1.
Qazi Muhammad
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Qazi Muhammad was a Kurdish separatist leader who headed the Republic of Mahabad. He was hanged by Pahlavi dynasty for treason, Qazi Muhammad acted as the President of the Republic of Kurdistan in 1946. He was also the founder of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran, mustafa Barzani, one of the leaders of the nationalist Kurdish movement in Iraqi Kurdistan, was also the commander of its army. His cousin Mohammed Hossein Saif Qazi was a minister in his cabinet, a year later, after the Soviets withdrew from Iran, the Kurdish Republic was crushed by Irans central government. An Iranian military court sentenced Qazi and two of his associates to death by hanging in Chwarchira Square, in the center of the city of Mahabad and they were left hanging for more than two days. One of his sons, Ali Qazi, is today a member in the Kurdish movement. One of his daughters, Efat Ghazi, was killed by a bomb in Västerås, Sweden. The bomb was addressed to her husband, the Kurdish activist Emir Ghazi, some analysts speculated that the Iranian government might have been involved in the assassination. Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran Mahabad Republic Timeline of Kurdish uprisings Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou Sadeq Sharafkandi Simko
2.
Koy Sanjaq
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Most of the town was property of two families Which were also known as Agha which represents them for being wealthy. Wallace Lyon, travelling through the town in 1923, compared it to Sulaymaniyah, the governor at the time was Jamil Agha Hawezi, succeeding the late Hama Agha Ghafuri. In the 1960s then it was all passed on to Fatih Agha Hawezi, the population is between 50,000 and 100,000. A specific variant of the Aramaic language, Koy Sanjaq Surat, one of the local dishes is Dolma and Jeepa. The current President of Iraq, Jalal Talabani, who was born in the village of Kelkan. In 1949 he joined the branch of the Kurdistan Democratic Party. A university, known in English as Koya University was set up in the town in 2003
3.
Iraqi Kurdistan
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Iraqi Kurdistan, officially called the Kurdistan Region by the Iraqi constitution, is located in the north of Iraq and constitutes the countrys only autonomous region. The region is governed by the Kurdistan Regional Government, with the capital being Erbil. Kurdistan is a democracy with its own regional Parliament that consists of 111 seats. Masoud Barzani, who was elected as president in 2005, was re-elected in 2009. In August 2013 the parliament extended his presidency for two years. His presidency concluded on 19 August 2015 after the parties failed to reach an agreement over extending his term. The new Constitution of Iraq defines the Kurdistan Region as an entity of Iraq. The four governorates of Duhok, Hawler, Silemani, and Halabja comprise around 41,710 square kilometres and have a population of 5.5 million. In 2014, during the 2014 Iraq Crisis, Iraqi Kurdistans forces also took much of the disputed territories of Northern Iraq. The establishment of the Kurdistan Region dates back to the March 1970 autonomy agreement between the Kurdish opposition and the Iraqi government after years of heavy fighting, further, the 1980–88 Iran–Iraq War, especially the Iraqi Armys Al-Anfal Campaign, devastated the population and environment of Iraqi Kurdistan. As Kurds continued to fight government troops, Iraqi forces finally left Kurdistan in October 1991, in 1992, the major political parties in the region, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, established the semi-autonomous Kurdistan Regional Government. The 2003 invasion of Iraq and subsequent political changes led to the ratification of a new constitution in 2005, the name Kurdistan literally means Land of the Kurds. The suffix -stan is Iranian for place of or country, in English translations of the Constitution of Iraq, it is called Kurdistan, four times in the phrase region of Kurdistan and once in the phrase Kurdistan region. The regional government calls it the Kurdistan Region, the full name of the government is the Kurdistan Regional Government, abbreviated KRG. Kurds also refer to the region as Başûrê Kurdistanê or Başûrî Kurdistan, during the Baath Party administration in the 1970s and 1980s, the region was called the Kurdish Autonomous Region. The Kurdistan Region is largely mountainous, with the highest point being a 3,611 m point known locally as Cheekha Dar, the mountains are part of the larger Zagros mountain range which also extends into Iran. There are many rivers running through the region, which is distinguished by its fertile lands, plentiful water, the Great Zab and the Little Zab flow from the east to the west in the region. The Tigris river enters Iraqi Kurdistan from Turkish Kurdistan, the mountainous nature of Iraqi Kurdistan, the difference of temperatures in its various parts, and its wealth of waters make it a land of agriculture and tourism
4.
