currently developed by the USB Implementers Forum. USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to personal computers. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs, USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial ports and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices. Also, there are 5 modes of USB data transfer, in order of increasing bandwidth, Low Speed, Full Speed, High Speed, SuperSpeed, USB devices have some choice of implemented modes, and USB version is not a reliable statement of implemented modes. Modes are identified by their names and icons, and the specifications suggests that plugs, unlike other data buses, USB connections are directed, with both upstream and downstream ports emanating from a single host. This applies to power, with only downstream facing ports providing power. Thus, USB cables have different ends, A and B, therefore, in general, each different format requires four different connectors, a plug and receptacle for each of the A and B ends. USB cables have the plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computers or electronic devices, in common practice, the A end is usually the standard format, and the B side varies over standard, mini, and micro. The mini and micro formats also provide for USB On-The-Go with a hermaphroditic AB receptacle, the micro format is the most durable from the point of view of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors have a lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. Likewise, the component of the retention mechanism, parts that provide required gripping force, were also moved into plugs on the cable side. A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994, Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, a team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel, the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995. The original USB1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, Microsoft Windows 95, OSR2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, the 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc. s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB, following Apples design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard. The USB2.0 specification was released in April 2000 and was ratified by the USB Implementers Forum at the end of 2001.1 specification, the USB3.0 specification was published on 12 November 2008. Its main goals were to increase the transfer rate, decrease power consumption, increase power output. USB3.0 includes a new, higher speed bus called SuperSpeed in parallel with the USB2.0 bus, for this reason, the new version is also called SuperSpeed
26.
Asus Eee PC
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The Asus Eee PC is a netbook computer line from ASUSTeK Computer Incorporated, and a part of the Asus Eee product family. At the time of its introduction in late 2007, it was noted for its combination of a lightweight, Linux-based operating system, solid-state drive, newer models added the options of Microsoft Windows operating system, rotating media hard disk drives and initially retailed for up to 500 euros. The first Eee PC was a milestone in the computer business, launching the netbook category of small. According to Asus, the name Eee derives from the three Es, an abbreviation of its slogan for the device, Easy to learn, Easy to work. In January 2013, Asus officially ended production of their Eee PC series, citing declining sales due to consumers favoring tablets, however, they subsequently restarted the line with the release of the EeeBook series in 2015. Asus announced two Eee PC models at Computex Taipei 2007, the 701 and the 1001, the 701 base model Eee PC 4G was released on October 16,2007 in Taiwan. Both the price and the size of the device are small in comparison with similar Ultra-Mobile PCs, the Eee series is a response to the XO-1 notebook from the One Laptop per Child initiative. At the Intel Developer Forum 2007, Asus demonstrated the Classmate PC and the Eee PC, and listed specifications for four models of the Eee PC. In some countries, the products have the marketing names EeePC 8G, 4G, 4G Surf, the 4G Surf uses socketed RAM but some revisions do not have a door to access the slot. Asus released a version of the Eee PC with Microsoft Windows XP pre-installed in January 2008, in Japan, the version is known as the 4G-X. Some users of the 701 physically modified the machine to replace the 4 GB solid state drive, the 8 GB versions of the 700 series leave the SSD area on the motherboard empty and connect their SSD as an internal PCI Express Mini Card. Replacing the SSD requires only an SSD compatible with the connector, the SSD area on the motherboard may also be used to install other devices, or accommodate physically larger SSDs, or even to hard-solder an SSD salvaged from a 2 GB or 4 GB700 model. As this requires only soldering on a new device without removing an old one, the Eee 900 series was launched in Hong Kong on April 16,2008, and in the UK on May 1,2008 for £329. It was launched in the US on May 12,2008, the Eee 900 series dimensions are a little larger than the 70x models–measuring 225 ×165 ×35 mm and weighing around 1 kg. The machine has a multi-touch trackpad allowing two-finger scroll and zoom via a pinch gesture, the Intel Atom version is named the EeePC 900a and comes with an 8GB or 16 GB SSD. Some of these Eee PCs also have a 4 GB SSD installed similarly to that in the 701 for a storage space of 20GB. Those that do not are named the Asus EEE900 16G, the MS Windows XP version is named the EeePC900 Win and also comes in two versions, one with a total storage of 12 GB and one with 16 GB. The Linux 20G version is sold for the price as the MS Windows 12G version
27.
Acer Aspire One
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Acer Aspire One is a diverse line of netbooks released in July 2008 by Acer Inc. Many characteristics of a model of Acer Aspire One are dictated by the CPU platform chosen. Initial models were based on the Intel Atoms, later, models with various AMD chips were introduced. Newer versions of the Atom were adopted as well, higher end models were released in June 2010 consisting of the AMD Athlon II Neo processor and ATI Radeon HD4225 graphics controller. These are available in black, antique brass, or mesh black shells depending on model. Also released was a version of the Aspire One 521 with an AMD-V105 processor running at 1.2 GHz, an ATI Radeon 4225 graphics controller, a range of later models were powered by AMD Brazos APUs. The AMD chips had much more powerful video capabilities but consumed more power and its main competitor in the low-cost netbook market was the Asus Eee PC line. In January 2013, Acer officially ended production of their Aspire One series due to declining sales as a result of consumers favoring tablets, the line was originally manufactured for Acer Inc. by Quanta Computer. Quanta was phased out as a supplier to Acer, and production of the Acer Aspire One line shifted to other manufacturers in 2009. Also starting in 2009, eSobi Inc. partnered with Acer to preload the eSobi News Center on Acer Aspire One netbooks beginning in the first quarter of 2009. Windows XP Home Edition SP3 is installed on the models with an ending in X. It is also possible to install and run Windows Vista or Windows 7 on the earlier model laptop, in high-end versions appearing during 2009, Windows Vista is pre-installed. The lack of a DVD-ROM drive requires creating a bootable USB flash drive using a USB external DVD drive or PXE boot network install. Windows 7 Starter is installed by default on models with a name starting in D such as D255E, models with names starting in L, or ending in A followed by a letter for color, are shipped with Linpus Linux Lite, which is based on Fedora 8. This offers a user interface, with default applications like the Firefox 2 browser, OpenOffice. org 2.3, Acer One Mail. The default desktop environment has been designed to hide advanced features from the user and it is possible to modify the system to present a more traditional Xfce 4 desktop, enable more advanced features such as context menus, or install additional software. It is possible to install and run other Linux distributions on the Acer Aspire One, through the OSx86 project, an Aspire One can boot and run a modified version of Mac OS X, including iAtkos, iDeneb, XxX and Kalyway distributions. This procedure is not supported by Apple or Acer, freeBSD v.8.2 is known to run on the Acer Aspire One, although some limitations apply, lid close not starting a hibernate, and power management which works to a very limited degree
28.
