1.
Malaysia
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Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy located in Southeast Asia. Peninsular Malaysia shares a land and maritime border with Thailand and maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, East Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Brunei and Indonesia and a maritime border with the Philippines and Vietnam. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government, with a population of over 30 million, Malaysia is the 44th most populous country. The southernmost point of continental Eurasia, Tanjung Piai, is in Malaysia, located in the tropics, Malaysia is one of 17 megadiverse countries on earth, with large numbers of endemic species. Malaysia has its origins in the Malay kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, the first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946, Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963 to become Malaysia, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. The country is multi-ethnic and multi-cultural, which plays a role in politics. About half the population is ethnically Malay, with minorities of Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians. The constitution declares Islam the state religion while allowing freedom of religion for non-Muslims, the government system is closely modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and the legal system is based on common law. The head of state is the king, known as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and he is an elected monarch chosen from the hereditary rulers of the nine Malay states every five years. The head of government is the prime minister, since its independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with its GDP growing at an average of 6. 5% per annum for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce. Today, Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, ranked third largest in Southeast Asia, the name Malaysia is a combination of the word Malay and the Latin-Greek suffix -sia/-σία. The word melayu in Malay may derive from the Tamil words malai and ur meaning mountain and city, land, malayadvipa was the word used by ancient Indian traders when referring to the Malay Peninsula. Whether or not it originated from these roots, the word melayu or mlayu may have used in early Malay/Javanese to mean to steadily accelerate or run. This term was applied to describe the current of the river Melayu in Sumatra. The name was adopted by the Melayu Kingdom that existed in the seventh century on Sumatra
2.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
3.
Kilowatt hour
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The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
4.
Freedom in the World
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Freedom in the World was launched in 1973 by Raymond Gastil. It produces annual scores representing the levels of rights and civil liberties in each state and territory. Depending on the ratings, the nations are then classified as Free, Partly Free, the report is often used by researchers in order to measure democracy and correlates highly with several other measures of democracy such as the Polity data series. The Freedom House rankings are widely reported in the media and used as sources by political researchers and their construction and use has been evaluated by critics and supporters. The rankings below are from the Freedom in the World 2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016 and 2017 surveys, each reflecting findings covering the previous year. Each pair of political rights and civil liberties ratings is averaged to determine an overall status of Free, Partly Free, an asterisk indicates countries which are electoral democracies. An electoral democracy also must have a score of 7 or more out of 12 in political rights subcategory A, Freedom Houses term electoral democracy differs from liberal democracy in that the latter also implies the presence of a substantial array of civil liberties. In the survey, all Free countries qualify as electoral and liberal democracies. By contrast, some Partly Free countries qualify as electoral, but not liberal, the chart and table above do not include data for related/disputed territories. There is some debate over the neutrality of Freedom House and the used for the Freedom in the World report. The neutrality and biases of human-rights indices have been discussed in several publications by Kenneth A. Bollen, have demonstrated a systematic bias in all the ratings. Most of the consists of anecdotal evidence of relatively few cases. Whether there is a systematic or sporadic slant in Gastils ratings is an open question, the freedom index of Freedom in the World has a very strong and positive correlation with three other democracy-indices studied in Mainwaring. In his 1986 study, Bollen discussed reviews of measurements of human rights, citizens vote, in the U. S. the same two parties speak in a commercially sponsored unison, wrote Przeworski. More recent charges of ideological bias prompted Freedom House to issue this 2010 statement, the methodology of the survey is grounded in basic standards of political rights and civil liberties, derived in large measure from relevant portions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. As previously quoted, Bollen criticized previous studies of Freedom in the World as anecdotal and inconclusive, Bollen studied the question of ideological bias using multivariate statistics. In contrast, another method by a critic of Freedom in the World produced a bias for Leftist countries during the 1980s of at least 0.8 s. d. A bias that is consistent with the finding that political scientists are more favorable to leftist politics than is the general population
5.
Corruption Perceptions Index
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The CPI generally defines corruption as the misuse of public power for private benefit. The CPI currently ranks 168 countries on a scale from 100 to 0, Transparency International commissioned Johann Graf Lambsdorff of the University of Passau to produce the Corruption Perceptions Index. The 2012 CPI draws on 13 different surveys and assessments from 12 different institutions, countries must be assessed by at least three sources to appear in the CPI. The 13 surveys/assessments are either business people opinion surveys or performance assessments from a group of analysts, early CPIs used public opinion surveys. The CPI measures perception of corruption due to the difficulty of measuring absolute levels of corruption, (Note that a lower index on this scale reflects greater corruption, so that countries with higher RGDPs generally had less corruption. The researchers found a correlation between a higher CPI and higher economic growth, as well as an increase in GDP growth of 1. 7% for every unit increase in a countrys CPI score. Also shown was a power-law dependence linking higher CPI score to higher rates of investment in a country. Because corruption is willfully hidden, it is impossible to directly, instead. Seligson states that corruption is a very “difficult phenomenon to measure, ” there have been attempts to solve this problem. The Index has been criticized on the basis of its methodology, political scientist Dan Hough pointed out three flaws in the Index, Corruption is too complex to be captured by a single score. The nature of corruption in rural Kansas will, for instance, by measuring perceptions of corruption, as opposed to corruption itself, the Index may simply be reinforcing stereotypes and cliches. The Index only measures public-sector corruption, leaving out private actors and this for instance means the Libor scandal or the VW emissions scandal are not counted. Media outlets frequently use the raw numbers as a yardstick for government performance, the local Transparency International chapter in Bangladesh disowned the index results after a change in methodology caused the countrys scores to increase, media reported it as an improvement. In a 2013 article in Foreign Policy, Alex Cobham suggested that CPI should be dropped for the good of Transparency International, Cobham writes, the index corrupts perceptions to the extent that its hard to see a justification for its continuing publication. In the United States, many lawyers advise international businesses to consult the CPI when attempting to measure the risk of Foreign Corrupt Practices Act violations in different nations, Transparency International has warned that a country with a clean CPI score may still be linked to corruption internationally. For example, while Sweden had the 3rd best CPI score in 2015, one of its state-owned companies, Corruption Perceptions Index 2010, Long methodological brief. Corruption Perceptions Index 2013 Interactive world map of the Corruption Perception Index, 2000-2008 A Users Guide to Measuring Corruption critiques the CPI, Global Integrity Index List of Global Development Indexes and Rankings
6.
Reporters Without Borders
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Reporters Without Borders, or Reporters Sans Frontières, is an international non-profit, non-governmental organization that promotes and defends freedom of information and freedom of the press. The organization, with an office in Paris, France, has consultant status at the United Nations. Reporters Without Borders was founded in 1985 by Robert Ménard, Rémy Loury, Jacques Molénat and Émilien Jubineau, in Montpellier and its head office is in the 2nd arrondissement of Paris. RWB also maintains offices in Berlin, Brussels, Geneva, Madrid, Rome, Stockholm, Tunis, Vienna, at first, the association worked to promote alternative journalism, but there were disagreements between the founders. Finally, only Ménard stayed and he changed the direction towards promoting freedom of the press. Ménard was RWBs first Secretary General, jean-François Julliard succeeded Ménard in 2008. Christophe Deloire succeeded Julliard in July 2012 when he became Director General, Reporters Without Borders primary means of direct action are appeals to government authorities through letters or petitions, as well as frequent press releases. Through its world-wide network of roughly 150 correspondents, RWB gathers information, if necessary, it will send a team of its own to assess working conditions for journalists in a specific country. It releases annual reports on countries as well as the Press Freedom Index, RWB also provides assistance for journalists and media who are either in danger or are having difficulty subsisting. 2013, received the Freedom of Speech Award from the International Association of Press Clubs,2012, received the Club Internacional de Prensa Award, in Madrid. 2009, shared the Roland Berger Human Dignity Award with Iranian human rights lawyer,2009, received the Médaille Charlemagne for European Media. 2008, received the Kahlil Gibran Award for Institutional Excellence from the Arab American Institute Foundation,2007, received the Asia Democracy and Human Rights Award from Taiwan Foundation for Democracy and the Dawit Isaak Prize from Swedish Publicists Association. 2006, received an International Emmy Award from the International Academy of Television Arts,2005, shared the European Parliaments Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought with Nigerian human rights lawyer Hauwa Ibrahim and Cubas Ladies in White movement. 1997, received the Journalism and Democracy Prize from the Parliament Assembly of the Organization for Security,1992, received the Lorenzo Natali Prize from the European Commission for defending human rights and democracy. Reporters Without Borders issues press releases, fact finding reports, and it publishes periodic mission reports on developments in individual countries or regions or on a specific topic. Each December it publishes an overview of events related to freedom of information. It maintains a web site accessible in six languages, RWB compiles and publishes an annual ranking of countries based upon the organizations assessment of their press freedom records. Small countries, such as Andorra, are excluded from this report, the survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press
7.