Iran
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Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
5.
Kurdish nationalism
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These territories lie in northern Iraq, northwestern Iran, eastern and southeastern Turkey, and northern Syria. Early Kurdish nationalism had its roots in the days of the Ottoman Empire, Kurdish nationalist movements have long been suppressed by Turkey, Iran and the Arab-majority states of Iraq and Syria, all of whom fear loss of territory to a potential independent Kurdistan. Since the 1970s, Iraqi Kurds have pursued the goal of greater autonomy and even outright independence against the Baath Party regimes, since the 1980s, the Kurdish-Turkish conflict led by Kurdish armed groups challenged the Turkish state, which responded with martial law. After the 2003 invasion of Iraq that ousted dictator Saddam Hussein, Iraqi Kurdistan became a region, enjoying a great measure of self-governance. Kurdish nationalism has long been espoused and promoted by the worldwide Kurdish diaspora, the Kurdish nationalist struggle first emerged in the late 19th century when a unified movement demanded the establishment of a Kurdish state. In 1880, Ubeydullah, demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds, the uprising against Qajar Persia and the Ottoman Empire was ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, were exiled to Istanbul. Western powers fighting the Turks also promised the Kurds they would act as guarantors for Kurdish freedom, one particular organization, the Kürdistan Teali Cemiyeti was central to the forging of a distinct Kurdish identity. While these researchers had ulterior political motives their findings were embraced, under the millet system, Kurds primary form of identification was religious with Sunni Islam being the top in the hierarchy. While the Ottoman Empire embarked on a modernization and centralization campaign known as the Tanzimat, Kurdish regions retained much of their autonomy, the Sublime Porte made little attempt to alter the traditional power structure of segmented, agrarian Kurdish societies – agha, sheikh, and tribal chief. This bolstered the Kurds authority and autonomy, for instance, the Ottoman qadi, in 1908, the Young Turks come to power asserting a radical form of Turkish ethnic identity and closed Ottoman associations and non-Turkish schools. At the end of World War I, Kurds still had the right to conduct their affairs in Kurdish, celebrate unique traditions. The once politically unified Ottoman Kurdistan was then divided into the different administrative and political systems in Iraq, Turkey, equal citizenship rights were enshrined in Turkeys 1920 Provisional Constitution. Article 8 asserted that the country was composed of both Turks and Kurds but under the law they would be treated as common citizens, however, the 1923 formation of the Republic of Turkey marked the beginning of continuing period of reduced civic rights for Kurds. The Caliphate was abolished a year later as well as all public expressions and institutions of Kurdish identity, Kurdish madrassas, newspapers, religious fraternal organizations, and associations were shut down. Kurdish regions were placed under martial law and the use of the Kurdish language, dress, folklore and it was this continued repression that led to reemergence of Kurdish nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. During this period the primary goal of the movement was to resolve its grievances with the Turkish government through legitimate channels, civic rights were temporarily improved with the Turkish Constitution of 1961 which allowed freedom of expression, the press, and association for Kurds. The 1964 Political Parties Act criminalized Kurdish political parties and the acknowledgment of the existence of different languages and races in Turkey, the 1972 Law of Association further restricted rights to association and political organization. The failure to address the Kurdish grievances throughout the 1960s and 1970s led to alternate avenues of resolution, in 1984 the Kurdistan Workers Party started a guerrilla insurgency against the Turkish Republic
6.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
7.
Social democracy
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In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism
8.
