1.
League of Communists of Montenegro
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The League of Communists of Montenegro was the Montenegrin branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the sole legal party of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1990. Under a 1974 SFR Yugoslavia constitution, greater powers were devolved to the republic level branches. The league was known as the Communist Party of Montenegro. In 1952, the Communist Party of Montenegro was renamed the League of Communists of Montenegro in line with the name change on the Yugoslav federal level. During the early 1990s, the collapse of communism and growing tensions between the Yugoslav republics led to the federal partys breakup. On June 22,1991, the Leagues Montenegrin branch formally dissolved, in essence, the new party continued right where the old one left off, as its entire membership stayed the same
2.
Podgorica
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Podgorica is the capital and largest city of Montenegro. The city was also called Titograd between 1946 and 1992 when Montenegro was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Podgoricas favourable position at the confluence of the Ribnica and Morača rivers and the meeting point of the fertile Zeta Plain and Bjelopavlići Valley has encouraged settlement. The city is close to winter ski centres in the north, the citys population was 204,877 in the 2011 census. The Podgorica Municipality contains 10. 4% of Montenegros territory and 29. 9% of its population and it is the administrative centre of Montenegro and its economic, cultural and educational focus. The name Podgorica means below the hill, Gorica being the name of the cypress-covered hill that overlooks the city centre. Some three kilometres north-west of Podgorica lie the ruins of Roman-era Doclea, from which Roman Emperor Diocletian hailed, in later centuries, Romans corrected the name to Dioclea, guessing wrongly that an i had been lost in vulgar speech. Duklja is the version of that word. When founded, the town was called Birziminium, in the Middle Ages, it was known as Ribnica. The name Podgorica was used from 1326, from 1946 to 1992, the city was named Titograd in honour of Josip Broz Tito, the former President of Yugoslavia. Podgorica is located in central Montenegro, the area is crossed with rivers and the city itself is only 15 kilometres north of Lake Skadar. The Morača and Ribnica rivers flow through the city, while the Zeta, Cijevna, Sitnica and Mareza flow nearby. Morača is the largest river in the city, being 70 m or 230 ft wide near downtown, except for the Morača and Zeta, other rivers have an appearance of small creeks. The richness in bodies of water is a feature of the city. In contrast to most of Montenegro, Podgorica lies in a flat area at the northern end of the Zeta plain. The only exceptions are hills which overlook the city, the most significant is 130.3 m high Gorica Hill, citys namesake, which rises above the city centre. The other hills include Malo brdo, Velje brdo, Ljubović, in the main, these are too steep for development and thus limit the citys expansion, especially to the north. However, urbanization has been encroaching on the slopes of the hills since 1990s. Podgorica city proper has an area of 108 square kilometres, while actual urbanized area is much smaller, the mean annual rainfall is 1,600 mm
3.
Populism
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Populism is a political doctrine that proposes that the common people are exploited by a privileged elite, and which seeks to resolve this. The underlying ideology of populists can be left, right, or center and its goal is uniting the uncorrupt and the unsophisticated little man against the corrupt dominant elites and their camp of followers. It is guided by the belief that political and social goals are best achieved by the actions of the masses. Political parties and politicians often use the terms populist and populism as pejoratives against their opponents, such a view sees populism as demagogy, merely appearing to empathize with the public through rhetoric or unrealistic proposals in order to increase appeal across the political spectrum. Populism is most common in democratic nations, historically, academic definitions of populism vary, and people have often used the term in loose and inconsistent ways to reference appeals to the people, demagogy, and catch-all politics. The term has also used as a label for new parties whose classifications are unclear. In recent years, academic scholars have produced definitions that facilitate populist identification and comparison, in the United States and Latin America, populism has generally been associated with the left, whereas in European countries, populism is more associated with the right. In both, the tenet of populism—that democracy should reflect the pure and undiluted will of the people—means it can sit easily with ideologies of both right and left. Cas Mudde says, Many observers have noted that populism is inherent to representative democracy, after all, most recently, many observers have categorized the rise of Donald Trump in the U. S. and Rodrigo Duterte in the Philippines as populist in nature. Populism has taken left-wing, right-wing, and even centrist forms, as well as forms of politics that bring together groups and individuals of diverse partisan views. The use of populist rhetoric in the United States has recently included references such as the trial lawyer lobby. Subsistence peasant movements, such as the Eastern European Green Rising militias, intellectuals who romanticize hard-working farmers and peasants and build radical agrarian movements like the Russian narodniki. Populist democracy, including calls for political participation through reforms such as the use of popular referenda. Politicians populism marked by non-ideological appeals for the people to build a unified coalition, reactionary populism, such as the white backlash harvested by George Wallace. Populist dictatorship, such as established by Getúlio Vargas in Brazil. Scholars have argued that populist elements have appeared in authoritarian movements. Conspiracist scapegoating employed by various populist movements can create a seedbed for fascism, National Socialist populism interacted with and facilitated fascism in interwar Germany. In this case, distressed middle–class populists mobilized their anger against the government, the Nazis parasitized the forms and themes of the populists and moved their constituencies far to the right through ideological appeals involving demagoguery, scapegoating, and conspiracism
4.