East Malaysia
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East Malaysia, also known as Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan or Malaysian Borneo, is the part of Malaysia located on the island of Borneo. It consists of the Malaysian states of Sabah, Sarawak, and it lies to the east of Peninsular Malaysia, which is located on the Malay Peninsula. The two are separated by the South China Sea, while East Malaysia is less populated and less developed than West Malaysia, its land mass is larger and it has notably more natural resources, chiefly oil and gas reserves. Some parts of present-day East Malaysia, especially the regions, were once part of the thalassocracy of the Sultanate of Brunei. However, most parts of the region consisted of independent tribal societies. In 1658, the northern and eastern coasts of Sabah were ceded to the Sultanate of Sulu while the west coast of Sabah, beginning in the mid 19th century, Sabah and Sarawak became British protectorates, and, in 1946, they became separate British colonies. Sabah and Sarawak were separate British colonies from Malaya, and did not become part of the Federation of Malaya in 1957, however, each voted to become part of the new Federation of Malaysia along with the Federation of Malaya and Singapore in 1963. Previously, there were efforts to unite Brunei, Sabah, and Sarawak under the North Borneo Federation, Sabah and Sarawak retained a higher degree of local government and legislative autonomy than other states in West Malaysia. For example, both states have their own immigration controls, requiring Malaysian citizens from West Malaysia to carry passports or identity cards when visiting East Malaysia, the islands of Labuan were once part of North Borneo in 1946 before becoming a Federal Territory in Malaysia on 1984. It was used to establish a centre for finance in 1990. The consensus seems to be that Sabah and Sarawak are merely states of the federation with a higher degree of autonomy compared to states in Peninsular Malaysia. There are also separate laws governing Sabah and Sarawak, as opposed to the National Land Code. With regard to the administration of justice, the courts in East Malaysia are part of the court system in Malaysia. The Constitution of Malaysia provides that there shall be two High Courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction – The High Court in Malaya and the High Court in Sabah, the current Chief Judge of Sabah and Sarawak is Richard Malanjum from Sabah. His office is the fourth highest in the Malaysian judicial system, in 1976, all the Sabah and Sarawak MPs supported the Malaysian parliament bill which downgraded both the states from equal partners to one of the 13 states in the federation. Political parties in Sarawak and Sabah evolved independently of each other, party switching and party leadership tussle are common in both the states. The landscape of East Malaysia is mostly rain forests with areas of mountain rain forest towards the interior regions. The total area of East Malaysia is 200,565 km2, representing approximately 61% of the land area of Malaysia
8.
Peninsular Malaysia
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Peninsular Malaysia, also known as West Malaysia, is the part of Malaysia which lies on the Malay Peninsula and surrounding islands. Its area is 130,598 square kilometres and it shares a land border with Thailand in the north. To the south is the island of Singapore, across the Strait of Malacca to the west lies the island of Sumatra. East Malaysia is to the east across the South China Sea, Peninsular Malaysia accounts for the majority of Malaysias population and economy, as of 2015 its population is roughly 25 million. In 1963, the name Malaysia was adopted by the new federation uniting the Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, at the time, the Philippines had also contemplated adopting the name. Peninsular Malaysia is also known as West Malaysia or Malaya, in current everyday usage the word Malaya is almost always used jocularly, e. g. Gempar satu Malaya. Which roughly means shakes the whole of Malaya, the term Malaya generally included Singapore until 1946, when Singapore was excluded from the formation of Malayan Union. In Singapore law, Malaya includes Singapore, whereas the term States of Malaya does not, the majority of people on Peninsular Malaysia are ethnic Malays, predominantly Muslim. Large Chinese and Indian populations exist, the Orang Asli are the indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia, they numbered around 140,000 and mostly lived in inland parts of the region. Unlike the East Coast, the West Coast is partitioned further into three regions, including, The Northern Region, Perlis, Kedah, Penang and Perak, the Central Region, Selangor and the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. The Southern Region, Negeri Sembilan, Malacca and Johor Even though Johor has a coastline facing the South China Sea and these rights were granted as part of Sarawaks 18-point agreement and Sabahs 20-point agreement with Federation of Malaya in forming the Federation of Malaysia. Malaya Malayan dollar Peninsular Malaysia travel guide from Wikivoyage
9.
Malays (ethnic group)
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These locations today are part of the modern nations of Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei, and southern Thailand. In literature, architecture, culinary traditions, traditional dress, performing arts, martial arts, throughout their history, the Malays have been known as a coastal-trading community with fluid cultural characteristics. The epic literature, the Malay Annals, associates the etymological origin of Melayu to Sungai Melayu in Sumatra, the English term Malay was adopted via the Dutch word Malayo, itself derived from Portuguese, Malaio, which originates from the original Malay word, Melayu. Prior to the 15th century, the term Melayu and its variants appear to apply as an old toponym to the Strait of Malacca region in general. Malaya Dwipa, Malaya Dvipa, is described in chapter 48, Vayu Purana as one of the provinces in the sea that was full of gold. Some scholars equate the term with Sumatra, but several Indian scholars believe the term should refer to the mountainous Malay peninsula, maleu-kolon - appeared in Ptolemys work, Geographia. Mo-lo-yu - mentioned by Yijing, a Tang dynasty Chinese Buddhist monk who visited the Southeast Asia in 688–695, according to Yijing, the Mo-Lo-Yu kingdom was located in a distance of 15 day sail from Bogha, the capital of Sribhoga. It took a 15-day sail as well to reach Ka-Cha from Mo-lo-yu, therefore, a popular theory relates Mo-Lo-Yu with the Jambi in Sumatra, however the geographical location of Jambi contradicts with Yi Jings description of a half way sail between Ka-Cha and Bogha. Among the terms used was Bok-la-yu, Mok-la-yu, Ma-li-yu-er, Oo-lai-yu - traced from the source of monk Xuanzang). Malayur - inscribed on the wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. It was described as a kingdom that had a mountain for its rampart in Malay peninsula. Bhūmi Mālayu -, a transcription from Padang Roco Inscription dated 1286 CE by Slamet Muljana, the term is associated with Dharmasraya kingdom. Ma-li-yu-er - mentioned in the chronicle of Yuan Dynasty, referring to a nation of Malay peninsula that faced the southward expansion of Sukhothai Kingdom, the chronicle stated. Animosity occurred between Siam and Ma-li-yu-er with both killing each other. In response to the Sukhothais action, a Chinese envoy went to the Ram Khamhaengs court in 1295 bearing an imperial decree, Keep your promise and do no evil to Ma-li-yu-er. Malauir - mentioned in Marco Polos account as a kingdom located in the Malay peninsula, malayapura -, inscribed on the Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. The term was used by Adityawarman to refer to Dharmasraya. The word Malay refer to Mountain, other evidence that supports this theory include, stone tools found in the Malay Archipelago are analogous to Central Asian tools, the similarity of Malay customs and Assam customs. The New Guinea theory - The proto-Malays are believed to be knowledgeable in oceanography. Over the years they settled at places and adopted various cultures
10.
Bumiputera (Malaysia)
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Bumiputera or Bumiputra is a Malaysian term to describe the Malay race and other indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia, and used particularly in Malaysia. The term comes from the Sanskrit word bhumiputra, which can be translated literally as son of the land or son of the soil and these policies have succeeded in creating a significant urban Malay and Native Bornean middle class as well. They have been effective in eradicating poverty among rural communities. Some analysts have noted a backlash of resentment from excluded groups, in particular the sizeable Chinese, the concept of a bumiputra ethnic group in Malaysia was coined by Tun Abdul Razak. It recognised the position of the Malays provided in the Federal Constitution of Malaysia. But, the constitution does not use the term bumiputra, it defines only Malay and indigenous peoples, natives of Sarawak, definitions of bumiputra in public use vary among different institutions, organisations, and government departments and agencies. Most of these communities that were established in southeast Asia prior to the arrival of the British colonialists who forever altered the demographics of Malaysia. Others favour a definition encompassing all children of Bumiputra, there have been cases of people with one Bumiputra parent. At the time of Malayas independence from the British in 1957, thuraisingham later said, I and others believed that the backward Malays should be given a better deal. Malays should be assisted to attain parity with non-Malays to forge a united Malayan Nation of equals, the massive demographic change happened to all British colonised countries of which these countries become multi religion and multiracial while Britain itself remain homogenous. British workers on the hand not only were encouraged to migrate to the colonised countries. Thus affirmative action was implemented in British colonised countries using models of affirmative actions for the natives in Canada, USA, New Zealand, the term of the Bumiputras special position has been disputed. The Reid Commission, which drafted the Constitution, initially proposed that Article 153 expire after 15 years unless renewed by Parliament and this qualification was struck from the final draft. After the 13 May Incident in 1969, representatives within the government argued over whether the position of the bumiputras ought to have a sunset clause. Ismail Abdul Rahman argued that the question be left to the Malays themselves because, as more and more Malays became educated and gained self-confidence, they themselves would do away with this special position. Ismail believed the position was a slur on the ability of the Malays. In 1970, however, one member of the Cabinet said that Malay special rights would remain for hundreds of years to come. In the 1970s, the government implemented the New Economic Policy, Article 153 provides specifically for the use of quotas in the granting of scholarships, positions in the civil service, and business licences, as well as native reservations of land
11.
Malaysian Chinese
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The Malaysian Chinese or Chinese Malaysians consist of people of full or partial Chinese—particularly Han Chinese ancestry who were born in or immigrated to Malaysia. Most of these people are the descendants of those who arrived between the early 19th century and the mid-20th century, Malaysian Chinese form the second largest community of Overseas Chinese in the world, after Thailand. Within Malaysia, they represent the second largest ethnic group in Malaysia after the ethnic Malay majority and they are usually simply referred to as Chinese in Malaysia, Orang Cina in Malay, and Huaren or Huaqiao by Chinese themselves. The Chinese population in Malaysia has been consistently declining percentage-wise since Malayan independence, the reason for the decline may be due to a lower birthrate, as well as a high level of emigration in recent decades. The large number of emigrants, many of whom are young, the first wave of Han Chinese settlers came during the Malacca Empire in the early 15th century. The friendly diplomatic relations between China and Malacca culminated during the reign of Sultan Mansur Syah, who married the Chinese princess Hang Li Po, a senior minister of state and five hundred youths and maids of noble birth accompanied the princess to Malacca. Admiral Zheng He had also brought along 100 bachelors to Malacca, the descendants of this wave, many of whom are of Hokkien ancestry, adapted to the customs of local Malays while retaining parts of their ancestral culture. They are called Peranakan, or Baba for their menfolk and Nyonya for the females, Chinese immigration to British Malaya and Straits Settlements was encouraged by the British and the Malay sultans to work in the mines and plantations. This group was responsible for establishing the many Chinese-medium schools in Malaya and are mostly Chinese-educated, Some such as Koh Lay Huan escaped from China due to rebellious activities against the Qing dynasty. A much smaller wave came after the 1990s and they were mostly Mandarin speaking Chinese from northern China and these were mostly foreign spouses married to Malaysian Chinese. Some national sports coaches such as badminton coach Han Jiang could only obtain permanent residency after repeated rejections of their citizenship applications, however, diving coach Huang Qiang managed to obtain his Malaysian citizenship. China is the largest participant in Malaysias foreign residency scheme called Malaysia My Second Home, according to department of statistics Malaysia July 2003, the composition of each dialect are as follows. The largest dialect group are the Min people with a total of about 2.947 million, the Min dialect group consists of the following subgroups. The southern Hokkien from Quanzhou, Amoy, and Zhangzhou is the largest Chinese language group in Malaysia, the first wave of Hokkien settled primarily in Malacca where they constitute a mere 3 percent of Malaccas Chinese population and are called Peranakan. The Quanzhou Hokkien also migrated to towns in Sarawak. Teochew immigrants from the Chaoshan region began to settle in Malaya in large numbers from the 18th century onwards, mainly in Province Wellesley and these immigrants were chiefly responsible for setting up gambier and pepper plantations in Malaya. More Teochew immigrated to Johor at the encouragement of Temenggong Ibrahim in the 19th century, many of them are the descendants of plantation workers who came to set up gambier and pepper plantations, following the administrative pattern of their countrymen in Johor. Chinese immigrants from Hainan began to migrate to Malaya and North Borneo from the 19th century onwards, smaller communities of Hainanese are also found in Sarawak and Sabah, where they work as coffee shop owners and are mainly found in large towns and cities
12.