Secularism
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Secularism is the principle of the separation of government institutions and persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious dignitaries. Another manifestation of secularism is the view that public activities and decisions, especially political ones, the purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely. In European laicism, it has argued that secularism is a movement toward modernization. This type of secularism, on a social or philosophical level, has occurred while maintaining an official state church or other state support of religion. Within countries as well, differing political movements support secularism for varying reasons, the term secularism was first used by the British writer George Jacob Holyoake in 1851. Although the term was new, the notions of freethought on which it was based had existed throughout history. Holyoake invented the term secularism to describe his views of promoting a social order separate from religion, an agnostic himself, Holyoake argued that Secularism is not an argument against Christianity, it is one independent of it. It does not question the pretensions of Christianity, it advances others, Secularism does not say there is no light or guidance elsewhere, but maintains that there is light and guidance in secular truth, whose conditions and sanctions exist independently, and act forever. Barry Kosmin of the Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society, according to Kosmin, the hard secularist considers religious propositions to be epistemologically illegitimate, warranted by neither reason nor experience. In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and this can refer to reducing ties between a government and a state religion, replacing laws based on scripture with civil laws, and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities, what all secular governments, from the democratic to the authoritarian, share is a concern about the relationship between the church and the state. Each secular government may find its own unique policy prescriptions for dealing with that concern, maharaja Ranjeet Singh of the Sikh empire of the first half of the 19th century successfully established a secular rule in the Punjab. Ranjit Singh also extensively funded education, religion, and arts of various different religions, Secularism is most often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe and it plays a major role in Western society. The principles, but not necessarily the practices, of separation of church and state in the United States, Secular states also existed in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages. Due in part to the belief in the separation of church and state, the most significant forces of religious fundamentalism in the contemporary world are Christian fundamentalism and Islamic fundamentalism. At the same time, one significant stream of secularism has come from religious minorities who see governmental and political secularism as integral to the preservation of equal rights, in studies of religion, modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the freedom of religion, and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, religious beliefs are considered by many people to be a relevant part of the political discourse in many of these countries
9.
Anti-imperialism
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A less common usage is by isolationists who oppose an interventionist foreign policy. The phrase gained a wide currency after the Second World War, some anti-imperialist groups who opposed the United States supported the power of the Soviet Union, such as in Guevarism, while in Maoism, this was criticized as social imperialism. In the Arab and Muslim world, the term is used in the context of anti-Zionist nationalist. In the late 1870s, the term Imperialism was introduced to the English language by opponents of the imperial policies of British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli. It was shortly appropriated by supporters of such as Joseph Chamberlain. For some, imperialism designated a policy of idealism and philanthropy, others alleged that it was characterized by political self-interest, John A. Hobson and Lenin added a more theoretical macroeconomic connotation to the term. Many theoreticians on the left have followed either or both in emphasizing the structural or systemic character of imperialism. As the application of the term has expanded, its meaning has shifted along five distinct but often parallel axes, the moral, the economic, the systemic, the cultural, and the temporal. Those changes reflect—among other shifts in sensibility—a growing unease with the fact of power, specifically, J. A. Hobson said that domestic social reforms could cure the international disease of imperialism by removing its economic foundation. Hobson theorized that state intervention through taxation could boost broader consumption, create wealth, conversely, should the state not intervene, rentiers would generate socially negative wealth that fostered imperialism and protectionism. An early use of the term anti-imperialist occurred after the United States entered the Spanish–American War in 1898, most activists supported the war itself but opposed the annexation of new territory, especially the Philippines. The Anti-Imperialist League was founded on June 15,1898 in Boston, in opposition of the acquisition of the Philippines, the anti-imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed imperialism violated the credo of republicanism, especially the need for consent of the governed. British anti-imperialism emerged in the 1890s, especially in the Liberal Party, the key impetus around 1900 came from public disgust with the British failures and atrocities connected with the Second Boer War. The War was fought against the Afrikaners, who were Dutch immigrants who had built new nations in South Africa, opposition to the Second Boer War was modest when the war began, and was always less widespread than support for it, let alone the prevailing indifference. However, influential groups formed immediately and ineffectually against the war, including the South African Conciliation Committee, much of the opposition in Britain came from the Liberal party. Intellectuals and activists Britain based in the Socialist, labour, and Fabian movements generally oppose imperialism, and John Hobson, after the Boer war, opponents of imperialism turn their attention to the British colonies in Africa and Asia. By the 1920s, the government was sponsoring large-scale exhibits promoting imperialism, notably the 1924 British Empire Exhibition in London, some intellectuals use the opportunity to criticize imperialism as a policy. Moderately active anti-imperial movements emerged in Canada and Australia, the French-Canadians were hostile to the British expansion, while, in Australia it was the Irish Catholics who were opposed
10.