Compal Electronics
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It also licenses brands of its clients. It is the second-largest contract laptop manufacturer in the world behind Quanta Computer, the company is known for producing select models for Dell, Hewlett-Packard and Compaq, and Toshiba. Compal has designed and built laptops for all of the brands as well as custom builders for over 22 years. The company is listed in Taiwan Stock Exchange, as of 2008, revenues were $12.83 billion USD, with a total workforce of 30,000. The companys headquarters is in Taipei, Taiwan, with offices in the Peoples Republic of China, South Korea, the United Kingdom, compals main production facility is in Kunshan, China. Compal is the second largest notebook manufacturer in the world, after Quanta Computers and it is one of the main supporters of Intels Common Building Block initiatives. Compal was founded in June 1984 as a computer peripherals supplier and it went public in April 1990. In September 2011, Compal announced it would form a joint venture with Lenovo to make laptops in China, the venture was expected to start producing laptops by the end of 2012. In January 2015, Toshiba announced that due to price competition it will stop selling televisions in the USA. Compal subsidiary, Compal Communications, is a manufacturer of mobile phones. The phones are produced on an ODM basis, i. e. the handsets are sold though other brands, in 2006, CCI produced 68.8 million handsets, and was the largest mobile handset ODM in the world. CCIs largest customer by far was Motorola, year by year, Motorolas volumes have been reduced, and CCIs volumes have followed. In 2007, the volume was 48.7 million, list of companies of Taiwan Company website
29.
MSI Wind Netbook
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The MSI Wind Netbook was a family of subnotebooks / netbooks designed by Micro-Star International. Wind stands for Wi-Fi Network Device, the first model was announced at CeBIT2008, and first listed for pre-orders on May 9,2008. While initially 8. 9- and 10. 1-inch screen versions existed, as of 2010 only the 10.1 remained, with a resolution of 1024×600. While most models had 1 GB of RAM, some had 2 GB, also featured were Bluetooth, WLAN and a 1.3 megapixel camera. The Wind PC was MSIs response to the successful Asus Eee PC, the keyboard was 92% of full-size. Now available by MSI are 10-inch and 7-inch Wind Pad tablets using the Android operating system, when the original Wind U100 was released, many original equipment manufacturer versions of the Wind were also released, under different names. Advent 4211,4222 as a brand for PC City, PC World and other Dixons Stores Group retailers in Europe. Ahtec LUG N011 in the Netherlands, Spain and Belgium, offered with SUSE Linux, Windows XP or no operating system. Has the same design as the original Wind, comes without logo on the case. Averatec Buddy Axioo Pico in Indonesia with a 160 GB HDD, versions with and without Bluetooth Certified Data U100 in Canada, mivvy M310 in the Czech Republic. But with 2GB of RAM and a 120GB HDD, mouse Computer LuvBook U100 in Japan. Multirama HT Xpress Book in Greece with 160 GB HDD NTT Corrino 101I and Aristo Pico i300 in Poland Positivo Mobo White in Brazil, all sport Intel Atom Processors and range from 512 MB RAM /80 GB HDD to 1 GB RAM and 160 GB HDD. ProLink Glee TA-009 in Singapore with touchpad buttons positioned by the side, the MSI Wind netbooks have been subject to customization, especially as Hackintoshes. Though many other netbooks can also be installed with Mac OS X, the MSI Wind is one of the most popular mainly because of its ideally large keyboard, simple design, and wide availability of options. The MSI Wind can be installed with Mac OS X Snow Leopard 10.6.8 with a modified bootloader, installing Chrome OS and turning it into a Chromebook is also a common customization. Ubuntu 14.04 and Ubuntu 16.10 dual booted with windowsXP, can run on a model U100, using 250Gb Solid State Drive and 2Gb Random Access Memory. USB Bluetooth 2.1, model GBU421 works with this netbook and can successfully transceive all file types with a Samsung S4 smartphone, Sony Ericsson k510a phone, comparison of netbooks current MSI Wind products
30.