Malaysian Indians
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The Malaysian Indians or Indian Malaysians consists of people of full or partial Indian descent who were born in or immigrated to Malaysia. In 2015, there were around 2 million people self-identifying as Indian who hold Malaysian nationality, most are descendants from those who migrated from India during the British colonisation of Malaya. There is a possibility that the first wave of Indians migration towards Southeast Asia happened when the Asokas invasion towards Kalinga, today, they form the third largest ethnic group in Malaysia after the Malays and the Chinese. Malaysia is home to one of the largest populations of Overseas Indians, Malaysias Indian population is notable for its class stratification, with large elite and lower income groups and diverse racial differences even within its fold. Ancient India exerted an influence over Southeast Asia through trade, religious missions, wars. Pre-colonial Malaysia was part of Indianised Kingdoms like Chola, Srivijaya, Malacca, Kadaram and the Majapahit, the kings welcomed Buddhist missionaries from India, accepting their teaching of the Mahayana sect, which spread through their territories. The ancient Indian Kalinga was located in southeastern India occupying modern day Orissa, in the 7th century an Indonesian kingdom was named Kalingga after the aforementioned Kalinga in India. Chinese sources mention this kingdom as a center for Buddhist scholars around 604 before it was overshadowed by the Sanjaya or Mataram Kingdom, the most famous Kalingga ruler is Ratu Sima. There is evidence of the existence of Indianised kingdoms such as Gangga Negara, Old Kedah, early contact between the kingdoms of Tamilakkam and the Malay peninsula had been very close during the reigns of the Pallava dynasty and Chola dynasty. The trade relations the Tamil merchants had with the ports of Malaya led to the emergence of Indianised kingdoms like Kadaram and Langkasugam, the Cholas had a powerful merchant and naval fleet in the Indian Ocean and the Bay of Bengal. These people were Goan Catholics and East Indians, kuparis who were of mixed Samvedic Brahmin, Goan and Portuguese descent also arrived. Sinhalese and their children from Portuguese that include Portuguese Burghers from Portuguese Ceylon also came later and their children already intermarried with Malay population, losing their ethnic identities. British acquisition of Penang, Melaka, and Singapore - the Straits Settlements from 1786 to 1824 started a steady inflow of Indian labour and this consisted of traders, policemen, plantation labourers and colonial soldiers. Apart from this there was substantial migration of Indians to work in the British colonial government. The Indian population in pre-independence Malaya and Singapore was predominantly adult males who were single with family back in India, hence the population fluctuated frequently with the immigration and exodus of people. As early as 1901 the Indian population in the Straits Settlements, by 1931 there were 640,000 Indians in Malaya and Singapore and interestingly they even outnumbered the native Malays in the state of Selangor that year. However, during World War II many Indian men and women left for Burma as part of the Indian National Army with thousands thought to have perished, as a result, the population of Indians in 1957 had only increased to 820,000. Today, Malaysian Indians account for approximately 7 per cent of the population of Malaysia and 9 per cent in Singapore
13.
Federation of Malaya
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The Federation of Malaya was a federation of 11 states that existed from 1 February 1948 until 16 September 1963. The Federation became independent on 31 August 1957, and in 1963 Malaysia was formed with the Singapore, North Borneo, the combination of states that formerly made up the Federation of Malaya is currently known as Peninsular Malaysia. From 1946 to 1948, the 11 states formed a single British crown colony known as the Malayan Union, due to opposition from Malay nationalists, the Union was disbanded and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the symbolic positions of the rulers of the Malay states. Within the Federation, while the Malay states were protectorates of the United Kingdom, Penang, like the Malayan Union before it, the Federation did not include Singapore, despite its traditional connections with Malaya. The Federation achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on 31 August 1957, Singapore separated from Malaysia to become an independent republic on 9 August 1965. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was formulated by the British–Malay Pleno Conference between June and December 1946, at the end of the meeting, the Pleno Conference produced a 100-page Blue Book. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was signed on 1 April 1946 at King House by the Malay rulers, the Agreement superseded the Agreement creating the Malayan Union, and prepared for the establishment of the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948. The position of the Malay rulers was also restored, as with the Malayan Union, the Federation excluded Singapore, despite its traditional links to Malaya. The Federation of Malaya Executive Council comprised 7 official and 7 unofficial members, additionally,9 State Council Yang Di Pertua, Chief Ministers and 2 representatives from the Straits Settlements became unofficial members. The Malay Conference of Rulers would advise the High Commissioner on immigration issues, the British Resident was replaced with a Chief Minister in each state of the federation. The conditions of citizenship of the Federation of Malaya were further tightened using law enforcement, the federation agreement set the powers of the federal and state governments. Financial matters must be handled by the respective states, the Sultan was given full power on religious issues and Malay customs. Foreign policy and defence continued to be administered by the British government, the federation agreement was made the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya and officially declared on 1 February 1948. The Federation of Malaya Legislative Council held its first meeting in the Tuanku Abdul Rahman Hall and it was opened by the British High Commissioner Sir Edward Gent. Attendees included the British Minister of State for Colonial Affairs, Lord Listowel, the membership of the Council was structured to include, the British High Commissioner,3 ex officio members,11 State and Settlement Members 11 official members, and 34 appointed unofficial members. The unofficial members were required to be either Federation citizens or British subjects, at this first Council meeting, several minor committees were formed, the Standing Committee on Finance, the Election Committee, and the Committee of Privileges. The first session passed the Kuala Lumpur City Bill, the Transfer of Power Bill, in 1950, the Federation of Malaya Government rejected the registration of the Malay Nationalist Party of Malaya as a legitimate political party. PKMM had two wings, namely Angkatan Pemuda Insaf and Angkatan Wanita Sedar, initially, PKMM did not have communist leanings
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Myanmar
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Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar and also known as Burma, is a sovereign state in South East Asia bordered by Bangladesh, India, China, Laos and Thailand. About one third of Myanmars total perimeter of 5,876 km, forms an uninterrupted coastline of 1,930 km along the Bay of Bengal, the countrys 2014 census revealed a much lower population than expected, with 51 million people recorded. Myanmar is 676,578 square kilometres in size and its capital city is Naypyidaw and its largest city and former capital city is Yangon. Early civilizations in Myanmar included the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu city-states in Upper Burma, the Pagan Kingdom fell due to the Mongol invasions and several warring states emerged. In the 16th century, reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty, the country was for a period the largest empire in the history of Mainland Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area included modern Myanmar and briefly controlled Manipur. The British invaded Myanmar after three Anglo-Burmese Wars in the 19th century and the became a British colony. Myanmar became an independent nation in 1948, initially as a nation and then, following a coup détat in 1962. For most of its independent years, the country has been engrossed in rampant ethnic strife, during this time, the United Nations and several other organisations have reported consistent and systematic human rights violations in the country. In 2011, the junta was officially dissolved following a 2010 general election. While former military leaders still wield enormous power in the country, there is, however, continuing criticism of the governments treatment of the Muslim Rohingya minority and its poor response to the religious clashes. In the landmark 2015 election, Aung San Suu Kyis party won a majority in both houses, Myanmar is a country rich in jade and gems, oil, natural gas and other mineral resources. In 2013, its GDP stood at US$56.7 billion, the income gap in Myanmar is among the widest in the world, as a large proportion of the economy is controlled by supporters of the former military government. As of 2016, according to the Human Development Index, Myanmar had a level of human development. The renaming remains a contested issue, many political and ethnic opposition groups and countries continue to use Burma because they do not recognise the legitimacy of the ruling military government or its authority to rename the country. The countrys official name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. Countries that do not officially recognise that name use the long form Union of Burma instead, in English, the country is popularly known as either Burma or Myanmar /ˈmjɑːnˌmɑːr/. Both these names are derived from the name of the majority Burmese Bamar ethnic group, Myanmar is considered to be the literary form of the name of the group, while Burma is derived from Bamar, the colloquial form of the groups name
15.