Political spectrum
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A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions. Most long-standing spectra include a wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution. According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left, sometimes on the right. Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates, politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics. Political scientists have noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs. As seen from the Speakers seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right, originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the Ancien Régime. The Right thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while The Left implied support for republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original Left represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie and their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their interests lay with the laissez-faire policies of those representing them politically. As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were replaced by capitalist representatives. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, for almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. In 1950, Leonard W. Submitting the results to factor analysis and this system was derived empirically, rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Fergusons research was exploratory. As a result of method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Fergusons three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract factor whether an objectively real factor exists or not. Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism and Humanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson, shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something similar about the National Socialists on the one hand. Submitting this value questionnaire to the process of factor analysis used by Ferguson. Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, Eysencks dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden, France, and Japan. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded, in this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more dominant and more aggressive than control groups
11.
Left-wing politics
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Left-wing politics supports social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy and social inequality. The term left wing can also refer to the radical, reforming, use of the term Left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815 when it was applied to the Independents. The word wing was appended to Left and Right in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, throughout the 19th century in France, the main line dividing left and right was between supporters of the French Republic and those of the Monarchy. The June Days Uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, in the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy, and anti-clericalism became features of the French Left. After Napoleon IIIs 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism, the influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published in 1848, asserted that all human history is the history of class struggle. They predicted that a revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a classless, stateless. It was in period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the International Workers Association, the Second International became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, such as Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, in the United States after Reconstruction, the phrase the Left was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement. More recently in the United States, left-wing and right-wing have often used as synonyms for Democratic and Republican. Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as art was called leftist in all Europe. The following positions are typically associated with left-wing politics, during the industrial revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy, leftists continue to criticize what they perceive as the exploitative nature of globalization, the race to the bottom, and unjust lay-offs. Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, which are based on the theories of Karl Marx. Marxian economics does not exclusively rely upon Marx, it draws from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources, the political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject, Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution. Both Karl Marx and the early socialist William Morris arguably had a concern for environmental matters, according to Marx, Even an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together. Are not owners of the earth and they are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations
12.
National Council of Resistance of Iran
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The National Council of Resistance of Iran is an Iranian political organization based in France. On 21 December 2001, Australia added the organization, alias of MEK, on 15 August 2003, being considered an alias of MEK, it was designated as a terrorist organization by the United States and was delisted on 28 September 2012. The NCRI was originally an organization of Iranian dissident groups that shared an opposition to Ayatollah Khomeni and Islamic Republic. It was formed by Peoples Mujahedin of Iran leader, Massoud Rajavi, and former president of Iran Abolhassan Banisadr in 1981 and they were later joined by National Democratic Front and Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran. Unlike KDPI, the other leftist major Kurdish opposition Komala Party of Iranian Kurdistan refused to join the alliance, the council also received unequivocal support from Labour Party of Iran. Despite presence of personalities such as Nasser Pakdaman, Bahman Nirumand, Mehdi Khanbaba Tehrani, Mansour Farhang and several others. In 1983, elements united with NCRI began to depart the alliance because of conflicts with the MEK, due to violent pro-Iraq activities of MEK in the Iran–Iraq War, the NDF and Banisadr withdrew from the council. On 24 March 1983, Banisadr officially left the council, on 14 April 1985, the KDPI left the organization because they preserved their independence to decide to negotiate with Irans regime. NCRI was transformed from an organization into a MEK subsidiary. MEK leader Maryam Rajavi is the designated president-elect of the organization, however, it is no longer considered terrorist. Some top US officials such as Dick Armey have suggested that the State Department wrongly included MEK in the terrorist list from the beginning. It has been alleged that the inclusion of NCRI and MEK in the list was an offered to the theocratic regime of Iran rather than based the facts of the matter. According to the Wall Street Journal Senior diplomats in the Clinton administration say the MEK figured prominently as a chip in a bridge-building effort with Tehran. President Khatamis government considered it a pretty big deal, Indyk said, on January 26,2009, EU Council of Ministers agreed to remove the MEK from the EU terror list. The group said it was the outcome of a legal and political battle. The European Union had previously listed the MEK on its list but excluded the NCRI itself from the list of organizations considered to be terrorist organizations. At the same time Michael Axworthy, former head of the Iran section at the FCO, claimed that the NCRI is a tightly disciplined front organization for the MEK and deemed them unreliable. ”National Council of Iran National Resistance Movement of Iran NCRIs official website
13.