Social democracy
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In this period, social democrats embraced a mixed economy based on the predominance of private property, with only a minority of essential utilities and public services under public ownership. By 1868–1869, Marxism had become the official theoretical basis of the first social democratic party established in Europe, in this period, social democracy became associated with reformist socialism. The origins of social democracy have been traced to the 1860s, with the rise of the first major party in Europe. 1864 saw the founding of the International Workingmens Association, also known as the First International, another issue in the First International was the role of reformism. Although Lassalle was not a Marxist, he was influenced by the theories of Marx and Engels, however unlike Marxs and Engelss The Communist Manifesto, Lassalle promoted class struggle in a more moderate form. While Marx viewed the state negatively as an instrument of class rule that should only exist temporarily upon the rise to power of the proletariat and then dismantled, Lassalle accepted the state. Lassalle viewed the state as a means through which workers could enhance their interests, Lassalles strategy was primarily electoral and reformist, with Lassalleans contending that the working class needed a political party that fought above all for universal adult male suffrage. The ADAVs party newspaper was called Der Sozialdemokrat, Marx and Engels responded to the title Sozialdemocrat with distaste, Engels once writing, But what a title, Sozialdemokrat. Why dont they simply call it The Proletarian. Marx agreed with Engels that Sozialdemokrat was a bad title, there was a Marxist faction within the ADAV represented by Wilhelm Liebknecht who became one of the editors of the Die Sozialdemokrat. Friction in the ADAV arose over Lassalles policy of an approach to Bismarck that had assumed incorrectly that Bismarck in turn would be friendly towards them. This approach was opposed by the partys Marxists, including Liebknecht, opposition in the ADAV to Lassalles friendly approach to Bismarcks government resulted in Liebknecht resigning from his position as editor of Die Sozialdemokrat and leaving the ADAV in 1865. Though the SDAP was not officially Marxist, it was the first major organization to be led by Marxists and Marx. The party adopted stances similar to those adopted by Marx at the First International, there was intense rivalry and antagonism between the SDAP and the ADAV, with the SDAP being highly hostile to the Prussian government while the ADAV pursued a reformist and more cooperative approach. In spite of such militant rhetoric to appeal to the working class, in 1875 Marx attacked the Gotha Program that became the program of Social Democratic Party of Germany in the same year in his Critique of the Gotha Program. Marx was not optimistic that Germany at the time was not open to a means to achieve socialism. In addition he noticed a change over the relations between the two classes. The Reform Acts of 1867 and 1884 make an approach to universal suffrage. The Fabian Society was founded as a group from the Fellowship of the New Life due to opposition within that group to socialism
5.
Political spectrum
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A political spectrum is a system of classifying different political positions upon one or more geometric axes that symbolize independent political dimensions. Most long-standing spectra include a wing and left wing, which originally referred to seating arrangements in the French parliament after the Revolution. According to the simplest left–right axis, communism and socialism are usually regarded internationally as being on the left, liberalism can mean different things in different contexts, sometimes on the left, sometimes on the right. Those with an intermediate outlook are classified as centrists or moderates, politics that rejects the conventional left–right spectrum is known as syncretic politics. Political scientists have noted that a single left–right axis is insufficient for describing the existing variation in political beliefs. As seen from the Speakers seat at the front of the Assembly, the aristocracy sat on the right, originally, the defining point on the ideological spectrum was the Ancien Régime. The Right thus implied support for aristocratic or royal interests, and the church, while The Left implied support for republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. Because the political franchise at the start of the revolution was relatively narrow, the original Left represented mainly the interests of the bourgeoisie and their political interests in the French Revolution lay with opposition to the aristocracy, and so they found themselves allied with the early capitalists. However, this did not mean that their interests lay with the laissez-faire policies of those representing them politically. As capitalist economies developed, the aristocracy became less relevant and were replaced by capitalist representatives. This evolution has often pulled parliamentary politicians away from laissez-faire economic policies, for almost a century, social scientists have considered the problem of how best to describe political variation. In 1950, Leonard W. Submitting the results to factor analysis and this system was derived empirically, rather than devising a political model on purely theoretical grounds and testing it, Fergusons research was exploratory. As a result of method, care must be taken in the interpretation of Fergusons three factors, as factor analysis will output an abstract factor whether an objectively real factor exists or not. Although replication of the Nationalism factor was inconsistent, the finding of Religionism and Humanitarianism had a number of replications by Ferguson, shortly afterward, Hans Eysenck began researching political attitudes in Great Britain. He believed that there was something similar about the National Socialists on the one hand. Submitting this value questionnaire to the process of factor analysis used by Ferguson. Such analysis produces a factor whether or not it corresponds to a real-world phenomenon, Eysencks dimensions of R and T were found by factor analyses of values in Germany and Sweden, France, and Japan. According to Eysenck, members of both ideologies were tough-minded, in this context, Eysenck carried out studies on nazism and communist groups, claiming to find members of both groups to be more dominant and more aggressive than control groups
6.
Centrism
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Centre-left and centre-right politics both involve a general association with centrism combined with leaning somewhat to their respective sides of the spectrum. It has been suggested that individuals vote for centrist parties for purely statistical reasons, Centrists usually support a degree of equal opportunity and economic freedom. They can generally lean conservative on issues and lean liberal on social issues. However, centrism itself is location-dependent and exact policies can vary depending on geographical, Indian National Congress was centrist in its ideology. It is one of the oldest parties in the world, under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru the party sought to build a modern secular democratic republic in India. Its support is has different ups and downs from the late 1990s, people change their support base to other political parties but choose it again after period of 5 years. It acts as a party, presently, in Indian Parliament. There have been centrists in both sides of politics, who alongside the various factions within the Liberal and Labor parties. In addition, there are a number of groups that have formed in response to the bipartisan system who uphold centrist ideals. South Australian Senator Nick Xenophon had launched his own centrist political party called the Nick Xenophon Team in 2014, the Palmer United Party has been suggested as being a centrist party as well, however, the party itself does not make such formal claims of being politically centrist. The Australian Sex Party is also a centrist political party and they have just one seat and control the balance of power, with a huge political responsibility within the Victorian Legislative Council since 2014. The New Flemish Alliance is the largest, and since 2009, among French speaking Belgians the Humanist Democratic Centre is a centre-right or centre party as it is considerably less conservative than its Flemish counterpart, Christian Democratic & Flemish. Another party in the centre of the spectrum is the liberal Reformist Movement. The Liberals are currently the largest party in Canadas House of Commons, although, some may argue that the Liberal Party is more of a Centre-Left then a Centrist party. Czech Republic has two main centrist political parties which are currently in the government, liberal ANO and Christian democratic Christian, france has a tradition of parties that call themselves centriste. The most notable centrist party, often also called liberal, was the Union for French Democracy, among its successors belongs the small Centrist Alliance, the most successful of them is the Democratic Movement of François Bayrou, founded in 2007. However, the centrist parties often oppose to the parties such as Socialists. It often support the centre-right Gaullist parties and join several coalitions governed by Jacques Chirac, zentrismus is a term only known to experts, as it is easily confused with Zentralismus, so the usual term in German for the political centre/centrism is politische Mitte
7.