The People's Volunteer Corps
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The Peoples Volunteer Corps, abbreviated RELA, is a paramilitary civil volunteer corps formed by the Malaysian government. RELA has the authority to deal with situations like policemen, such as raiding suspected streets or places such as factories, restaurants and they are also fully authorised to conduct the interrogation and even detaining people who forgot to bring their travelling documents, like passports and/or working permits. Besides that they are tasked with security works at times. During times of war, they are absorbed into the Malaysian Army as support groups despite their law enforcing duties and they are also tasked to do SAR works if needed. The Peoples Volunteer Corps started in circa 1960s and its purpose was to guard against communists. It now serves as a force against illegal immigrants. It is 2.8 million strong and is composed of untrained volunteers. In 2008 Rela was given charge of detention centres. Vision To prepare, train, and maintain a force as the Nations line of defence. Mission To deploy and mobilise the volunteer force to reduce Illegal Immigrant and to assist other enforcement agencies to maintain peace, to lead and protect the citizens to a safer area. Current strength of RELA in terms of personnel as of 23 May 2013 Personnel Human Rights Watch has called for People’s Volunteer Corps to be dissolved and they have accused it of violating human rights, conducting illegal raids and extortions. Incidents may mar Malaysias tourism bid, official website news about RELA in Aljazeera New York Times article about Rela Malaysia Bar on RELA UK Channel 4 - Malaysia, Refugees for Sale
16.
States and federal territories of Malaysia
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The states and federal territories of Malaysia are the principal administrative divisions of Malaysia. Malaysia is a federation comprising thirteen states and three federal territories, eleven states and two federal territories are located on the Malay Peninsula, collectively called Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia. Two states are on the island of Borneo, and the remaining one federal territory consists of islands offshore of Borneo, out of the 13 states in Malaysia,9 of the states are hereditary monarchies. The governance of the states is divided between the government and the state governments, while the federal territories are directly administered by the federal government. The specific responsibilities of the federal and the governments are listed in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution of Malaysia. Theoretically, any matter not set out in the Ninth Schedule can be legislated on by the individual states, however, legal scholars generally view this as a paupers bequest because of the large scope of the matters listed in the Ninth Schedule. The courts themselves have generally favoured a broad interpretation of the language of the Ninth Schedule, the Ninth Schedule specifically lists the following matters as those that can only be legislated on by the states, land tenure, the Islamic religion, and local government. Nine of the states, based on historical Malay kingdoms, are known as the Malay states. Each Malay state has a ruler as titular head of state. The rulers of Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilans elective ruler holds the title of Yamtuan Besar, whereas the ruler of Perlis is titled Raja. The federal head of state, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected among the nine rulers to serve a 5-year term and they have separate immigration policies and controls and a unique residency status. Each state has a legislature called Dewan Undangan Negeri. Members of DUN are elected from single-member constituencies drawn based on population, the state leader of the majority party in DUN is usually appointed Chief Minister by the Ruler or Governor. The term of DUN members is five years unless the assembly is dissolved earlier by the Ruler or Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister, however, Rulers and Governors hold discretionary powers in withholding consent to dissolve the DUN. Each state sends two senators elected by the DUN to the Dewan Negara, the house of the federal parliament. The law in question must also be passed by the assembly as well. Non-Islamic issues that fall under the purview of the state may also be legislated on at the level for the purpose of conforming with Malaysian treaty obligations. Each state is divided into districts, which are then divided into mukim
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Population growth
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In biology, population growth is the increase in the number of individuals in a population. Global human population growth amounts to around 75 million annually, or 1. 1% per year, the global population has grown from 1 billion in 1800 to 7 billion in 2012. It is expected to keep growing, and estimates have put the population at 8.4 billion by mid-2030. Many nations with rapid growth have low standards of living. The growth of the started in the Western world during industrialization by the end of the 18th century. The reasons for the Modern Rise of Population were particularly investigated by the British health scientist Thomas McKeown, although the McKeown thesis has been heavily disputed, recent studies have confirmed the value of his ideas. His work is pivotal for present day thinking about population growth, birth control, public health, McKeown had a major influence on many population researchers, such as health economists and Noble prize winners Robert W. Fogel and Angus Deaton. The latter considered McKeown as the founder of social medicine, the population growth rate is the rate at which the number of individuals in a population increases in a given time period, expressed as a fraction of the initial population. A related measure is the net reproduction rate, most populations do not grow exponentially, rather they follow a logistic model. The Analytic Logistic Solution This is a differential equation that can be derived through integration. The analytic solution is useful in analyzing the behavior of population models, the equation is separable and to find the solution we integrate. ∫ d P P = ∫ k ⋅ d t Working on just the left side of the equation, the fraction in the denominator is eliminated by multiplying the variable K, and then the fraction is split in 2. 1 P ⋅ K K = K P K P =1 P +1 K − P The partial fraction is then integrated more easily. This is the equation that remains, | K − P P | = e − k t − C Get rid of the absolute value, in 2009, the estimated annual growth rate was 1. 1%. The CIA World Factbook gives the world annual birthrate, mortality rate, and growth rate as 1. 86%,0. 78%, and 1. 08% respectively. The annual increase in the number of living humans peaked at 88.0 million in 1989, then declined to 73.9 million in 2003. In 2009, the population increased by 74.6 million. In some countries the population is declining, especially in Eastern Europe, mainly due to low fertility rates, high death rates, in Southern Africa, growth is slowing due to the high number of AIDS-related deaths
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Infant mortality
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Infant mortality refers to deaths of young children, typically those less than one year of age. It is measured by the infant mortality rate, which is the number of deaths of children one year of age per 1000 live births. The Under-Five Mortality Rate is also an important statistic considering the Infant Mortality Rate has a limit on focusing on children only under one year of age. Premature birth is the biggest contributor to the IMR, one of the most common preventable causes of infant mortality is smoking during pregnancy. Many factors contribute to infant mortality, such as the level of education, environmental conditions. Improving sanitation, access to drinking water, immunization against infectious diseases. Child mortality is the death of a child before the fifth birthday. National statistics sometimes group these two mortality rates together, Infant mortality rate was an indicator used to monitor progress towards the Fourth Goal of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations for the year 2015. It is now a target in the Sustainable Development Goals for Goal Number 3, throughout the world, Infant Mortality Rate fluctuates drastically, and according to Biotechnology and Health Sciences, education and life expectancy in the country is the leading indicator of IMR. This study was conducted across 135 countries over the course of 11 years with Africa having the highest Infant Mortality Rate of any other region studied with 68 deaths per 1,000 live births. Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children one year of age. The rate for a region is the number of children dying under one year of age, divided by the number of live births during the year. Forms of infant mortality, Perinatal mortality is late fetal death, Neonatal mortality is newborn death occurring within 28 days postpartum. Neonatal death is attributed to inadequate access to basic medical care, during pregnancy. This accounts for 40–60% of infant mortality in developing countries, postneonatal mortality is the death of children aged 29 days to one year. The major contributors to postneonatal death are malnutrition, infectious disease, troubled pregnancy, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, causes of infant mortality directly lead to the death. Greatest percentage reduction of infant mortality occurs in countries already have low rates of infant mortality. Common causes are preventable with low-cost measures, in the United States, a primary determinant of infant mortality risk is infant birth weight with lower birth weights increasing the risk of infant mortality
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Life expectancy
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Life expectancy is a statistical measure of the average time an organism is expected to live, based on the year of their birth, their current age and other demographic factors including sex. National LEB figures reported by national agencies and international organizations are indeed estimates of period LEB. In the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, LEB was 26 years, for recent years, in Swaziland LEB is about 49, and in Japan, it is about 83. But for those who survive early hazards, a life expectancy of 60 or 70 would not be uncommon, for example, a society with a LEB of 40 may have few people dying at precisely 40, most will die before 30 or after 55. In populations with high infant mortality rates, LEB is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life. Mathematically, life expectancy is the number of years of life remaining at a given age. It is denoted by e x, which means the number of subsequent years of life for someone now aged x. Longevity, maximum lifespan, and life expectancy are not synonyms, Life expectancy is defined statistically as the mean number of years remaining for an individual or a group of people at a given age. Longevity refers to the characteristics of the long life span of some members of a population. Maximum lifespan is the age at death for the individual of a species. Moreover, because life expectancy is an average, a person may die many years before or many years after the expected survival. The term maximum life span has a different meaning and is more related to longevity. Life expectancy is also used in plant or animal ecology, life tables, an analysis published in 2011 in The Lancet attributes Japanese life expectancy to equal opportunities and public health as well as diet. The oldest confirmed recorded age for any human is 122 years and this is referred to as the maximum life span, which is the upper boundary of life, the maximum number of years any human is known to have lived. Theoretical study shows that the life expectancy at birth is limited by the human life characteristic value δ. The following information is derived from the 1961 Encyclopædia Britannica and other sources, unless otherwise stated, it represents estimates of the life expectancies of the world population as a whole. In many instances, life expectancy varied considerably according to class, Life expectancy at birth takes account of infant mortality but not prenatal mortality. Life expectancy increases with age as the individual survives the higher mortality rates associated with childhood, for instance, the table above listed the life expectancy at birth among 13th-century English nobles at 30
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Total fertility rate