Socialist International
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The Socialist International is a worldwide association of political parties, most of which seek to establish democratic socialism. It consists mostly of democratic socialist, social-democratic and labour political parties, although formed in 1951 as a successor to the Labour and Socialist International, it has antecedents to the late nineteenth century. Initially dominated by parties from Western Europe, it has grown to include 153 member parties from over 100 countries and its members have governed in many countries including most of Europe. The Party of European Socialists, a major European political party, is an organisation of the SI. The current secretary general of the SI is Luis Ayala, who has held the post since 1989, the current president of the SI is the former Prime Minister of Greece George Papandreou. The International Workingmens Association was the first international body to bring together organisations representing the working class and it was formed in London on 28 September 1864 by socialist, communist and anarchist political groups and trade unions. Tensions between moderates and revolutionaries led to its dissolution in 1876 in Philadelphia, the Second International was formed in Paris on 14 July 1889 as an association of the socialist parties. Differences over World War I led to the Second International being dissolved in 1916, International Socialist Commission was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in Berne by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International. In March 1919 communist parties formed Comintern at a meeting in Moscow, Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International or Comintern formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties on 27 February 1921 at a conference in Vienna. The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the Labour and Socialist International in May 1923 at a meeting in Hamburg, the rise of Nazism and the start of World War II led to the dissolution of the LSI in 1940. The Socialist International was formed in Frankfurt in July 1951 as a successor to the LSI, during the post-World War II period, the SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in Portugal and Spain. Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe, in the 1980s, most SI parties gave their backing to the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, whose left-wing government had incited enmity from the United States. The SI supported détente and disarmament agreements, such as SALTII, START and they had several meetings and discussion in Washington, D. C. with President Jimmy Carter and Vice-President George Bush and in Moscow with Secretaries General Leonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev. The SIs delegations to these discussions were led by the Finnish Prime Minister Kalevi Sorsa, following the Tunisian revolution, the Constitutional Democratic Rally was expelled from the SI in January 2011. Later that month, the Egyptian National Democratic Party was also expelled, as a result of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis, the Ivorian Popular Front was expelled in March 2011. However, according to section 5.1.3 of the statutes of the Socialist International, Social Democracy and Southern Africa by Vladimir Shubin,1989. Julius Braunthal, The Rebirth of Social Democracy, Foreign Affairs, in JSTOR Pentti Vaananen, The Rose and the Fist, SYS Print,2014, pp. 50–230
14.
Progressive Alliance
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The Progressive Alliance is an international alliance of social-democratic and progressive political parties and organisations founded on 22 May 2013 in Leipzig, Germany. Progressive Alliance comprises 140 members from around the world, gabriel had been critical of the Socialist Internationals admittance and continuing inclusion of undemocratic political movements into the organization. An initial Conference of the Progressive Alliance was held in Rome, Italy on 14–15 December 2012, also present were representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Workers Party of Brazil, and PASOK of Greece. The Dutch Labour Party also supported the formation of the organization, as did the Swiss Socialist Party, the organization stated the aim of becoming the global network of the progressive, democratic, social-democratic, socialist and labour movement. It was reported that representatives of approximately 70 social-democratic political parties from across the world attended the event, the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats group in the European Parliament joined the organization upon its official foundation. Many member parties are affiliated to the Socialist International. On 4–5 December 2014, a Progressive Alliance conference was held in Lisbon for member parties of the S&D group, on 25 April 2016 the organisation held a seminar in São Paulo hosted by the Workers Party of Brazil. The Progressive Alliance lists the parties and organisations which participate in the network, rather than claiming members
15.