Coalition for a European Montenegro
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Coalition for a European Montenegro was the ruling political alliance in Montenegro headed by Milo Đukanovićs Democratic Party of Socialists. Consisting of two parties, Coalition for European Montenegro is the latest installment of the DPS-led political alliances that have ruled Montenegro since 1998. This current ruling alliance, much like its predecessors did, derives its strength and is driven by the prestige. Under his leadership, DPS began entering pre-election alliances with smaller parties under the banner that had a different name ahead of each parliamentary elections. The first version of the coalition was formed ahead of the 1998 parliamentary elections in Montenegro under the name So that we live better, before the 2001 elections the coalition was rebranded as Victory is Montenegros. Then, before the 2002 elections the coalition was known as List for European Montenegro, the party that has been DPS and Đukanovićs most continual ally is SDP CG, part of every single version of the coalition. In 1998 DPS forged an alliance in an attempt to compete with the newly created pro-Milošević Socialist Peoples Party of Montenegro led at the time by former DPS leader Momir Bulatović. Đukanović-led DPS called for an alliance between anti-Milošević parties, stating that Miloševićs political pursuits were leading FR Yugoslavia into ruin. It made a coalition with the Social Democratic Party of Montenegro that supported outright independence, dPSs own position at the time was that Montenegro and Serbia should be in a single unified state, but they opposed Miloševićs rule. The 1998 parliamentary election on May 31 essentially turned into another showdown between Đukanović and Bulatović over a single issue - Slobodan Milošević, Đukanovićs coalition won, seizing 42 of 78 total parliamentary seats. Those 42 seats were divided up three ways according to the coalition agreement, DPS received 32 seats while its coalition partners NS. For DPS it meant less actual seats belonging to the party than after the election when they got 45 of 71 total seats alone by themselves. However, they were now ruling through a coalition, which benefited the image in other ways as it created a perception of openness. Though never stable and cohesive, during its first year, the government formed by the So that we live better coalition was able to agree on basic matters. Big political test came in March 1999 when NATO military alliance started bombing FR Yugoslavia, despite Montenegro being spared from the heaviest bombing, SDP and even fringe parts of DPS capitalized on the bombing to aggressively push the idea of an independent Montenegrin state. This political discourse, however, never made it any of the governments official policy. In fall 1999, initiated by Đukanović, Montenegro drafted a document called Platforma za redefiniciju odnosa Crne Gore i Srbije, in an atmosphere when Đukanović-Milošević relations were strained to a maximum, the platform called for major changes in the division of governing responsibilities within FR Yugoslavia. Though still officially seeing itself within a state with Serbia, Đukanović-led Montenegro wanted many things changed and redefined, in the resulting crisis, the pro-unity Peoples Party left the government dissatisfied with DPS turnaround
8.
Party of European Socialists
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The Party of European Socialists is a social-democratic European political party. The PES comprises national-level political parties primarily from states of the European Union. The PES member parties are mostly members of the Progressive Alliance or Socialist International. The political group in the European Parliament of the PES is the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats, the PES also operates in the Committee of the Regions and the European Council. The PES is currently led by Sergei Stanishev, former Prime Minister of Bulgaria, the partys English name is Party of European Socialists. The Socialists 1962 congress pushed for greater democratisation and powers for Parliament though it was only in 1969 that this possibility was examined by the member states, in 1973, Denmark, Ireland and the United Kingdom joined the European Community bringing in new parties from these countries. The enlarged Socialist Congress met in Bonn and inaugurated the Confederation of the Socialist Parties of the European Community, the Congress also passed a resolution on social policy, including the right to decent work, social security, democracy and equality in the European economy. In 1978, the Confederation of Socialist Parties approved the first common European election Manifesto, the Luxembourg Congress approved the first Statue of the Confederation of Socialist Parties in 1980. The accession of Greece in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986 brought in more parties, in 1984 another common Socialist election manifesto was approved at a congress in Luxembourg. In 2004 Poul Nyrup Rasmussen defeated Giuliano Amato to be elected President of the PES and he was re-elected for a further 2.5 years at the PES Congress in Porto on 8 December 2006 and for another 2.5 years at the Prague Congress in 2009. In 2010, the Foundation for European Progressive Studies was founded as the foundation of the PES. The Party of European Socialists held its latest Congress in Brussels on 28–29 September 2012 and these congresses are organized every two and a half years, once during the year of the elections for the European Parliament, and once at mid-term. The same Congress elected Achim Post as new Secretary General, the congress also adopted a process presented by the PES as more democratic and transparent for the selection of their candidate for the Presidency of the European Commission in 2014. Presidents of the Party of European Socialists and its predecessors, there are thirty-three full member parties from all the twenty-eight member states and Norway. There are a further thirteen associate and twelve observer parties, PES is an associated organisation of the Socialist International. Young European Socialists is the organisation of PES and PES Women is the partys womens organisation. The parties meet at the party Congress twice every five years to decide on political orientation, every year that the Congress does not meet, the Council shapes PES policy. The Congress also elects the partys President, Vice Presidents and the Presidency and they may also be joined by the President of the European Parliament, a PES European Commissioner and a representative from associate parties and organisations
9.