HP 2133 Mini-Note PC
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The HP2133 Mini-Note PC was a full-function netbook aimed at the business and education markets. It was available with SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop, Windows Vista or Windows XP and its retail price started at US$499 for the Linux version with 4GB of flash memory. According to DigiTimes, the netbook was manufactured by Inventec, however, according to APC magazine, it was built by Compal Electronics who also make the MSI Wind and the Dell Inspiron Mini 9. The system was replaced in early 2009 by a model, the HP Mini 2140. The machine has a spill-resistant 92%-of-full-size keyboard which Hewlett-Packard says is specially coated to reduce wear on the keys, unusually, the touchpad buttons are to the sides of the pad itself, rather than below it. There is a button above the touchpad to enable/disable the pad. The machines shell is aluminium, while the chassis is anodised magnesium. The screen is protected by a layer of PMMA, the system has an accelerometer-based hard drive shock protection feature called HP 3D DriveGuard. As of October 2008, the HP2133 is one of the few netbooks to feature an ExpressCard/54 slot, other ones being the Lenovo IdeaPad S9, Lenovo IdeaPad S10, NTT Corrino W 100I and the Gigabyte M912. The larger battery projects downwards out of the rear of the machine, a variety of CPU, RAM and mass storage configurations are available, and Bluetooth is available on high-end models. All of the current configurations of the feature a webcam. Operating systems available range from SuSE Linux to Microsoft Windows Vista Home, reviewers have been impressed by the notebooks comfortable keyboard, the high-resolution display, aesthetic design and overall build quality. However, the touchpad, with buttons placed at its sides. The high reflectivity of the screen also caused difficulties in operating the netbook in bright environments, performance was also cause for concern, with neither speed nor battery life particularly impressing reviewers. Review machines also became hot in places on the underside of the chassis, in many revisions of the notebook, the fan vent had an additional dense plastic grill which impeded airflow greatly. The heat problem could mostly be eliminated by removing this inner grill, as of September,2010, the previous two years have seen a significant number of system board failures rendering the unit useless. At some point, when the unit is turned on, while the light will illuminate, there is no other activity. Several owners have been successful in restoring functionality after removing the system board, a web search for problems with the 2133 returns a large number of links to forums and discussions regarding the problem
31.
Tokyo
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Tokyo, officially Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan and one of its 47 prefectures. The Greater Tokyo Area is the most populous area in the world. It is the seat of the Emperor of Japan and the Japanese government, Tokyo is in the Kantō region on the southeastern side of the main island Honshu and includes the Izu Islands and Ogasawara Islands. Formerly known as Edo, it has been the de facto seat of government since 1603 when Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made the city his headquarters. It officially became the capital after Emperor Meiji moved his seat to the city from the old capital of Kyoto in 1868, Tokyo Metropolis was formed in 1943 from the merger of the former Tokyo Prefecture and the city of Tokyo. The Tokyo metropolitan government administers the 23 Special Wards of Tokyo, the metropolitan government also administers 39 municipalities in the western part of the prefecture and the two outlying island chains. The population of the wards is over 9 million people. The prefecture is part of the worlds most populous metropolitan area with upwards of 37.8 million people, the city hosts 51 of the Fortune Global 500 companies, the highest number of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked third in the International Financial Centres Development IndexEdit, the city is also home to various television networks such as Fuji TV, Tokyo MX, TV Tokyo, TV Asahi, Nippon Television, NHK and the Tokyo Broadcasting System. Tokyo ranked first in the Global Economic Power Index and fourth in the Global Cities Index. The city is considered a world city – as listed by the GaWCs 2008 inventory – and in 2014. In 2015, Tokyo was named the Most Liveable City in the world by the magazine Monocle, the Michelin Guide has awarded Tokyo by far the most Michelin stars of any city in the world. Tokyo ranked first in the world in the Safe Cities Index, the 2016 edition of QS Best Student Cities ranked Tokyo as the 3rd-best city in the world to be a university student. Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics, the 1979 G-7 summit, the 1986 G-7 summit, and the 1993 G-7 summit, and will host the 2020 Summer Olympics, Tokyo was originally known as Edo, which means estuary. During the early Meiji period, the city was also called Tōkei, some surviving official English documents use the spelling Tokei. However, this pronunciation is now obsolete, the name Tokyo was first suggested in 1813 in the book Kondō Hisaku, written by Satō Nobuhiro. When Ōkubo Toshimichi proposed the renaming to the government during the Meiji Restoration, according to Oda Kanshi, Tokyo was originally a small fishing village named Edo, in what was formerly part of the old Musashi Province. Edo was first fortified by the Edo clan, in the twelfth century
32.
Intel Atom
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Intel Atom was the brand name for a line of ultra-low-voltage IA-32 and x86-64 microprocessors by Intel Corporation. Atom was mainly used in netbooks, nettops, embedded applications ranging from health care to advanced robotics, the line was originally designed in 45 nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor technology and subsequent models, codenamed Cedar, used a 32 nm process. The first generation of Atom processors are based on the Bonnell microarchitecture, on 21 December 2009, Intel announced the Pine Trail platform, including new Atom processor code-named Pineview, with total kit power consumption down 20%. On 28 December 2011, Intel updated the Atom line with the Cedar processors, in December 2012, Intel launched the 64-bit Centerton family of Atom CPUs, designed specifically for use in servers. Centerton adds features previously unavailable in Atom processors, such as Intel VT virtualization technology, on 4 September 2013 Intel launched a 22 nm successor to Centerton, codenamed Avoton. In 2012, Intel announced a new system on chip platform designed for smartphones and it was a continuation of the partnership announced by Intel and Google on 13 September 2011 to provide support for the Android operating system on Intel x86 processors. This range competed with existing SoCs developed for the smartphone and tablet market from companies like Texas Instruments, Nvidia, Qualcomm, on April 29,2016, Intel announced the decision to cancel the Broxton SoC for Smartphones and Tablets. Broxton was to use the newest Atom microarchitecture in combination with an Intel modem, apollo Lake, announced early the same month for low-cost entry PCs, will continue using Atom cores. Intel Atom is a successor of the Intel A100 and A110 low-power microprocessors. However, Intel revealed on 15 October 2007 that it was developing another new mobile processor, codenamed Diamondville, Atom was the name under which Silverthorne would be sold, while the supporting chipset formerly code-named Menlow was called Centrino Atom. At Spring Intel Developer Forum 2008 in Shanghai, Intel officially announced that Silverthorne, Silverthorne would be called the Atom Z5xx series and Diamondville would be called the Atom N2xx series. The more expensive lower-power Silverthorne parts will be used in Intel mobile Internet devices whereas Diamondville will be used in low-cost desktop, several Mini-ITX motherboard samples have also been revealed. Intel and Lenovo also jointly announced an Atom powered MID called the IdeaPad U8, in April 2008, a MID development kit was announced by Sophia Systems and the first board called CoreExpress-ECO was revealed by a German company LiPPERT Embedded Computers, GmbH. In December 2012, Intel released Atom for servers, the S1200 series, Atom processors became available to system manufacturers in 2008. The Pineview line is used in multiple AAC devices for the disabled individual who is unable to speak. Intel consumer electronic SoCs are marketed under the Atom brand, prior to application of the Atom brand, there were number of Intel CE SoCs including, Olo River and Canmore. Intel Atom CE branded SoCs include, Sodaville, Groveland, all Atom processors implement the x86 instruction set, however, support for the Intel 64 instruction set was not added until the desktop Diamondville and desktop and mobile Pineview cores. The Atom N2xx and Z5xx series Atom models cannot run x86-64 code, the Centerton server processors will support the Intel 64 instruction set
33.