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
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The Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization is an international pro-democracy organization. It was formed on 11 February 1991 in The Hague, Netherlands and its purpose is to facilitate the voices of unrepresented and marginalised nations and peoples worldwide. Technically, it is not an organization as some of its members are governments or government agencies of unrecognized states. Its members consist of indigenous peoples, minorities, and unrecognised or occupied territories, UNPO trains groups in how to advocate their causes effectively. Some former members, such as Armenia, East Timor, Estonia, Latvia, Georgia and Palau, have gained full independence, UNPO has an advocacy office in Brussels, representation in Geneva and a network of associates and consultants based around the world. UNPO is funded by contributions and donations from individuals and foundations. To this end, UNPO trains its members in international law, international organizations, diplomacy, UNPO has built its credibility by being the first organization to release on-ground information from remote areas, typically press releases from groups like MOSOP. Like Amnesty International, its techniques include issuing action alerts and being a source of information. UNPO is funded by contributions and donations from individuals and foundations. It encourages nonviolent methodologies to reach peaceful solutions to conflicts and oppression, UNPO supports members in getting their human and cultural rights respected and in preserving their environments. The organization provides a forum for members to network and assists them in participating at an international level, although UNPO members often have different goals, they have one thing in common, they are generally not represented diplomatically in major international institutions, such as the United Nations. As a result, their ability to have their concerns addressed by the global bodies mandated to protect human rights, all members are required to sign and abide by the UNPO Covenant. UNPO members are required to be nonviolent and it should be noted that contrary to popular perception, self-determination does not necessarily imply secession, separate nationhood, or even autonomy. It simply refers to the right of all peoples to freely determine their status and freely pursue their economic. The exercise of this right can result in a variety of outcomes, the following listed as members by the UNPO. Original members are listed with pink background and in bold, organizations representing nations may become suspended from the UNPO if they fail to follow its covenant. Some members of the UNPO have left because of United Nations recognition, autonomy agreements, former members who became part of United Nations are highlighed with a blue background
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Politics of Iran
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The politics of Iran take place in a framework of a theocracy in a format of syncretic politics that is guided by an Islamic ideology. Iran has a president, parliament, Assembly of Experts. According to the constitution all candidates running for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council before being elected, in addition, there are representatives elected from appointed organizations to protect the states Islamic character. The early days of the government were characterized by political tumult. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage, the eight-year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. S. Government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring, emigration has lost Iran millions of entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople and their capital. For this and other reasons Irans economy has not prospered, the Islamic Republic Party was Irans ruling political party and for years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. After the war, new reformist/progressive parties had started to form, after the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of other groups. After the war ended in 1988, reformist and progressive candidates won four out of six presidential elections in Iran, the Iranian Government is opposed by several armed terrorist groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the Peoples Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party. For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran and these are the most recent elections that have taken place. The military and the Corps of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution are charged with defending Irans borders, Irans fiscal year goes from March 21 to March 20 of the following year. Once approved by Majlis, the bill still needs to be ratified by the Guardian Council, the bill will be sent back to the parliament for amendments if it is voted down by the Guardian Council. The Expediency Council acts as arbiter in any dispute. Following annual approval of the budget by Majlis, the central bank presents a detailed monetary and credit policy to the Money. Thereafter, major elements of these policies are incorporated into the economic development plan. The 5-year plan is part of Vision 2025, a strategy for sustainable growth. A unique feature of Irans economy is the size of the religious foundations whose combined budgets make up more than 30% that of the central government
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Elections in Iran
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Iran elects on national level a head of state and head of government, a legislature, and an Assembly of Experts. Also City and Village Council elections are every four years throughout the country. The president is elected for a term by the people. The Parliament or Islamic Consultative Assembly has 290 members, elected for a term in multi-. Elections for the Assembly of Experts are held eight years. All candidates have to be approved by the Guardian Council, see Politics of Iran for more details. Until January 2007, when it was raised to 18, the age was 15 years. The most recent presidential election and the most recent local elections were held on 14 June 2013, the most recent parliamentary election and the most recent Assembly of Experts elections were held on 26 February 2016. The 2013 Iranian presidential election was held on 14 June 2013, hassan Rouhani was elected to succeed outgoing President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
, Business Monitor International, 2008 [Q1]