Socialist International
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The Socialist International is a worldwide association of political parties, most of which seek to establish democratic socialism. It consists mostly of democratic socialist, social-democratic and labour political parties, although formed in 1951 as a successor to the Labour and Socialist International, it has antecedents to the late nineteenth century. Initially dominated by parties from Western Europe, it has grown to include 153 member parties from over 100 countries and its members have governed in many countries including most of Europe. The Party of European Socialists, a major European political party, is an organisation of the SI. The current secretary general of the SI is Luis Ayala, who has held the post since 1989, the current president of the SI is the former Prime Minister of Greece George Papandreou. The International Workingmens Association was the first international body to bring together organisations representing the working class and it was formed in London on 28 September 1864 by socialist, communist and anarchist political groups and trade unions. Tensions between moderates and revolutionaries led to its dissolution in 1876 in Philadelphia, the Second International was formed in Paris on 14 July 1889 as an association of the socialist parties. Differences over World War I led to the Second International being dissolved in 1916, International Socialist Commission was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in Berne by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International. In March 1919 communist parties formed Comintern at a meeting in Moscow, Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International or Comintern formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties on 27 February 1921 at a conference in Vienna. The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the Labour and Socialist International in May 1923 at a meeting in Hamburg, the rise of Nazism and the start of World War II led to the dissolution of the LSI in 1940. The Socialist International was formed in Frankfurt in July 1951 as a successor to the LSI, during the post-World War II period, the SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in Portugal and Spain. Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe, in the 1980s, most SI parties gave their backing to the Nicaraguan Sandinistas, whose left-wing government had incited enmity from the United States. The SI supported détente and disarmament agreements, such as SALTII, START and they had several meetings and discussion in Washington, D. C. with President Jimmy Carter and Vice-President George Bush and in Moscow with Secretaries General Leonid Brezhnev and Mikhail Gorbachev. The SIs delegations to these discussions were led by the Finnish Prime Minister Kalevi Sorsa, following the Tunisian revolution, the Constitutional Democratic Rally was expelled from the SI in January 2011. Later that month, the Egyptian National Democratic Party was also expelled, as a result of the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis, the Ivorian Popular Front was expelled in March 2011. However, according to section 5.1.3 of the statutes of the Socialist International, Social Democracy and Southern Africa by Vladimir Shubin,1989. Julius Braunthal, The Rebirth of Social Democracy, Foreign Affairs, in JSTOR Pentti Vaananen, The Rose and the Fist, SYS Print,2014, pp. 50–230
10.
Progressive Alliance
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The Progressive Alliance is an international alliance of social-democratic and progressive political parties and organisations founded on 22 May 2013 in Leipzig, Germany. Progressive Alliance comprises 140 members from around the world, gabriel had been critical of the Socialist Internationals admittance and continuing inclusion of undemocratic political movements into the organization. An initial Conference of the Progressive Alliance was held in Rome, Italy on 14–15 December 2012, also present were representatives of the Indian National Congress, the Workers Party of Brazil, and PASOK of Greece. The Dutch Labour Party also supported the formation of the organization, as did the Swiss Socialist Party, the organization stated the aim of becoming the global network of the progressive, democratic, social-democratic, socialist and labour movement. It was reported that representatives of approximately 70 social-democratic political parties from across the world attended the event, the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats group in the European Parliament joined the organization upon its official foundation. Many member parties are affiliated to the Socialist International. On 4–5 December 2014, a Progressive Alliance conference was held in Lisbon for member parties of the S&D group, on 25 April 2016 the organisation held a seminar in São Paulo hosted by the Workers Party of Brazil. The Progressive Alliance lists the parties and organisations which participate in the network, rather than claiming members
11.
Blue
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Blue is the colour between violet and green on the optical spectrum of visible light. Human eyes perceive blue when observing light with a wavelength between 450 and 495 nanometres, which is between 4500 and 4950 ångströms. Blues with a frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency. Pure blue, in the middle, has a wavelength of 470 nanometers, in painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments, along with red and yellow, which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green, Blue is also a primary colour in the RGB colour model, used to create all the colours on the screen of a television or computer monitor. The clear sky and the sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules. An optical effect called Tyndall scattering, similar to Rayleigh scattering, explains blue eyes, distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called atmospheric perspective. Blue has been used for art and decoration since ancient times and it is the most important color in Judaism. In the Middle Ages, cobalt blue was used to colour the stained glass windows of cathedrals, beginning in the 9th century, Chinese artists used cobalt to make fine blue and white porcelain. Blue dyes for clothing were made from woad in Europe and indigo in Asia, in 1828 a synthetic ultramarine pigment was developed, and synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced mineral pigments and vegetable dyes. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Vincent van Gogh and other late 19th century painters used ultramarine and cobalt blue not just to depict nature, in the late 18th century and 19th century, blue became a popular colour for military uniforms and police uniforms. In the 20th century, because blue was associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations. Surveys in the US and Europe show that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, faithfulness, confidence, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sometimes with sadness. In US and European public opinion polls it is the most popular colour, Blue is the colour of light between violet and green on the visible spectrum. Blues also vary in shade or tint, darker shades of blue contain black or grey, darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue, while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue. Today most blue pigments and dyes are made by a chemical process, the modern English word blue comes from Middle English bleu or blewe, from the Old French bleu, a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word blao. In heraldry, the azure is used for blue
12.