HDMI
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HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the EIA/CEA-861 standards, which video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed, uncompressed, and LPCM audio, auxiliary data. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the visual interface. No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The CEC capability allows HDMI devices to each other when necessary. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since initial release of the technology but all use the same cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTV camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 6,2015, over 4 billion HDMI devices have been sold, the HDMI founders are Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, RCA and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP for HDMI, HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI1.0 on April 16,2002, at the time, DVI-HDCP and DVI-HDTV were being used on HDTVs. HDMI1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a connector and adding audio capability and enhanced YCbCr capability. The first Authorized Testing Center, which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23,2003, in California, the first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1,2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25,2005, in Caen, the first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21,2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12,2008, the HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004,17.4 million in 2005,63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8,2008 there were over 850 consumer electronics, on January 7,2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices
34.
Multi-touch
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In computing, multi-touch is technology that enables a surface to recognize the presence of more than one or more than two points of contact with the surface. The origins of multitouch began at CERN, MIT, University of Toronto, Carnegie Mellon University, the term multi-touch was popularized in 2007 by Apple, though it was in use as early as 1985. This plural-point awareness may be used to implement additional functionality, such as pinch to zoom or to activate certain subroutines attached to predefined gestures, the use of touchscreen technology to control electronic devices pre-dates multi-touch technology and the personal computer. Early synthesizer and electronic instrument builders like Hugh Le Caine and Robert Moog experimented with using touch-sensitive capacitance sensors to control the sounds made by their instruments, early touchscreens only registered one point of touch at a time. On-screen keyboards were thus awkward to use, because key-rollover and holding down a key while typing another were not possible. An exception was a multi-touch reconfigurable touchscreen keyboard/display developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the early 1970s and this technology was used to develop a new type of human machine interface for the control room of the Super Proton Synchrotron particle accelerator. In a handwritten note dated 11 March 1972, Stumpe presented his proposed solution – a capacitive touch screen with a number of programmable buttons presented on a display. The capacitors were to consist of fine lines etched in copper on a sheet of glass – fine enough, in the final device, a simple lacquer coating prevented the fingers from actually touching the capacitors. In 1976, MIT described a keyboard with variable graphics capable of multi-touch detection, in the early 1980s, The University of Torontos Input Research Group were among the earliest to explore the software side of multi-touch input systems. A1982 system at the University of Toronto used a panel with a camera placed behind the glass. When a finger or several fingers pressed on the glass, the camera would detect the action as one or more spots on an otherwise white background. Since the size of a dot was dependent on pressure, the system was somewhat pressure-sensitive as well, of note, this system was input only and not able to display graphics. In 1983, Bell Labs at Murray Hill published a discussion of touch-screen based interfaces. By 1984, both Bell Labs and Carnegie Mellon University had working multi-touch-screen prototypes – both input and graphics – that could respond interactively in response to multiple finger inputs, the Bell Labs system was based on capacitive coupling of fingers, whereas the CMU system was optical. In 1985, the canonical multitouch pinch-to-zoom gesture was demonstrated, with coordinated graphics, an advance occurred in 1991, when Pierre Wellner published a paper on his multi-touch Digital Desk, which supported multi-finger and pinching motions. Various companies expanded upon these inventions in the beginning of the twenty-first century, the company Fingerworks developed various multi-touch technologies between 1999 and 2005, including Touchstream keyboards and the iGesture Pad. Several studies of technology were published in the early 2000s by Alan Hedge, professor of human factors. Apple acquired Fingerworks and its technology in 2005
35.
Linux
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Linux is a Unix-like computer operating system assembled under the model of free and open-source software development and distribution. The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,1991 by Linus Torvalds, the Free Software Foundation uses the name GNU/Linux to describe the operating system, which has led to some controversy. Linux was originally developed for computers based on the Intel x86 architecture. Because of the dominance of Android on smartphones, Linux has the largest installed base of all operating systems. Linux is also the operating system on servers and other big iron systems such as mainframe computers. It is used by around 2. 3% of desktop computers, the Chromebook, which runs on Chrome OS, dominates the US K–12 education market and represents nearly 20% of the sub-$300 notebook sales in the US. Linux also runs on embedded systems – devices whose operating system is built into the firmware and is highly tailored to the system. This includes TiVo and similar DVR devices, network routers, facility automation controls, televisions, many smartphones and tablet computers run Android and other Linux derivatives. The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free, the underlying source code may be used, modified and distributed—commercially or non-commercially—by anyone under the terms of its respective licenses, such as the GNU General Public License. Typically, Linux is packaged in a known as a Linux distribution for both desktop and server use. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use. The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&Ts Bell Laboratories in the United States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, first released in 1971, Unix was written entirely in assembly language, as was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in the C programming language by Dennis Ritchie, the availability of a high-level language implementation of Unix made its porting to different computer platforms easier. Due to an earlier antitrust case forbidding it from entering the computer business, as a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs, freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, the GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, has the goal of creating a complete Unix-compatible software system composed entirely of free software. Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software Foundation, by the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system were completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the kernel were stalled and incomplete. Linus Torvalds has stated that if the GNU kernel had been available at the time, although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD, OpenBSD and FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Torvalds has also stated that if 386BSD had been available at the time, although the complete source code of MINIX was freely available, the licensing terms prevented it from being free software until the licensing changed in April 2000
36.