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It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. The TFR is a rate, not based on the fertility of any real group of women since this would involve waiting until they had completed childbearing. Nor is it based on counting up the number of children actually born over their lifetime. Instead, the TFR is based on the fertility rates of women in their child-bearing years. When the NRR is exactly one, then each generation of women is exactly reproducing itself, the NRR is less widely used than the TFR, and the United Nations stopped reporting NRR data for member nations after 1998. But the NRR is particularly relevant where the number of babies born is very high due to gender imbalance. This is a significant factor in population, due to the high level of gender imbalance in the very populous nations of China. The gross reproduction rate, is the same as the NRR, in particular, the TFR does not necessarily predict how many children young women now will eventually have, as their fertility rates in years to come may change from those of older women now. However, the TFR is a summary of current fertility levels. In other words, the TPFR is a measure of life cycle fertility when childbearing age is changing. This is a significant factor in some countries, such as the Czech Republic, some measures seek to adjust for this timing effect to gain a better measure of life-cycle fertility. Replacement fertility is the fertility rate at which women give birth to enough babies to sustain population levels. If there were no mortality in the population until the end of the childbearing years then the replacement level of TFR would be very close to 2.0. The replacement fertility rate is roughly 2.0 births per woman for most industrialized countries, taken globally, the total fertility rate at replacement is 2.33 children per woman. At this rate, global population growth would tend towards zero, a log-transformation of the data gives an alternative view of the relation. The coefficients taken literally imply that for each 1% advance in GDP, the term lowest-low fertility is defined as TFR at or below 1.3. This is characteristic of some Eastern European, Southern European and East Asian countries, in 2001, more than half of the population of Europe lived in countries with lowest-low TFR, but the situation has since slightly improved. However, it may take several generations for a change in the fertility rate to be reflected in birth rate
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Putrajaya
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Putrajaya, officially the Federal Territory of Putrajaya, is a planned city and the federal administrative centre of Malaysia. The seat of government was shifted in 1999 from Kuala Lumpur to Putrajaya, because of overcrowding, Kuala Lumpur remains Malaysias national capital, and is the seat of the King and the Parliament, and is the countrys commercial and financial centre. Putrajaya was the idea of former Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Mohammad and it became Malaysias third Federal Territory, after Kuala Lumpur and Labuan, in 2001. Named after the first Malaysian Prime Minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra, Putrajaya is also a part of MSC Malaysia, a special economic zone that covers Klang Valley. In Sanskrit, putra means prince or male child, and jaya means success or victory, the development of Putrajaya started in the early 1990s, today, major landmarks have been completed and the population is expected to grow in the near future. Putrajaya used to be Prang Besar, and was founded in 1918 as Air Hitam by the British. Its land area of 800 acres d expanded to 8,000 acres, the new city was proposed to be located between Kuala Lumpur and the new Kuala Lumpur International Airport. Two areas were proposed, Prang Besar and Janda Baik of Pahang, the Federal government negotiated with the state of Selangor on the prospect of another Federal Territory. In the mid-1990s the Federal government paid an amount of money to Selangor for approximately 11,320 acres of land in Prang Besar. As a result of land purchase, the state of Selangor now completely surrounds two Federal territories within its borders, namely Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya. Planned as a city and intelligent city, 38% of the area is reserved for green spaces in which the natural landscape is enhanced. The plan incorporated a network of spaces and wide boulevards. Construction began in August 1995, it was Malaysias biggest project and one of Southeast Asias largest, the entire project was designed and constructed by Malaysian companies with only 10% of the materials imported. The Asian Financial Crisis of 1997/1998 somewhat slowed the development of Putrajaya,300 members of the Prime Ministers office staff moved there in 1999, and the remaining government servants moved in 2005. On 1 February 2001 Tun Dr. Mahathir declared Putrajaya as a Federal Territory in a ceremony by which Putrajaya township was handed over from the Selangor state authorities, in 2002 a rail link called KLIA Transit was opened, linking Putrajaya to KLIA in Sepang. However, construction of the Putrajaya Monorail, which was intended to be the citys metro system, was suspended owing to high costs, one of the monorail suspension bridges in Putrajaya remains unused. In April 2013 the Putrajaya government signed a letter of intent with the government of Sejong City in South Korea to mark co-operation between the two cities, as of 2012 almost all of Malaysias governmental ministries had relocated to Putrajaya. The only ministries remaining in Kuala Lumpur were the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Defence, alamanda Shopping Centre, located near the governmental ministries in Precinct 1, was opened to serve people who work, play and live in Putrajaya
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Kuala Lumpur
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Kuala Lumpur, officially the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur, or more commonly called KL is the national capital of Malaysia as well as its largest city. Being rated as an Alpha world city, Kuala Lumpur is the global city in Malaysia which covers an area of 243 km2 and has an estimated population of 1.73 million as of 2016. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an agglomeration of 7.25 million people as of 2017. It is among the fastest growing regions in South-East Asia, in terms of population. Kuala Lumpur is the seat of the Parliament of Malaysia, the city was once home to the executive and judicial branches of the federal government, but they were moved to Putrajaya in early 1999. Some sections of the judiciary still remain in the city of Kuala Lumpur. The official residence of the Malaysian King, the Istana Negara, is situated in Kuala Lumpur. Kuala Lumpur is the cultural, financial and economic centre of Malaysia due to its position as the capital as well as being a key city. Kuala Lumpur is one of three Federal Territories of Malaysia, enclaved within the state of Selangor, on the central west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Since the 1990s, the city has played host to international sporting, political and cultural events including the 1998 Commonwealth Games. Kuala Lumpur has undergone rapid development in recent decades and it is home to the tallest twin buildings in the world, the Petronas Twin Towers, which have become an iconic symbol of Malaysias futuristic development. Kuala Lumpur means muddy confluence, kuala is the point where two rivers join together or an estuary, and lumpur means mud. One suggestion is that it was named after Sungai Lumpur, it was recorded in 1824 that Sungei Lumpoor was the most important tin-producing settlement up the Klang River. It has also proposed that Kuala Lumpur was originally named Pengkalan Lumpur in the same way that Klang was once called Pengkalan Batu. Another suggestion is that it was initially a Cantonese word lam-pa meaning flooded jungle or decayed jungle, there is however no firm contemporary evidence for these suggestions other than anecdotes. It is also possible that the name is a form of an earlier. It is unknown who founded or named the settlement called Kuala Lumpur, Kuala Lumpur was originally a small hamlet of just a few houses and shops at the confluence of Sungai Gombak and Sungai Klang before it grew into a town. The miners landed at Kuala Lumpur and continued their journey on foot to Ampang where the first mine was opened
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Penang
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Penang is a Malaysian state located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia, by the Malacca Strait. It has two parts, Penang Island, where the city, George Town, is located. Penang is bordered by Kedah to the north and the east, known as the Silicon Valley of the East for its industries, Penang is also one of the most urbanised and economically-important states in the country. George Town, which was founded by the British in 1786, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Penang has the third highest Human Development Index in Malaysia, after the State of Selangor and the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur. Its heterogeneous population is diverse in ethnicity, culture, language. A resident of Penang is colloquially known as a Penangite, Penang Lang or Penangkaran, the name of Penang comes from the modern Malay name Pulau Pinang, which means the island of the areca nut palm. The name Penang may refer either to Penang Island or the state of Penang, Penang is also known as the Pearl of the Orient, 东方之珠 and Pulau Pinang Pulau Mutiara. Penang is shortened as PG in English, or PP in Malay, early Malays called Penang Island Pulau Ka-Satu, meaning The First Island, because it was the largest island encountered on the trading sea-route between Lingga and Kedah. The Siamese, then the overlord of the Kedah Sultanate, referred to the island as Koh Maak, in the 15th century, Penang Island was referred to as Bīnláng Yù in the navigational drawings used by Admiral Zheng He of Ming China in his expeditions to the South Seas. The 16th-century Portuguese historian Emanuel Godinho de Eredias map of the Malay Peninsula in his Description of Malacca in 1613 referred to the island as Pulo Pinaom, archaeological evidence shows that Penang was inhabited by the Semang-Pangan of the Juru and Yen lineage. Both of these are now considered extinct cultures and they were hunter-gatherers of the Negrito stock having short stature and dark complexion, and were dispersed by the Malays as far back as 900 years ago. The last recorded aboriginal settlement in Penang was in the 1920s in Kubang Semang, the first evidence of prehistoric human settlement in what is now Penang were found in Guar Kepah, a cave in Seberang Perai in 1860. Based on mounds of sea shells with human skeletons, stone implements, broken ceramics, and food leftovers inside, other stone tools found in various places on Penang Island pointed to the existence of Neolithic settlements dating to 5,000 years ago. One of the first Englishmen to reach Penang was the navigator, sailing from Plymouth for the East Indies, James reached Batu Ferringhi in June 1592, remaining on Penang Island until September of the same year and pillaging every vessel he encountered. In the early 18th century, ethnic Minangkabaus from Sumatra opened up a settlement on Penang Island, Haji Muhammad Salleh, known as Nakhoda Intan, anchored at Batu Uban and built a seaside settlement in 1734. Later, the Arabs arrived and settled mainly at Jelutong, the Arabs then intermarried with the Minangkabau, this gave rise to the Arab-Minangkabau admixture now described as Malay, as they have assimilated into the local Malay community. However, the history of Penang only began in 1786. On 17 July that year, Captain Francis Light, an English trader-adventurer of the British East India Company, landed on Penang Island, Fort Cornwallis was later built at the site where he first set foot
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Sabah