Orange (colour)
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Orange is the colour of carrots, pumpkins and apricots. It is between red and yellow in the spectrum of light, and on the traditional painters colour wheel and it is named after the fruit of the same name. In Asia it is an important symbolic colour of Buddhism and Hinduism, the colour orange is named after the appearance of the ripe orange fruit. The word comes from the Old French orange, from the old term for the fruit, the French word, in turn, comes from the Italian arancia, based on Arabic nāranj, derived from the Sanskrit naranga. The first recorded use of orange as a name in English was in 1512. Prior to this word being introduced to the English-speaking world, saffron already existed in the English language, crog also referred to the saffron colour, so that orange was also referred to as ġeolurēad for reddish orange, or ġeolucrog for yellowish orange. Alternatively, orange things were sometimes described as red such as red deer, red hair, in ancient Egypt artists used an orange mineral pigment called realgar for tomb paintings, as well as other uses. It was also used later by Medieval artists for the colouring of manuscripts, pigments were also made in ancient times from a mineral known as orpiment. Orpiment was an important item of trade in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China although it contains arsenic and is highly toxic and it was also used as a fly poison and to poison arrows. Because of its colour, it was also a favourite with alchemists searching for a way to make gold. Before the late 15th century, the colour orange existed in Europe, portuguese merchants brought the first orange trees to Europe from Asia in the late 15th and early 16th century, along with the Sanskrit naranga, which gradually became orange in English. The House of Orange-Nassau was one of the most influential houses in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. It originated in 1163 the tiny Principality of Orange, a state of 108 square miles north of Avignon in southern France. The family of the Prince of Orange eventually adopted the name, the colour came to be associated with Protestantism, due to participation by the House of Orange on the Protestant side in the French Wars of Religion. One member of the house, William I of Orange, organised the Dutch resistance against Spain, another member, William III of Orange, became King of England in 1689, after the downfall of the Catholic James II. Due to William III, orange became an important political colour in Britain, William was a Protestant, and as such he defended the Protestant minority of Ireland against the majority Roman Catholic population. As a result, the Protestants of Ireland were known as Orangemen, Orange eventually became one of the colours of the Irish flag, symbolising the Protestant heritage. When the Dutch settlers of South Africa rebelled against the British in the late 19th century, in the United States, the flag of the City of New York has an orange stripe, to remember the Dutch colonists who founded the city
13.
Parliament of Montenegro
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The Parliament of Montenegro is the unicameral legislature of Montenegro. The Parliament currently has 81 members, elected for a four-year term, following the 2006 independence referendum, the Parliament declared and ratified the independence of Montenegro on 3 June 2006. The system of the house is proportional representation, the current Speaker of the Parliament is Ivan Brajović, while Deputy Speakers are Branimir Gvozdenović and Genci Nimanbegu. The first convocation of the Parliament has been constituted in 1906, following the annexation of Kingdom of Montenegro into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1918, the Parliament of Montenegro was disbanded until the World War II. Current convocation is the 23rd since the foundation of the Parliament, the Parliament appoints the Prime Minister nominated by the President, as well as the ministers chosen by the Prime Minister. Parliament also passes all laws in Montenegro, ratifies treaties, appoints justices of all courts, adopts the budget. The Parliament can pass a vote of no-confidence in the Government with a majority of the members, a deputy has a four-year term. One deputy is elected per 6,000 voters, which in turn results in a change of number of deputies in the parliament. The Parliament has 81 members elected by a DHondt method system of representation for a four-year term. The 81 seats of the Parliament of Montenegro are elected in a nationwide constituency by closed list proportional representation. Seats are allocated using the method with a 3% electoral threshold. However, minority groups that account for at least 15% of the population in a district are given an exemption that lowers the threshold to 0. 7% if their list fails to cross the 3% threshold. For ethnic Croats, if no list representing the population passes the 0. 7% threshold, the most recent elections were held on 16 October 2016 and the next are scheduled for 2020. Since October 2016, the majority is formed by DPS, SD, BS, LP, HGI. President of the Parliament of Montenegro Official website
14.
Municipalities of Montenegro
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Montenegro is composed of 23 municipalities, the Old Royal Capital Cetinje and the Podgorica Capital City. Podgorica is divided into two subdivisions called urban municipalities, list of regions of Montenegro Cities and towns of Montenegro Populated places of Montenegro Subdivisions of Montenegro ISO 3166-2, ME Statistical Office of Montenegro - MONSTAT. Population census 2003 Statistical Office of Montenegro - MONSTAT, census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011. Population by age, sex, and type of settlement per municipality, census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro,2011
15.
Montenegrin language
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Montenegrin /ˌmɒntᵻˈniːɡrᵻn/ is the standardized variety of the Serbo-Croatian language used as the official language of Montenegro. Montenegros language has historically and traditionally been called Serbian, the idea of a Montenegrin standard language separate from Serbian appeared in the 2000s after Serbia and Montenegro broke up, via proponents of Montenegrin independence. Montenegrin became the language of Montenegro with the ratification of a new constitution on 22 October 2007. The Montenegrin standard is still emerging and its orthography was established on 10 July 2009 with the addition of two letters to the alphabet, although the grammar and a school curriculum are yet to be approved. Their usage remained controversial and they achieved only limited public acceptance and they had been used for official documents since 2009, but in February 2017, the Assembly of Montenegro removed them from any type of governmental documentation. In January 2008, the government of Montenegro formed the Council for the Codification of the Montenegrin Language, proceeding documents will, after verification, become a part of the educational programme in Montenegrin schools. The first Montenegrin standard was proposed in July 2009. In addition to the Serbo-Croatian standard, the proposal introduced two additional letters, ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ź⟩, to replace the digraphs ⟨sj⟩ and ⟨zj⟩. The Council has criticized this act, saying it comes from a small group, on 21 June 2010, the Council for General Education adopted the first Montenegrin Grammar. The language remains an issue in Montenegro. In the previous census of 1991, the vast majority of Montenegrin citizens,510,320 or 82. 97%, declared themselves speakers of the official language. The 1981 population census recorded a Serbo-Croatian-speaking majority. However, in the first Communist censuses, the vast majority of the population declared Serbian their native language, according to the Constitution of Montenegro, the official language of the republic since 1992 is Serbian of the Ijekavian standard. After World War II and until 1992, the language of Montenegro was Serbo-Croatian. Before that, in the previous Montenegrin realm, the language in use was called Serbian, the new constitution, adopted on 19 October 2007, deemed Montenegrin to be the official language of Montenegro. The most recent population census conducted in Montenegro was in 2011, according to it,36. 97% of the population declared Montenegrin their native language, and 42. 88% declared Serbian their native language. Mijat Šuković, a prominent Montenegrin lawyer, wrote a version of the constitution which passed the parliaments constitutional committee. Šuković suggested Montenegrin as the language of Montenegro
16.