OSx86
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OSx86 is a collaborative hacking project to run the OS X operating system on non-Apple personal computers with x86 architecture on x86-64 processors. The effort started soon after the June 2005 Worldwide Developers Conference announcement that Apple would be moving its personal computers from PowerPC to Intel microprocessors. A computer built to run this type of OS X is also known as a Hackintosh, a Portmanteau of the word hack, hackintoshed notebook computers are also called Hackbooks. The Apple software license does not allow OS X to be used on a computer that is not Apple-branded. The legality of this form of tying is disputed by such as Psystar, Bizon computer, PearC. On June 6,2005, Apple announced their plans to switch to Intel processors at their Worldwide Developers Conference, Apple released on January 10,2006 Mac OS X10.4.4 with the first generation of Intel-based Macs, the iMac and the MacBook Pro. These machines used Extensible Firmware Interface platform firmware instead of the older style BIOS found on most x86 motherboards at the time. On February 14,2006, a hack of Mac OS X v10.4.4 was released on the Internet by a programmer with the pseudonym crg92. Within hours Apple released the 10.4.5 update, in June, the hackers released the 10.4.7 Mac OS X update for non-Apple computers using the 10.4.4 kernel. Up to the release of the 10.4.8 update, however, the newer frameworks relied on the newer kernels and this led to users of 10.4.8 encountering many problems. Apple also started making use of SSE3 instructions on their hardware making it even more difficult for users with CPUs supporting only SSE2 to get a fully compatible system running. To solve this problem, hackers from the community released kernels where those instructions were emulated with SSE2 equivalents, throughout the years, many distros were released for download over the Internet. These distros were copies of the Mac OS X installer disc modified to include additional components necessary to make the OS run on the non-Apple hardware, a prominent member of the community, JaS, released many distros of Mac OS X Tiger containing patched kernels. Some other popular distros are iATKOS, Kalyway, iPC, iDeneb, distros have fallen out of favour as the OSx86 community grew, as new bootloaders were developed which made it possible to use actual copies of the OS X Installer. As early as Mac OS X v10.5 build 9A466 the community has maintained a version of Leopard that can run on non-Apple hardware and it was utilizing the BrazilMac patch that many effortless distros of Mac OSx86 came to fruition. Five of the most popular builds go by the name JaS, Kalyway, iATKOS, iPC, however, all of these compilations rely on the work of kernel hackers made by Lorem, SynthetiX, ToH and more recently a group calling themselves StageXNU. Their contributions trickled down into the various Mac OSx86 installers, readily available on the Internet and they continue to be refined and updated builds released, not just to maintain compatibility with Apple releases but an ever-increasing number of third-party components. The OSx86 community has been quick to make the modifications to enable Apples latest releases to run on non-Apple hardware
37.
Hyper-threading
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Hyper-threading is Intels proprietary simultaneous multithreading implementation used to improve parallelization of computations performed on x86 microprocessors. It first appeared in February 2002 on Xeon server processors and in November 2002 on Pentium 4 desktop CPUs, later, Intel included this technology in Itanium, Atom, and Core i Series CPUs, among others. For each processor core that is present, the operating system addresses two virtual cores and shares the workload between them when possible. With HTT, one physical core appears as two processors to the system, allowing concurrent scheduling of two processes per core. In addition, two or more processes can use the resources, if resources for one process are not available. In addition to requiring simultaneous multithreading support in the operating system, furthermore, Intel recommends HTT to be disabled when using operating systems unaware of this hardware feature. Hyper-Threading Technology is a form of simultaneous multithreading technology introduced by Intel, architecturally, a processor with Hyper-Threading Technology consists of two logical processors per core, each of which has its own processor architectural state. Each logical processor can be halted, interrupted or directed to execute a specified thread. Unlike a traditional dual-processor configuration that uses two physical processors, the logical processors in a hyper-threaded core share the execution resources. A processor stalls when it is waiting for data it has sent for so it can finish processing the present thread, hyper-threading works by duplicating certain sections of the processor—those that store the architectural state—but not duplicating the main execution resources. This technology is transparent to operating systems and programs, the minimum that is required to take advantage of hyper-threading is symmetric multiprocessing support in the operating system, as the logical processors appear as standard separate processors. It is possible to optimize operating system behavior on multi-processor hyper-threading capable systems, for example, consider an SMP system with two physical processors that are both hyper-threaded. If the operating systems thread scheduler is unaware of hyper-threading, it will treat all four logical processors the same, denelcor, Inc. introduced multi-threading with the HEP in 1982. The HEP pipeline could not hold multiple instructions that belong to the same process, only one instruction from a given process was allowed to be present in the pipeline at any point in time. Should an instruction from a process block in the pipe. US patent for the technology behind hyper-threading was granted to Kenneth Okin at Sun Microsystems in November 1994, back at the time, CMOS process technology was not advanced enough to allow for a cost-effective implementation. Intel implemented hyper-threading on an x86 architecture processor in 2002 with the Foster MP-based Xeon, Intel released the Nehalem in November 2008 in which hyper-threading made a return. The first generation Nehalem contained four cores and effectively scaled eight threads, since then, both two- and six-core models have been released, scaling four and twelve threads respectively
38.