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Sabah, nicknamed Malay, Negeri Di Bawah Bayu, is one of the two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Sabah has a level of autonomy in administration, immigration. It is situated in northern Borneo, bordering the state of Sarawak to the southwest, Kalimantan of Indonesia to the south, Sabah shares maritime borders with Vietnam in the west and the Philippines to the north and east. Kota Kinabalu is the city, the economic centre of the state. Other major towns in Sabah include Sandakan and Tawau, as of the 2015 census in Malaysia, the states population is 3,543,500. Sabah has a climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal. The state has long mountain ranges on the west side which form part of the Crocker Range National Park, Kinabatangan River, second longest river in Malaysia runs through Sabah and Mount Kinabalu is the highest point of Sabah as well of Malaysia. The earliest human settlement in Sabah can be traced back to 20, the state had a trading relationship with China from the 14th century AD. Sabah came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 15th century, the state was subsequently acquired by the North Borneo Chartered Company in the 19th century. During World War II, Sabah was occupied by the Japanese for three years and it became a British Crown Colony in 1946. On 31 August 1963, Sabah was granted self-government by the British, following this, Sabah became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia alongside Sarawak, Singapore, and the Federation of Malaya. Sabah exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture and language, the head of state is the Governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is the Chief Minister. The government system is modelled on the Westminster parliamentary system and has one of the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia. Sabah is divided into divisions and districts. Malay is the language of the state, and Islam is the official religion. Sabah is known for its musical instrument, the sompoton. Sabah is the state in Malaysia to celebrate the Kaamatan festival. Sabah has abundant natural resources, and its economy is strongly export-oriented, the primary exports include oil, gas, timber and palm oil
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Selangor
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Selangor /səˈlæŋə/ also known by its Arabic honorific, Darul Ehsan, or Abode of Sincerity is one of the 13 states of Malaysia. It is on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and is bordered by Perak to the north, Pahang to the east, Negeri Sembilan to the south and it surrounds the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya, both of which were previously part of Selangor. The state capital is Shah Alam, however the first city in Selangor, another major urban centre is Petaling Jaya which was awarded city status on 20 June 2006. Selangor is one of only two Malaysian states with more than one city, the other is Sarawak, Selangor has the largest city in Malaysia and it is growing rapidly due to modernisation in the Klang Valley. The state of Selangor has the largest economy in Malaysia in terms of domestic product with RM128.815 billion in 2010 making up 23% of the total GDP of Malaysia. This state is also the most developed in Malaysia with good infrastructure such as highways, the state also has the largest population in Malaysia, with a high standard of living and the states poverty rate is the lowest in the country. A more plausible theory claims the name is derived from the term Selang Ur meaning land of the straits Aur also means river in Malay. Hence, Selangor may mean river straits, a major problem with this hypothesis is that the word selang does not in fact mean strait in Malay, not even in obsolete usage according to the Kamus Dewan, the proper word for strait is selat. Another possible origin of the name is combination of the words Sela. It may be possible that the banks of the Selangor River was full of bamboo groves in the distant past, however bamboo do not grow well in the marshy soil of the lower reaches of the river. It is also possible that the word Selangor is an Orang Asli term as some rivers have Orang Asli names, in the 15th century, Selangor was ruled by the Sultanate of Malacca. After the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese in 1511, the area became disputed between the Portuguese, Johor, Aceh and Siam. When the Dutch displaced the Portuguese from Malacca in 1641, they brought in Muslim Bugis mercenaries from Sulawesi and they established the present hereditary sultanate in 1740. In many districts, Bugis settlers displaced the Minangkabau settlers from Sumatra, in the 19th century, the economy boomed due to the exploitation of huge tin reserves. In 1854, the Sultan of Selangor granted Raja Abdullah the control of Klang, passing over Raja Mahdi and this would eventually led to the Selangor Civil War of 1867 to 1874, which was essentially a struggle for control of the revenues from tin. Tin Mining also attracted an influx of Chinese migrant labourers. Chinese secret clan societies, allied with Selangor chiefs, fought for control of the tin mines, in 1874, Sultan Adbul Samad of Selangor accepted a British Resident in a system allowed the British to govern while the Sultan remained the apparent ruler. Under the stability imposed by the British, Selangor again prospered, the Federated Malay States evolved into the Federation of Malaya in 1948, which became independent in 1957, and Malaysia in 1963
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Johor
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Johor or Johore is a Malaysian state, located in the southern portion of Peninsular Malaysia. It is one of the most developed states in Malaysia, the state capital city of Johor is Johor Bahru. The royal city of the state is Muar and the old state capital is Johor Lama, Johor is surrounded by Pahang to the north, Malacca and Negeri Sembilan to the northwest, and the Straits of Johor to the south, which separates Johor and the Republic of Singapore. Johor is also known by its Arabic honorific, Darul Tazim, or Abode of Dignity, the name Johor originated from the Persian word Jauhar, gem/jewel. Malays tend to name a place after natural objects in great abundance or having visual dominance. Before the name Johor was adopted, the south of the Muar River to Singapore island was known as Ujong Tanah or lands end in Malay. Coincidentally, Johor is the most southern point of the Asian continental mainland. In the early 16th century, the Sultanate of Johor was founded by the Alauddin Riayat Shah II, the son of Mahmud Shah, Johor sultanate was one of the two successor states of the Melaka empire. On Malaccas defeat by the Portuguese in 1511, Alauddin Riayat Shah II established a monarchy in Johor, the Sultanate of Perak—established by Mahmud Shahs other son, Muzaffar Shah I—was the other successor state of Malacca. During Johors peak, the whole of Pahang, present day Indonesian territories of the Riau archipelago, a series of succession struggles were interspersed with strategic alliances struck with regional clans and foreign powers, which maintained Johors political and economic hold in the Straits. In 1641, Johor in co-operation with the Dutch succeeded in capturing Malacca, by 1660, Johor had become a flourishing entrepôt, although weakening and splintering of the empire in the late seventeenth and eighteenth century reduced its sovereignty. In the 18th century, the Bugis of Sulawesi and the Minangkabau of Sumatra controlled the powers in the Johor-Riau Empire. However, in the early 19th century, Malay and Bugis rivalry commanded the scene, in 1819, the Johor-Riau Empire was divided up into the mainland Johor, controlled by the Temenggong, and the Sultanate of Riau-Lingga, controlled by the Bugis. Temenggong Ibrahim opened up Bandar Tanjung Puteri in south Johor as a major town, Temenggong Ibrahim was succeeded by his son, Dato Temenggong Abu Bakar, who later took the title Seri Maharaja Johor by Queen Victoria of England. In 1886, he was crowned the Sultan of Johor. Sultan Abu Bakar of Johor implemented a constitution, developed a British-style administration and constructed the Istana Besar. For his achievements, Sultan Abu Bakar is known by the title Father of Modern Johor, the increased demand for black pepper and gambier in the nineteenth century lead to the opening up of farmlands to the influx of Chinese immigrants, which created Johors initial economic base. The Kangchu system was put in place with the first settlement of Kangkar Tebrau established in 1844, under the British Resident system, Sultan Ibrahim, Sultan Abu Bakars successor, was forced to accept a British adviser in 1904
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Malacca
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Malacca, dubbed The Historic State, is a state in Malaysia and located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. The state is bordered by Negeri Sembilan to the north and west, the exclave of Tanjung Tuan also borders Negeri Sembilan to the north. This historical city centre has listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 7 July 2008. Although it was the location of one of the earliest Malay sultanates, the head of state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri or Governor, rather than a Sultan. Before the arrival of the first Sultan, Malacca was a village inhabited by local Malays known as Orang Laut. Malacca was founded by Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah or Sri Majara and he found his way to Malacca around 1400 where he found a good port—it was accessible in all seasons and on the strategically located narrowest point of the Malacca Straits. According to a legend, Parameswara was resting under a tree near a river during a hunt. In self-defence, the mouse deer pushed the dog into the river, impressed by the courage of the deer, and taking it as a propitious omen of the weak overcoming the powerful, Parameswara decided then and there to found an empire on that very spot. He named it Melaka after the tree where he had just taken shelter at, prominent Malaysian artist Syed Thajudeen visually depicted the epic tale of the founding of Malacca on canvas. The Beginning, a 4 panel painting measuring 183 x 512 cm is now a permanent collection at Galeri Petronas, because of its strategic location, Malacca was an important stopping point for Zheng Hes fleet. Her attendants married locals and settled mostly in Bukit Cina, the Chinese Emperor also ordered the Malaccans to raise soldiers and fight back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked them again. In April 1511, Alfonso de Albuquerque set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships and they conquered the city on 24 August 1511. After seizing the city Afonso de Albuquerque spared the Hindu, Chinese and Burmese inhabitants but had the Muslim inhabitants massacred or sold into slavery and it soon became clear that Portuguese control of Malacca did not also mean they controlled Asian trade centred there. Their Malaccan rule was severely hampered by administrative and economic difficulties, rather than achieving their ambition of dominating Asian trade, the Portuguese had disrupted the organisation of the network. The centralised port of exchange of Asian wealth had now gone, trade was now scattered over a number of ports among bitter warfare in the Straits. The Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier spent several months in Malacca in 1545,1546, the Dutch launched several attacks on the Portuguese colony during the first four decades of the seventeenth century. The first attack took place in 1606 under the command of Dutch Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge who laid siege to the town with the help of his Johor allies and he engaged the Portuguese armada which had been sent from Goa to offer armed relief to the besieged port. In 1641, the Dutch defeated the Portuguese in an effort to capture Malacca, the Dutch ruled Malacca from 1641 to 1798 but they were not interested in developing it as a trading centre, placing greater importance to Batavia on Java as their administrative centre
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Sarawak