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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Covering an area of 255,804 km², the SFRY was bordered with Italy to the west, Hungary to the north, Bulgaria and Romania to the east and Albania and Greece to the south. In addition, it included two autonomous provinces within Serbia, Kosovo and Vojvodina, the SFRY traces back to 29 June 1943 when the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia was formed during World War II. On 29 November 1945, the Federal Peoples Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed after the deposal of King Peter II thus ending the monarchy. Following the death of Tito on 4 May 1980, rising ethnic nationalism in the late 1980s led to dissidence among the multiple ethnicities within the constituent republics. This led to the federation collapsing along the borders, followed by the final downfall and breakup of the federation on 27 April 1992. The term former Yugoslavia is now commonly used retrospectively, the name Yugoslavia, an Anglicised transcription of Jugoslavija, is a composite word made-up of jug and slavija. The Serbo-Croatian, Slovene and Macedonian word jug means south, while slavija denotes a land of the Slavs, thus, a translation of Jugoslavija would be South-Slavia or Land of the South Slavs. The term is intended to denote the lands occupied by the six South Slavic nations, Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Montenegrins, Slovenes, the full official name of the federation varied significantly between 1945 and 1992. Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 under the name Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, the name deliberately left the republic-or-kingdom question open. In 1963, amid pervasive liberal constitutional reforms, the name Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was introduced, the state is most commonly referred to by the latter name, which it held for the longest period of all. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though SFR Yugoslavia was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media. On 6 April 1941, Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers led by Nazi Germany, by 17 April 1941, Yugoslav resistance was soon established in two forms, the Royal Yugoslav Army and the Yugoslav Partisans. The Partisan supreme commander was Josip Broz Tito, and under his command the movement soon began establishing liberated territories which attracted the attentions of the occupying forces. The coalition of parties, factions, and prominent individuals behind the movement was the Peoples Liberation Front. The Front formed a political body, the Anti-Fascist Council for the Peoples Liberation of Yugoslavia. The AVNOJ, which met for the first time in Partisan-liberated Bihać on 26 November 1942, during 1943, the Yugoslav Partisans began attracting serious attention from the Germans. In two major operations of Fall Weiss and Fall Schwartz, the Axis attempted to stamp-out the Yugoslav resistance once, on both occasions, despite heavy casualties, the Group succeeded in evading the trap and retreating to safety. The Partisans emerged stronger than before and now occupied a significant portion of Yugoslavia
17.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
18.
Multi-party system
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First-past-the-post requires concentrated areas of support for large representation in the legislature whereas proportional representation better reflects the range of a populations views. Proportional systems have multi-member districts with more than one elected from a given district to the same legislative body. Duvergers Law states that the number of political parties is one plus the number of seats in a district. In these countries, usually no single party has a majority by itself. Instead, multiple political parties form coalitions for the purpose of developing power blocks for governing, a system where only two parties have the possibility of winning an election is called two-party system. A system where three parties have a realistic possibility of winning an election or forming a coalition is sometimes called a Third-party system. Usually this is because the electoral system penalises the third party, in the 2010 elections, the Liberal Democrats gained 23% of the total vote but won less than 10% of the seats due to the First-Past-The-Post electoral system. Despite this, they still had enough seats to form coalitions with one of the two parties, or to make deals in order to gain their support. An example is the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition formed after the 2010 general election, another is the Lib-Lab pact during Prime Minister James Callaghans Minority Labour Government, when Labour lost its three-seat majority in 1977, the pact fell short of a full coalition. Unlike a one-party system, a multi-party system encourages the general constituency to form distinct, officially recognized groups. Each party competes for votes from the enfranchised constituents, a multi-party system prevents the leadership of a single party from controlling a single legislative chamber without challenge. If the government includes an elected Congress or Parliament, the parties may share power according to proportional representation or the first-past-the-post system, in proportional representation, each party wins a number of seats proportional to the number of votes it receives. In first-past-the-post, the electorate is divided into a number of districts and this gravitation is known as Duvergers law. Proportional representation, on the hand, does not have this tendency. But, recent coalition governments, such as that in the U. K. represent two-party systems rather than multi-party systems and this is regardless of the number of parties in government. A two-party system requires voters to align themselves in large blocs, some theories argue that this allows centrists to gain control. On the other hand, if there are multiple parties, each with less than a majority of the vote. This also promotes centrism, as well as promoting coalition-building skills while discouraging polarization, coalition Polarized pluralism Political organisation Ingroups and outgroups
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Montenegrin parliamentary election, 2012
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Early parliamentary elections were held in Montenegro on 14 October 2012. The result was a victory for the ruling Coalition for a European Montenegro led by Milo Đukanović, elections in Montenegro are free, with the right of secret ballot guaranteed. Because the country has a national voting district, all votes cast at individual voting stations across the country went towards a single total. The electoral threshold was 3%, so electoral lists receiving under three percent of the votes cast were crossed out, and the MPs within the assembly were split amongst the remaining lists. Seats were distributed by the DHondt method, which slightly favors leading lists above the smaller ones, the Parliaments mandate lasts four years. Several coalitions were formed or continued for the election, A newly formed party, Positive Montenegro led by Darko Pajović, ran independently
20.
Government of Montenegro
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The government of Montenegro is the executive branch of state authority in Montenegro. It is headed by the prime minister and it comprises the prime minister, the deputy prime ministers as well as ministers. Duško Marković is the current Prime Minister of Montenegro and Head of Government, the current members of the cabinet were elected on 28 November 2016 by the majority vote in the Parliament of Montenegro. Each minister of each ministry reports to the Prime Minister and this cabinet was approved in the Parliament of Montenegro on 11 June 2009, and was in power until Prime Minister Milo Đukanović resigned on 23 December 2010
21.
Prime Minister of Montenegro
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The Prime Minister of Montenegro, is the head of the Government of Montenegro. The role of the Prime Minister is to direct the work of the Government, the resignation of the Prime Minister will cause the fall of the Government. The current Prime Minister, Duško Marković, member of the Democratic Party of Socialists of Montenegro, was appointed by President Filip Vujanović on 28 November 2016, the first modern Montenegrin government was established on March 20,1879, during the Principality of Montenegro. The title of the head of government was President of the Ministerial Council, on August 28,1910 Montenegro was proclaimed a Kingdom. During both Principality and Kingdom, the office was of no major importance or influence but depended solely on the will of the Prince Nikola I. After the capitulation of Montenegro to the Central Powers on January 15,1916 during World War I, however, the deposed King Nikola I continued to appoint Prime Ministers of Montenegro in exile until his death in 1921. The Government of Montenegro in exile ceased to exist shortly afterwards, under the communist regime, Montenegro obtained its own government on March 7,1945. Governments were headed by a Prime Minister until February 4,1953, by a President of the Executive Council until January 15,1991, and again by a Prime Minister since then
22.