Nickelodeon
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Nickelodeon is an American basic cable and satellite television network launched on December 1,1977, and is owned by Viacom through Viacom Media Networks and based in New York City. It is primarily aimed at children and adolescents aged 7–18 while its weekday morning edutainment programs are targeted at children ages 2–6. As of July 2015, Nickelodeon is available to approximately 93.7 million pay television households in the US, the name of the channel comes from the first five cent movie theaters called nickelodeons. Nickelodeons history dates back to December 1,1977, when Warner Cable Communications launched the first two-way interactive cable system, QUBE, in Columbus, Ohio. Its C-3 cable channel carried Pinwheel daily from 7,00 a. m. to 9,00 p. m. Eastern Time, Nickelodeon launched on April 1,1979, initially distributed to Warner Cable systems via satellite on the RCA Satcom-1 transponder. Originally commercial-free, advertising was introduced in January 1984, the channel also airs reruns of select original series that are no longer in production, as well as occasional original made-for-TV movies. The channel also aired special editions of Nick News with Linda Ellerbee. The channel occasionally airs feature films produced by the networks Nickelodeon Movies film production division, although the film division bears the Nickelodeon brand name, the cable channel does not have access to most of the movies produced by its film unit. Nick Jr. – Nickelodeon currently programs shows targeted at preschool-age children on Monday through Fridays from 8,30 am-3,00 pm Eastern, the block primarily targets audiences of preschool age as Nickelodeons usual audience of school-age children are in school during the blocks designated time period. Programs currently seen in this block include Blaze and the Monster Machines, Team Umizoomi, Bubble Guppies, PAW Patrol, Max & Ruby, Saturday morning block - a morning block of primarily animated series from 9 am-12,30 pm Eastern and Pacific Time. It launched on September 22,2012, as Gotta See Saturday Mornings, recent episodes of certain original series may air when no new episodes are scheduled to air that week. The schedule features series such as SpongeBob SquarePants, Bunsen Is a Beast, ALVINNN. nicks New Saturday Night – a primetime live-action block airing from 8-10pm Eastern and Pacific Time. It launched on September 22,2012, as Gotta See Saturday Nights, recent episodes of certain original series may air when no new episodes are scheduled to air that week. The schedule features The Thundermans and Henry Danger, premieres of the networks original made-for-cable movies also occasionally air during the primetime block, usually in the form of premiere showings. SNICK – SNICK was the networks first dedicated Saturday primetime block that aired from 8,00 to 10,00 p. m. Eastern, geared toward pre-teens and teenagers, it debuted on August 15,1992. The block featured mainly live-action series, although it featured animated series. SNICK was discontinued on August 28,2004, and was replaced the following week by a Saturday night edition of the TEENick block and it was hosted by Stick Stickly, a Mr. Bill-like popsicle stick character. The block was replaced for the summer of 1999 by Henry, the Stick Stickly character was later revived for The 90s Are All That on TeenNick, which debuted in 2011
39.
Stardock
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Stardock Corporation is a software development company founded in 1991 and incorporated in 1993 as Stardock Systems. Stardock initially developed for the OS/2 platform, but was forced to switch to Microsoft Windows due to the collapse of the OS/2 software market between 1997 and 1998. Stardock created and maintains WinCustomize, a user interface customization community. Many of the skins and themes featured on its site are for software that is part of their Object Desktop windows desktop suite and they are based in Plymouth, Michigan. Stardock was founded by college student Brad Wardell and named after Raymond E. Feists Riftwar Saga, Stardock began as a custom PC maker, Stardocks initial product was a computer game for OS/2 called Galactic Civilizations. Stardock went on to create OS/2 Essentials, and its successor, Object Desktop, at about this time, IBM decided to abandon OS/2. However, they did not make this public, and Stardock continued to develop applications software and games for the platform, including Avarice. A key revealing point was the failure of its game Trials of Battle, a 3D hovercraft fighting game, Brad Wardell estimates that the death of OS/2 set the company back by about three years. Having put together a basic package Stardock began to bring in external developers to create original products, Stardocks first major Windows success was with WindowBlinds, an application originated by a partnership with developer Neil Banfield. There turned out to be a market for skinnable products. The release of Windows XP stimulated sales in Stardock products, in 2001, they added a widget creation and desktop modification tool, DesktopX, based on Alberto Riccios VDE. This has not had such a wide uptake as other products, some believe this is because it is harder to use and to create for, DesktopX competes with Konfabulator and Kapsules in the widget arena. In 2003, Stardock became a Microsoft Gold Certified Partner with their Designed for Windows certification of WindowBlinds, Stardocks success in the Windows game market has been mixed. At first, its titles on Windows were published by third parties, The Corporate Machine, Galactic Civilizations, while all three titles sold well at retail, Stardock was unsatisfied with the amount of revenue Windows games developers received. In the case of Galactic Civilizations, publisher Strategy First filed for bankruptcy without paying most of the royalties it owed and this ultimately led to Stardock self-publishing its future titles. Because of the success of its applications, Stardock has been able to self-fund its own PC games. In 2010 Q3, Stardock was forced into layoffs due to the poor launch of Elemental. In response to the disappointment of Elemental, War of Magic, Stardock committed to giving the game of the series, Elemental
40.