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Sarawak is one of the two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. The capital city, Kuching, is the centre of the state. Other cities and towns in Sarawak include Miri, Sibu, as of the 2015 census, the total population of Sarawak is 2,636,000. Sarawak has a climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal. It has several prominent cave systems at Gunung Mulu National Park, Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, Bakun Dam, one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia, is located on one of its tributaries, the Balui River. Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak, the earliest known human settlement in Sarawak, located at the Niah Caves, dates back to 40,000 years ago. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century, in 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants, governed the state from 1841 to 1946, during World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, on 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British and subsequently became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia leading to a three-year confrontation, the creation of the Federation also resulted in a communist insurgency that lasted until 1990. The head of state is the Governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri, Sarawak exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture, and language, major ethnic groups in Sarawak are, Iban, Malay, Chinese, Melanau, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu. English and Malay are the two official languages of the state, there is no official religion. The Gawai Dayak is a festival celebrated on a public holiday. The official explanation of the word Sarawak is that it is derived from the Sarawak Malay word serawak, which means antimony. A popular alternative explanation is that it is a contraction of the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim, Saya serah pada awak, James Brooke became the first of the White Rajah dynasty to govern Sarawak. Sarawak is nicknamed Land of the Hornbills and these birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed if a hornbill is seen flying over residences
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Negeri Sembilan
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The name is believed to derive from the nine villages or nagari in the Minangkabau language settled by the Minangkabau, a people originally from West Sumatra. Minangkabau features are visible today in traditional architecture and the dialect of Malay spoken. Unlike the hereditary monarchs of the other royal Malay states, the ruler of Negeri Sembilan is known as Yang di-Pertuan Besar instead of Sultan, the election of the Ruler is also unique. He is selected by the council of Undangs who lead the four biggest districts of Sungai Ujong, Jelebu, Johol, the capital of Negeri Sembilan is Seremban. The royal capital is Seri Menanti in the district of Kuala Pilah, other important towns are Port Dickson, Bahau and Nilai. The Arabic honorific title of the state is Darul Khusus, the earliest inhabitants of Negeri Sembilan were the ancestors of the Semelai, Semai, Semang, and Jakun peoples, who lived either as hunter-gatherer nomads or as subsistence farmers. The Minangkabaus from Sumatra settled in Negeri Sembilan in the 15th century under the protection of the Malacca Sultanate, and later under the protection of its successor, Negeri Sembilan is a state which has matrilineal society majority. The matrilineal custom was brought by the Minangkabau, as Johor weakened in the 18th century, attacks by the Bugis forced the Minangkabaus to seek protection from their homeland. The Minangkabau ruler, Sultan Abdul Jalil, obliged by sending his near relative, when he arrived, he found that another royal, Raja Khatib had already established himself as ruler. He declared war against Raja Khatib and became the ruler of Negeri Sembilan, the Sultan of Johor confirmed his position by granting the title Yamtuan Seri Menanti in 1773. After Raja Melewars death, a series of disputes arose over the succession, for a considerable period, the local nobles applied to the Minangkabau ruler in Sumatra for a ruler. However, competing interests supported different candidates, often resulting in instability, in 1873, the British intervened militarily in a civil war in Sungai Ujong to preserve British economic interests, and placed the country under the control of a British Resident. Jelebu followed in 1886, and the states in 1895. The number of states within Negeri Sembilan has fluctuated over the years, the federation now consists of six states, the former state of Naning was annexed to Malacca, Kelang to Selangor, and Segamat to Johor. Negeri Sembilan endured Japanese occupation in World War II between 1942 and 1945, and joined the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and became a state of Malaysia in 1963, the state has the highest percentage of Indians when compared to other Malaysian states. Negeri Sembilan is a state in which every ethnic groups speak their own respective languages. The Negeri Sembilanese people speak a variety of Malay known as Negeri Sembilan Malay or in their native language as Baso Nogoghi. It is not closely related to varieties of Malay in Peninsular Malaysia
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Perak
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Perak also known by its honorific, Darul Ridzuan, or Abode of Grace, one of the 13 states of Malaysia, is the fourth largest state in the country. It borders Kedah at the north, Thai Yala Province to the northeast, Penang to the northwest, Kelantan and Pahang to the east, Selangor to the south, and the Straits of Malacca to the west. The states administrative capital of Ipoh was known historically for tin-mining activities until the price of the metal dropped, the royal capital, however remains at Kuala Kangsar, where the palace of the Sultan of Perak is located. The states official name is Perak Darul Ridzuan, Perak means silver in Malay, which is probably derived from the silvery colour of tin. In the 1890s, Perak, with the richest alluvial deposits of tin in the world was one of the jewels in the crown of the British Empire, however, some say the name comes from the glimmer of fish in the water that sparkled like silver. Darul Ridzuan is the states Arabic honorific, and can either land or abode of grace. Legend tells of a Hindu-Malay Kingdom called Gangga Negara in the northwest of Perak, archaeological discoveries indicate that Perak was inhabited since prehistoric times. The modern history of Perak began with the fall of the Malacca Sultanate, Raja Muzaffar Shah, fled the Portuguese conquest of 1511 and established his own dynasty on the banks of the Sungai Perak in 1528. Being rich in tin ore deposits, the dominion was under almost continuous threat from outsiders, the Dutch attempted to control the tin trade in the 17th century, and built defensive forts at the mouth of the Perak River and on Pulau Pangkor. Early history recorded the arrival in Perak of the Dutch in 1641, however, the Dutch attempt to monopolise the tin-ore trading in Perak by influencing Sultan Muzaffar Syah failed. This did not go well with the aristocracy of Perak. In 1651, Temenggung and the people of Perak attacked and destroyed the Dutch plant, the Dutch were forced to leave their base in Perak. The Dutch sent a representative to Perak in 1655 to renew the earlier agreement and to seek compensation for the loss of their plant. The Perak government however did not honour the treaty and was surrounded by the Dutch, in retaliation, the people of Perak, Aceh. In 1670, the Dutch returned to Perak to build Kota Kayu, now known as Kota Belanda, Perak agreed to the construction because of news that the Kingdom of Siam would be attacking the state. Nevertheless, in 1685, Perak once again attacked the Dutch on Pangkor Island, forcing them to retreat, the Dutch attempted to negotiate for a new treaty, but failed. In the 19th century, the Bugis, Acehnese, and the Siamese all attempted to invade Perak, the Perak Sultanate was unable to maintain order as it was embroiled in a protracted succession crisis. In her book The Golden Chersonese and The Way Thither, Victorian traveller and adventurer Isabella Lucy Bird describes how Raja Muda Abdullah turned to his friend in Singapore, Tan, together with an English merchant in Singapore, drafted a letter to Governor Sir Andrew Clarke which Abdullah signed
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Pahang
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Pahang is the third largest state in Malaysia, after Sarawak and Sabah, and the largest in Peninsular Malaysia. The state occupies the huge Pahang River river basin and it is bordered to the north by Kelantan, to the west by Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, to the south by Johor and to the east by Terengganu and the South China Sea. Its state capital is Kuantan, and the seat is at Pekan. Other important towns include Jerantut, Kuala Lipis, Temerloh and the resorts of Genting Highlands, Cameron Highlands, Bukit Tinggi. The Arabic honorific of Pahang is Darul Makmur, based on Chinese records, Pahang was known to the Chinese as Phang or Pahangh, other variations include Pang-Hang, Pang-Heng, Pong-Fong, Phe-Hang, and Pang-Kang and others. In 1225, Chau Ju-Kua wrote the book Chu-Fan-Chi and mentioned that amongst the states controlled by San-Fo-Chi was one called Peng-Keng, supposedly modern day Pahang. The Arabs and Europeans at that time called it as Pam, Pan, Phang, Paam, Poa, Paon, Phamm, Paham, Fanhan, Phang, G. R Tibbets, a historian who commented the story written by Masudi thought that Fanjab was Pahang. He preferred to call it Fanhan, Panghang/Panhang, rather than Fanjab, the name Pahang has been said to originate from the language of a Siamese aborigines tribe, meaning ore. The aborigines used to live here and opened up several mining areas, according to an old Malay story, at the place near the Pahang River, on the opposite side of Kampung Kembahang, a large mahang tree fell across the river, thus the name Pahang originated. Evidence for nomadic tribes living in the Pahang area go back to the Mesolithic Era, after the Srivijaya empire collapsed, around the 1000, Pahang was claimed first by Majapahit, Siam, and then by Sultanate of Malacca. Pahang was fought over by the Portuguese, the Dutch, Johor, during this time, its population was mostly killed or enslaved, its rulers murdered and its economy ruined. After the decline of Aceh in the century, Pahang came under the rule of Johor. However, Sultans of Pahang, descended from the Malacca and the Bendahara Johor royal dynasties, have ruled the state almost continuously from 1470, from 1858 to 1863, Pahang was fought over in a civil war between the two sons of the reigning Bendahara. In 1896, Pahang joined Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan in the Federated Malay States and this evolved into the Federation of Malaya in 1948 and into the Federation of Malaysia in 1963. Rainforest covers much of the highlands, but it tends to be thinner, ferns are also extremely common, thanks mainly to the high humidity and fog that permeates the area. The Cameron Highlands area in the west is home to extensive tea plantations, the area is the highest on the mainland, and the climate is temperate enough to have distinct temperature variations year round. The area is known as a major supplier of legumes and vegetables to both Malaysia and Singapore. Genting Highlands is known as Malaysias playground and it is home to several hotels, a theme park and Malaysias only casino
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Perlis
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Perlis, also known by its honorific title Perlis Indera Kayangan, is the smallest state in Malaysia. It lies at the part of the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia and has the Satun. It is bordered by the state of Kedah to the south and it was called Palit by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Perlis had a population of 227,025 as of 2010, the capital of Perlis is Kangar, and the Royal capital is Arau. Another important town is Padang Besar, at the Malaysia–Thailand border, the main port and ferry terminal is at the small village of Kuala Perlis, linking mostly to Langkawi Island. Perlis has a snake farm and research centre at Sungai Batu Pahat. Among the main tourist attractions are Perlis State Park and Gua Kelam, Perlis was originally part of Kedah, although it occasionally came under rule by Siam or Aceh. After the Siamese conquered Kedah in 1821, the British felt their interests in Perak to be threatened and this resulted in the 1826 Burney and Low Treaties formalising relations between the two Malay states and Siam, their nominal overlord. In the Burney Treaty, the exiled Kedah sultan Ahmad Tajuddin was not restored to his throne, Sultan Ahmad and his armed supporters then fought unsuccessfully for his restoration over twelve years. In 1842, the Sultan finally agreed to accept Siamese terms, however, Siam separated Perlis into a separate principality directly vassal to Bangkok. The Siamese made Raja Long Krok as the Governor of Siam in Perlis while Syed Hussain Jamalullail as deputy governor and this made Perlis as a sovereign state. His descendants still rule Perlis, but as rajas, instead of as sultans, as with Kedah, the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 forced Siam to relinquish its southern Malay vassal states of Kelantan, Trengganu, and Monthon Syburi to Great Britain. The British installed a Resident in the Perlis Royal capital of Arau, Perlis was returned to Siam in World War II as a reward for Siams alliance with Japan, but this brief annexation ended with the Japanese surrender. After World War II, Perlis returned to British rule until it became part of the Malayan Union, then the Federation of Malaya in 1957, since 1945, the Raja or hereditary monarch has been Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin. He was the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia from 13 December 2001 to 12 December 2006, Tuanku Syed Faizuddin Putra was the Regent of Perlis during the five-year period when Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin was Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Chief Executive or Menteri Besar is Azlan Man of Barisan Nasional, the Coat of Arms of Perlis consists of a sturdy green wreath of padi, indicating the wealth of the kingdom and the chief economic activity of the people. The shield in the centre represents the pride of the people, inside the shield is a ring of golden rice surrounding the name Perlis written in the Jawi script. The ethnic composition for the year 2000 in Perlis was, Malay, Chinese, Indian and others