President of Montenegro
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The President of Montenegro is the head of state of Montenegro. The current president is Filip Vujanović, who was reelected in the first round of the 2013 presidential election with 51. 2% of the vote, the official residence of the President is the Blue Palace located in the former royal capital Cetinje. This section is according to the Constitution of Montenegro, Article 86 Each president has a term of 5 years in office, Each president can have two terms in office. The President is elected through direct and secret ballots, in the event of a state of war during term of office of the President of Montenegro shall be extended for as long as the state of war exists. The President may be recalled by the Assembly, only in case the Constitutional Court should decide that he has breached the provisions of the Constitution, the procedure to determine the breach of Constitution shall be instigated by the Assembly. Grant amnesty for criminal offences prescribed by the law, confer decoration and awards. The President shall be a member of the Supreme Defence Council, the President may also, within seven days from the date of adoption of a law, request the Assembly to decide again on the same law. The President shall be bound to promulgate a law passed for the time by the Assembly
23.
League of Communists of Serbia
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The League of Communists of Serbia, founded as the Communist Party of Serbia, was the Serbian branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia, the sole legal party of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1990. Under a new constitution ratified in 1974, greater power was devolved to the republic level branches. In the late 1980s, the party was taken over by a faction endorsing Slobodan Milošević to become leader of the party, Milošević appeased nationalists in Serbia by promising to reduce the level of autonomy within the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. This policy increased ethnic tensions with the republics and nationalities. During the early 1990s, the ethnic tensions between the republics of Yugoslavia led to the breakup of the federal party. On July 27,1990, it merged with smaller parties to form the Socialist Party of Serbia. During its existence the League of Communists of Kosovo and the League of Communists of Vojvodina were associated with it as integral parts, Congress - 8–12 May 1945 II. Congress - 17–21 January 1949 III, Congress - 26–29 April 1954 IV. Congress - 4–6 June 1959 V, Congress - 11–14 May 1965 VI. Congress - 21–23 November 1968 VII, Congress - 23–25 April 1974 VIII. Congress - 29–31 May 1978 IX, Congress -1982 X. Congress - May 1986 XI
24.
League of Communists of Yugoslavia
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The League of Communists of Yugoslavia, before 1952 the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, was the countrys largest communist party, and the ruling party of SFR Yugoslavia. It was founded as a party in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats. After initial successes in the elections, it was proscribed by the government and remained an illegal underground group until World War II, at times. After internal purges of members, the party renamed itself the League of Communists and adopted the politics of workers self-management and independent communism. The ministerial branch of the Social democrat party of Slovenia was minorized in April 1920, Slovenes joined officially at the Second Congress, held in Vukovar in late April 1920. The congress was marked by opposing positions towards the concepts of the revolutionary, bolshevik influence was introduced by soldiers who during the war had been captured by Russian forces and had experienced the October Revolution. The Congress decided to form a political party named Socialist Labor Party of Yugoslavia which would be a member of Comintern. These early successes convinced other groups, including Social Democrats in Slovenia, success continued in local elections in Serbia in the summer of 1920, in which the Communists won majorities in many districts. Again, Communist administrations were suspended by the government, finally, in elections to the Constitutional Assembly, held on November 28,1920, the Communist Party received 198,736 votes and 58 of 419 seats in the assembly. The 2nd party congress, held in June 1920 in Vukovar, the party changed its name to Communist Party of Yugoslavia and elected Filipović and Sima Marković as political secretaries. The Congress also supported to the idea of a Balkan Communist Federation, the centrists for a time formed they own party before they united with Social Democrats in the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia. The partys property was seized and several leaders arrested, the Assembly approved of the Constitution on 28 June 1921, against the votes of the Communist deputies. The Communist Party reacted to the Obznana preparing a transition to illegal operation, in June 1921, it formed an Alternative Central Party Leadership, which would assume control of the Party if the Party leadership was arrested. This act was condemned and resulted in a lasting drop of the partys popularity. The Assembly passed the Law of protection of security and state order. The ban was not lifted until the demise of the Kingdom in 1941, as the party continued underground and abroad, the Alternative Central Party Leadership was headed by Kosta Novaković, Triša Kaclerović and Moša Pijade. However, soon conflict flared up on the whether the party should attempt to reconstruct legal forms of its work or devote itself entirely to illegal activity. A group of party leaders, led by party secretary Sima Marković, formed the Executive Committee of the Communist Party in Emigration in September 1921
25.
Head start (positioning)
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In positioning, a head start is a start in advance of the starting position of others in competition, or simply toward the finish line or desired outcome. Depending on the situation, a start may be inherent, obtained by special privilege, earned through ones accomplishments. While not guaranteeing success, a head start will increase such chances, in competitive sports, such as a race, a head start refers to a start ahead of other competitors, allowing a shorter distance to the finish line. The idea of a start may seem unfair. But in some cases, a start is an advantage that may be earned by one more of the competitors. Also, adults who are racing against children may provide children with a start, knowing the children are slower. In modern pentathlon, the leader after the first four events takes a head start in the 3,000 metre cross country event based on his lead over his opponent. The first competitor to the line wins. In baseball, base runners who are attempting to steal bases or advance more bases in the event of a hit may attempt to get a start off their base before the pitcher throws his pitch. In traffic, at a red light, many motorists will start to inch up in anticipation of the light turning green and this will give them a head start on other motorists on the road. A head start could be a start in an attempt to achieve some goal. In such cases, the start is usually earned by working harder or by using more efficient means of reaching that point
26.