MyColors
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MyColors is a digital distribution platform for themes developed by Stardock. It allows users to skin the Windows graphical user interface, sets of themes have been made in partnership with GM, Ford, HP, Dell, the NHL, NBA, and NCAA. MyColors was created so that users could purchase and apply themes without having to worry about the underlying software, the themes are encrypted to reduce piracy. Individual parts can be mixed to create a theme with the corresponding Object Desktop software. MyColors works on Windows XP and above, and is certified for Windows 7, a typical icon pack will include custom desktop icons, folder icons and file icons. SoundPackager is usually used to change the system sounds. Some themes are bundled with themed desktop applications, like a calendar and clock. A Windows Media Player skin and a wallpaper may also be supplied, myColors checks for updates to a theme and allows users to update the theme. Updated themes may include new functionality, fixes to the visual styles and higher resolution icons
41.
McAfee
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Intel Security Group is an American global computer security software company headquartered in Santa Clara, California, and the worlds largest dedicated security technology company. The company has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Intel since February 2011, on September 7,2016, Intel announced a strategic deal with TPG Capital to convert Intel Security into a joint venture between Intel and TPG Capital called McAfee. TPG Capital will be the majority owner with 51% of McAfee, the company was founded in 1987 as McAfee Associates, named for its founder John McAfee, who resigned from the company in 1994. McAfee was incorporated in the state of Delaware in 1992, Network Associates was formed in 1997 as a merger of McAfee Associates, Network General, PGP Corporation and Helix Software. The company restructured in 2004, beginning with the sale of its Magic Solutions business to Remedy, the FSA team also oversaw the creation of a number of other technologies that were leading edge at the time, including firewall, file encryption, and public key infrastructure product lines. While those product lines had their own individual successes including PowerBroker and it is fair to say that McAfee remains best known for its anti-virus and anti-spam product lines. On August 19,2010, Intel announced that it would purchase McAfee for $48 a share in a deal valued at $7.68 billion. On January 6,2014, Intel CEO Brian Krzanich announced during the Consumer Electronics Show the name change from McAfee Security to Intel Security, the companys red shield logo will remain and the firm will continue to operate as a wholly owned Intel subsidiary. John McAfee, who no longer has any interest in the company, I am now everlastingly grateful to Intel for freeing me from this terrible association with the worst software on the planet. These are not my words, but the words of millions of irate users, however, as of 2016 the products still bear the name McAfee. McAfee products are primarily digital security tools for personal computers and server devices, Stonesoft acquisition On July 8,2013 McAfee completed the tender offer for Finnish network firewall design company Stonesoft Oyj worth $389 million in cash, or about $6.09 a share. The Next Generation Firewall business acquired from Stonesoft was divested to Forcepoint in January 2016, ValidEdge acquisition On February 26,2013 McAfee announced it had acquired the ValidEdge sandboxing technology. NitroSecurity solutions reduce risk exposure and increase network and information availability by removing the scalability, the acquisition closed on November 30,2011. The acquisition enables McAfee to extend its database security portfolio, the acquisition closed on April 6,2011. The acquisition allowed McAfee to complete its diversification into the mobile security space, the acquisition closed on August 25,2010. Trust Digital acquisition On May 25,2010, McAfee announced an agreement to acquire Trust Digital. The acquisition allowed McAfee to extend its services beyond traditional endpoint security, the acquisition closed on June 3,2010. The price for Trust Digital was not disclosed MX Logic acquisition On July 30,2009, McAfee announced plans to acquire managed email, the acquisition provided an enhanced range of SaaS-based security services such as cloud-based intelligence, web security, email security, endpoint security and vulnerability assessment
42.
Whyville
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Whyville is an educational Internet site geared towards children from ages 8–14+ founded and managed by Numedeon, Inc. Whyville engages its users in learning about a range of topics, including science, business, art. Whyville is extremely popular, and has a base of more than 7 million users. Whyvilles users engage in virtual world simulation based games and role play sponsored by a range of governmental, non-profit. Whyville was launched in 1999, by Numedeon Inc, which was founded by Dr. James M. Whyville is regarded as a leader in digital learning. Contributing to its influence, any of Whyvilles citizens have stayed active users of the site for many years with significant impact on their lives. Whyville was one of the first virtual worlds built around learning games, Whyville was also one of the first virtual worlds which used an internal virtual currency. Users earn a salary based on their educational activities on the site. With these clams they can buy face parts, projectiles, furniture, bricks, tied directly to the clam economy, once a user has accumulated a large enough clam savings, they can start their own Whyville virtual business based on their own created content. Most of these businesses are built around the construction of parts from which users make their own avatars. Other businesses design and sell decals for users virtual Scions, players must draw their creations by hand. There is no copying and pasting, and all contributed content is reviewed by staff for appropriateness. Since the sites launch, thousands of players have created millions of face parts, a weekly newspaper called The Whyville Times comes out every Sunday. Whyvillians send in articles that they have written to the Times Editor, if the article is published, other users may comment on it in the Bulletin Board System. Whyville is regarded as one one of the safest sites for children on the internet, in 2008 Whyville received a NAPPA Gold Award as a site that represented the best in its genre for kids Whyville has been involved in numerous projects involving schools. For example, Whyville has sponsored several workforce pipeline projects that aim to encourage children to consider technical, the Texas Workforce Commission has also funded Whyville to develop workforce related games in advanced manufacturing, biotechnology and energy. In April,2008, as part of its work with the Texas Workforce Commission, over three weeks,300 teachers in Texas signed their students up to compete for their classrooms. The winners, from the Waco Independent school district amassed more than 17,000 clams in the period of time
43.