Breakup of Yugoslavia
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The breakup of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts during the early 1990s. After a period of crisis in the 1980s, constituent republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart. The wars primarily affected Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, in addition, two autonomous provinces were established within Serbia, Vojvodina and Kosovo. Each of the republics had its own branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, after his death in 1980, the weakened system of federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political challenges. In the 1980s, Kosovo Albanians started to demand that their autonomous province be granted the status of a constituent republic, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia dissolved in 1990 along federal lines. Nationalist rhetoric on all sides became increasingly heated, in 1991, one republic after another proclaimed independence, but the status of Serb minorities outside Serbia was left unsolved. Before World War II, major tensions arose from the first, monarchist Yugoslavias multi-ethnic make-up and relative political, fundamental to the tensions were the different concepts of the new state. The Croats and Slovenes envisaged a federal model where they would enjoy greater autonomy than they had as a crown land under Austria-Hungary. Under Austria-Hungary, both Slovenes and Croats enjoyed autonomy with free hands only in education, law, religion, and 45% of taxes. The Serbs tended to view the territories as a just reward for their support of the allies in World War I, the assassination and human rights abuses were subject of concern for the Human Rights League and precipitated voices of protest from intellectuals, including Albert Einstein. It was in this environment of oppression that the insurgent group. During World War II, the tensions were exploited by the occupying Axis forces which established a Croat puppet state spanning much of present-day Croatia and Bosnia. The Axis powers installed the Ustaše as the leaders of the Independent State of Croatia, the Ustaše resolved that the Serbian minority were a fifth column of Serbian expansionism, and pursued a policy of persecution against the Serbs. The policy dictated that one-third of the Serbian minority were to be killed, one-third expelled, both Croats and Muslims were recruited as soldiers by the SS. At the same time, former royalist, General Milan Nedić, was installed by the Axis as head of the government and local Serbs were recruited into the Gestapo. The official Yugoslav post-war estimate of victims in Yugoslavia during World War II was 1,704,000, subsequent data gathering in the 1980s by historians Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović showed that the actual number of dead was about 1 million. Of that number,330,000 to 390,000 ethnic Serbs perished from all causes in Croatia and Bosnia, Yugoslavia was in its heyday a regional industrial power and an economic success. From 1960 to 1980, annual gross domestic product growth averaged 6.1 percent, medical care was free, literacy was 91 percent, Yugoslavia was a unique state, straddling both the East and West
27.
Yugoslav Wars
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The Yugoslav Wars were a series of ethnically-based wars and insurgencies fought from 1991 to 2001 inside the territory of the former Yugoslavia. The wars are considered to be a series of separate but related military conflicts which occurred in. The wars ended through peace accords, involving full international recognition of new states, as a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and ethnic Macedonians, and effectively became a Serb army. According to the 1994 United Nations report, the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia, other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the wars, such as Greater Albania and Greater Croatia. Often described as Europes deadliest since World War II, the conflicts have become infamous for the war crimes involved, including cleansing, crimes against humanity. These were the first European conflicts since World War II to be formally judged genocidal in character, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia was established by the UN to prosecute these crimes. According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people, the Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives. The war have alternatively been called, Wars in the Balkans Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia, third Balkan War, a term suggested by British journalist Misha Glenny in the title of his book, alluding to the two previous Balkan Wars fought 1912–13. In fact, this term has been applied by some historians to World War I. Yugoslavia Civil War/Yugoslav Civil War/Yugoslavian Civil War/Civil War in Yugoslavia, the nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and was composed mostly of South Slavic Christians, but the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. In the 1980s, relations among the six republics of the SFRY deteriorated, Slovenia and Croatia desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clearer that there was no solution agreeable to all parties, although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, it was 1990 that proved decisive. In the midst of hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, the communist leadership was divided along national lines. The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded a more centralized federation. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party, the first of these conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991
28.
Serbia and Montenegro
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Serbia and Montenegro, officially the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, was a country in Southeast Europe, created from the two remaining republics of Yugoslavia after its breakup in 1992. The republics of Serbia and Montenegro together established a federation in 1992 as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the FRY aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to continue the membership of the former state. It re-applied for UN membership on 27 October and was admitted on 1 November 2000, the FRY was initially dominated by Slobodan Milošević as President of Serbia and then President of Yugoslavia. Milošević installed and forced the removal of several presidents and prime ministers. However, the Montenegrin government, initially enthusiastic supporters of Milošević, a loose union, Serbia and Montenegro were united only in certain realms, such as defense. The two constituent republics functioned separately throughout the period of the Federal Republic, and continued to operate under separate economic policies, on 21 May 2006, the Montenegrin independence referendum was held, and 55. 5% of voters voted in favor of independence. The state union came to an end after Montenegros formal declaration of independence on 3 June 2006, after the dissolution, Serbia became the legal successor of the union, while Montenegro re-applied for membership in international organizations. With the collapse of communism across Eastern Europe, the new state followed the wave of democratic change, Yugoslavias collapse began in 1991 when Slovenia, Croatia, and the Republic of Macedonia declared independence. On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new third Yugoslavia. Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from a union with Serbia, Montenegro, the FRY was suspended from a number of international institutions. This was due to the ongoing Yugoslav wars during the 1990s, the Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions, in this way, every Bosnian Serb was transferred from the Yugoslav army to what became the newly created Bosnian Serb Army. Through this, the Bosnian Serb army also received military equipment and full funding from the FRY. Furthermore, Serbian Radical Party founder and paramilitary Vojislav Šešelj claimed that President Milošević personally asked him to send paramilitaries into Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1995, Serbian President Slobodan Milošević represented the FRY and Bosnian Serbs at peace talks in Dayton, Ohio, US, from 1996, the first public signs of political discord between parts of Montenegrin leadership and the Serbian leadership began to appear. Milošević did not respond to the platform, considering it unconstitutional, by October 2000 Milošević had lost power in Serbia. Subsequent governments of Montenegro carried out policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade
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