Hard disk drive
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The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of storage, retaining stored data even when powered off. Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the era of servers. More than 200 companies have produced HDDs historically, though after extensive industry consolidation most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba, as of 2016, HDD production is growing, although unit shipments and sales revenues are declining. While SSDs have higher cost per bit, SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption, small size, the primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000, the two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3. 5-inch, for desktop computers, and 2. 5-inch, primarily for laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA, SATA, Hard disk drives were introduced in 1956, as data storage for an IBM real-time transaction processing computer and were developed for use with general-purpose mainframe and minicomputers. The first IBM drive, the 350 RAMAC in 1956, was approximately the size of two medium-sized refrigerators and stored five million six-bit characters on a stack of 50 disks. In 1962 the IBM350 RAMAC disk storage unit was superseded by the IBM1301 disk storage unit, cylinder-mode read/write operations were supported, and the heads flew about 250 micro-inches above the platter surface. Motion of the head array depended upon a binary system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning. The 1301 cabinet was about the size of three home refrigerators placed side by side, storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight-bit bytes, access time was about a quarter of a second. Also in 1962, IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape. Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations, non-removable HDDs were called fixed disk drives. Some high-performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track, known as fixed-head or head-per-track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production. In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD code-named Winchester and its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down. Instead, the heads were allowed to land on an area of the disk surface upon spin-down
44.
Wi-Fi
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Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
45.
Webcam
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A webcam is a video camera that feeds or streams its image in real time to or through a computer to a computer network. When captured by the computer, the stream may be saved, viewed or sent on to other networks via systems such as the internet. When sent to a location, the video stream may be saved, viewed or on sent there. Unlike an IP camera, a webcam is generally connected by a USB cable, or similar cable, or built into computer hardware, some of them, for example, those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive, rugged professional video cameras. Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and their high flexibility and they have also become a source of security and privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated by spyware. The most popular use of webcams is the establishment of video links, other popular uses include security surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos. Researchers claim that this method is accurate to ±5 bpm, Webcams may be installed at places such as childcare centres, offices, shops and private areas to monitor security and general activity. Webcams have been used for augmented reality experiences online, one such function has the webcam act as a magic mirror to allow an online shopper to view a virtual item on themselves. The Webcam Social Shopper is one example of software that utilizes the webcam in this manner, improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. Webcam features and performance can vary by program, computer operating system, video calling support has also been added to several popular instant messaging programs. Webcams can be used as security cameras, software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, unauthorized access of webcams can present significant privacy issues. In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the Russian presidential election,2012, Webcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in use can be employed for this, such as PicMaster, Photo Booth. For a more complete list see Comparison of webcam software, special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a users control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a form of control. This can be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity, by removing the IR filter of the webcam, IR LEDs can be used, which has the advantage of being invisible to the naked eye, removing a distraction from the user. TrackIR is a version of this technology
46.
Dell Inspiron
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The Dell Inspiron is a computer product line produced by Dell as a range of laptop computers targeted at entry-level consumers. Early models were equipped with Mobile Celeron or Mobile Pentium II processors, the Inspiron mainly competes against computers such as Acers Aspire, Asus Transformer Book Flip, VivoBook and Zenbook, HPs Pavilion and Envy, Lenovos IdeaPad and Toshibas Satellite. 700m Dell Latitude 137000 Released on Dells website on February 26,2009, the Inspiron Mini 10 is a 10.1 in netbook whose Mini 10v model weighs 1.13 kg, and whose Mini 10 model weighs 1.18 kg. The Mini 10 has an option for an external TV tuner, there is a 2 GB option available with Windows Vista Home Basic 32-bit. Released online on September 4,2008, the Dell Inspiron 910 is an 8.9 netbook that weighs 2.28 lbs and it was retired on May 29,2009. Memory,512 MB,1 GB or 2 GB of shared dual channel DDR2 SDRAM @533 MHz, Graphics Processor, integrated Intel GMA950 graphics. LCD Display,8.9 LED-backlit widescreen with 1024 ×600 resolution, hard Drive,8 GB,16 GB SSD, or 32 GB SSD. Optical Drive, External USB 8X tray-load dual-layer DVD+/-RW, Wi-Fi Card, Dell Wireless 1395802. 11g mini-card. Bluetooth, Dell Wireless Bluetooth Internal 350, I/O ports,3 USB2.0 ports,1 Fast Ethernet port,1 3-in-1 memory card reader,1 VGA output,1 headphone jack,1 microphone jack, and 1 power adapter port. Released online on October 16,2008, the Dell Inspiron 1210 is a 12.1 netbook that weighs 2.72 lbs, the netbook originally shipped with Windows Vista Home Basic SP1 32-bit, but an option for XP Home SP3 32-bit was added a month later. It was criticized for being slow with Vista and it was retired on August 7,2009. Processors, Intel Atom Z520 or Z530, Memory,512 MB or 1 GB of shared dual channel DDR2 SDRAM @533 MHz. Graphics Processor, integrated Intel GMA500 graphics, LCD Display,12.1 LED-backlit widescreen with 1280 ×800 resolution. Hard Drive,40 GB,60 GB or 32 GB PATA @5,400 RPM, optical Drive, External USB 8X tray-load dual-layer DVD+/-RW. Battery, 3-cell or 6-cell lithium-ion battery, Wi-Fi Card, Dell Wireless 1395802. 11g mini-card. Bluetooth, DelI Wireless Bluetooth Internal 350, I/O ports,3 USB2.0 ports,1 Fast Ethernet port,1 3-in-1 memory card reader,1 VGA output,1 headphone jack,1 microphone jack, and 1 power adapter port. Released in 2014, The Inspiron 113000 Series 2-in-1 is a 2-in-1 notebook with an 11-inch touchscreen and it competes with Acer Aspire R11, Asus Transformer Book Flip TP200, HP Pavilion x360, HP Stream x360, Lenovo Yoga 211 and Toshiba Satellite Radius 11. Its processor are from the 4th generation of Intel Core i3 processors with one SO-DIMM slot supporting DDR3L memory and its uses Intel HD graphics and the Realtek ALC3234 audio controller and a 2. 5-inch HDD with SATA3 Gbit/s capabilities