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Kedah
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Kedah also known by its honorific, Darul Aman, or Abode of Peace is a state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a area of over 9,000 km². The mainland has a flat terrain, which is used to grow rice. Langkawi is an archipelago of islands, most of which are uninhabited, Kedah was called Kadaram by ancient and medieval Tamil people and Syburi by the Siamese when it was under their influence. To the north, Kedah borders the state of Perlis and shares a boundary with the Songkhla and Yala provinces of Thailand. It borders the states of Perak to the south and Penang to the southwest, the states capital is Alor Setar and the royal seat is in Anak Bukit. Other major towns include Sungai Petani, and Kulim on the mainland, archaeological evidence found in Bujang Valley reveals that a Hindu–Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient Kedah possibly as early as 110 A. D. The discoveries in Bujang Valley also made the ancient Kedah as the oldest civilisation of Southeast Asia, reference to ancient Kedah was first mentioned in a Tamil poem Paṭṭiṉappālai written at the end of the 2nd century A. D. It described goods from Kadaram heaped together in the streets of Chola capital. Other than Kadaram, Kedah was known with different names at varying times in Indian literature, Kataha-Nagara, Anda-Kataha, Kataha-Dvipa, according to Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa or the Kedah Annals, Kedah was founded by a Hindu king named Merong Mahawangsa. According to the further, the Sultanate of Kedah started in year 1136 when King Phra Ong Mahawangsa converted to Islam. In the 7th and 8th centuries, Kedah was under the control of Srivijaya. In 1025, the city was conquered by Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, a second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola of the Chola dynasty who conquered Kedah in the late 11th century. During the reign of Kulothunga Chola I Chola overlordship was established over the Sri Vijaya province Kedah in the late 11th century and it was later under Siam, until it was conquered by the Malay sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century. In the 17th century, Kedah was attacked by the Portuguese after their conquest of Malacca, in the hope that Great Britain would protect what remained of Kedah from Siam, the sultan handed over Penang and then Province Wellesley to the British at the end of the 18th century. The Siamese nevertheless invaded Kedah in 1821, and it remained under Siamese control under the name of Syburi, in 1896, Kedah along with Perlis and Satun was combined into the Siamese province of Monthon Syburi which lasted until transferred to the British by the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. In World War II, Kedah was the first part of Malaya to be invaded by Japan, the Japanese returned Kedah to their Thai allies who had it renamed Syburi, but it returned to British rule after the end of the war. Kedah was a reluctant addition to the Federation of Malaya in 1948, since 1958, the hereditary Sultan of Kedah has been Tuanku Abdul Halim Muadzam Shah
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Terengganu
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Terengganu, formerly spelled Trengganu or Tringganu, is a sultanate and constitutive state of federal Malaysia. The state is known by its Arabic honorific, Dāru l-Īmān. The coastal city of Kuala Terengganu which stands at the mouth of the broad Terengganu River is both the state and royal capital as well as the largest city in Terengganu, there are many islands located close to the coast of Terengganu state, such as Redang Island. There are several theories on the origin of the name Terengganu, one theory attributes the names origin to terang ganu, Malay for bright rainbow. One of the hunters spotted a big animal fang lying on the ground, a fellow party member asked to which animal did the fang belong. The hunter, not knowing which animal, simply answered taring anu, the party later returned to Pahang with a rich hoard of game, fur and sandalwood, which impressed their neighbours. They asked the hunters where did they source their riches, to which they replied, from the land of taring anu, Terengganu was called Trangkanu by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Terengganuans usually pronounce Terengganu as Tranung or Ganu, the traditional Chinese name for Terengganu has been 丁加奴, which is a direct transcription of the Malay name. However, in recent years, the Chinese community in Terengganu has raised objections to the name and it is worth noting, however, that the new name has been in unofficial use by the states Chinese society for at least 30 years before its official adoption. There are certain segments of the Chinese society who opposed to the change, citing the fact that the new name contains too many character strokes. They have proposed to revert the name back to the version used before 2004, but with the word 奴 to the similar sounding, terengganus location by the South China Sea ensured that it was on trade routes since ancient times. The earliest written reports on the area that is now Terengganu were by Chinese merchants, like other Malay states, Terengganu practised a Hindu–Buddhist culture combined with animist traditional beliefs for hundreds of years before the arrival of Islam. Under the influence of Srivijaya, Terengganu traded extensively with the Majapahit Empire, the inscribed date which is incomplete due to damage can be read as various dates from 702 to 789 AH. Terengganu became a state of Malacca, but retained considerable autonomy with the emergence of Johor Sultanate. Terengganu emerged as an independent sultanate in 1724, the first sultan was Tun Zainal Abidin, the younger brother of a former sultan of Johor, and Johor strongly influenced Terengganu politics through the 18th century. In the 19th century, Terengganu became a state of the Thai Rattanakosin Kingdom. Under Thai rule, Terengganu prospered, and was left alone by the authorities in Bangkok. The terms of the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 saw power over Terengganu transferred from Siam to Great Britain, a British advisor was appointed to the sultan in 1919, and Terengganu become one of the Unfederated Malay States
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Kelantan
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Kelantan is a state of Malaysia. The capital and royal seat is Kota Bharu, the honorific of the state is Darul Naim. Kelantan is positioned in the north-east of Peninsular Malaysia and it is bordered by Narathiwat Province of Thailand to the north, Terengganu to the south-east, Perak to the west, and Pahang to the south. To the north-east of Kelantan is the South China Sea, Kelantan is located in the north-eastern corner of the peninsula. Kelantan, which is said to translate as the Land of Lightning, is a state with green paddy fields, rustic fishing villages. Kelantan is home to some of the most ancient archaeological discoveries in Malaysia, there are a number of suggestions for the origin of the name Kelantan. One theory, according to historian Mohd Rosli Bin Ismail, proposes that Kelantan is a corruption of gelam hutan, i. e. the Malay word for the cajuput, or swamp tea tree. Other theories claim that the name comes from the Malay word kilatan, shiny/glittery or kolam tanah, Kelantan was called Kalantan by the Siamese when it was under their influence. Kolaan Thana or Kolaam Thana gradually became Kelantan to fit in better with the dialect of the local people. The early history of Kelantan traces distinct human settlement dating back to prehistoric times, early Kelantan had links to the Funan Kingdom, the Khmer Empire, Sri Vijaya, Majapahit and Siam. Around 1411, Raja Kumar, the ruler of Kelantan, became independent of Siam, in 1499, Kelantan became a vassal state of the Malacca Sultanate. With the fall of Malacca in 1511, Kelantan was divided up and ruled by petty chieftains, paying tribute to Patani, by the early 17th century, most of these Kelantan chiefs became subject to Patani. The legendary Cik Siti Wan Kembang was said to have reigned over Kelantan sometime between the 16th and 17th centuries, Long Yunus was succeeded in 1795 by his son-in-law Tengku Muhammad Sultan Mansur of Terengganu. The enthronement of Tengku Muhammad by Terengganu was opposed by Long Yunus sons, thus triggering a war against Terengganu by Long Muhammad, the pro-Terengganu faction was defeated in 1800 and Long Muhammad ruled Kelantan with the new title of Sultan as Sultan Muhammad I. Nevertheless, the death of childless Long Muhammad triggered another civil war among claimants to the throne and his nephew and son of Long Tan, Long Senik Mulut Merah, triumphed over his uncles and cousins and assumed the throne in 1835 as Sultan Muhammad II. Sultan Muhammad II leveraged on his alliance with Siam to form the modern Kelantan state, centered in his new fort on the eastern bank of the Kelantan river. Kelantan was where the Japanese first landed during their invasion of Malaya, in 1943, Kelantan was transferred by the Japanese to Thailand and became a province of Thailand. Kelantan reverted to British protection upon the end of World War 2 in August 1945, Kelantan became part of the Malayan Union in 1946 and then the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948, and together with other Malayan states attained independence on 31 August 1957
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Austronesian peoples
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Austronesians, Austronesian peoples or Austronesian-speaking peoples are various populations in Asia, Oceania and Africa that speak languages of the Austronesian family. The territories populated by Austronesian-speaking peoples are known collectively as Austronesia, most Austronesians bare similar features such as the light brown to brown skin with curly or wavy hair. Before the Southward expansion of the Han dynasty and of Vietnam and it has been argued that these patterns are best explained by dispersal of an agricultural people from Taiwan into insular Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and, ultimately, the remote Pacific. Although this model—termed the “express train to Polynesia” – is broadly consistent with available data, alternatives to this model posit an indigenous origin for the Austronesian languages in Melanesia or Southeast Asia. Genomic analysis of cultivated coconut has shed light on the movements of Austronesian peoples, by examining 10 microsatelite loci, researchers found that there are 2 genetically distinct subpopulations of coconut – one originating in the Indian Ocean, the other in the Pacific Ocean. However, there is evidence of admixture, the transfer of genetic material, given that coconuts are ideally suited for ocean dispersal, it seems possible that individuals from one population could have floated to the other. However, the locations of the events are limited to Madagascar and coastal east Africa. This pattern coincides with the trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Other research has suggested that, according to dates, Austronesians may have migrated from mainland China to Taiwan as late as 4000 BC. Before Taiwan, Austronesian speakers are thought to have descended from the neolithic cultures of Southeastern China. According to the mainstream model, a large-scale Austronesian expansion began around 5000–2500 BC. Population growth primarily fuelled this migration, over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the Celebes Sea, Borneo, and Indonesia. The Austronesian peoples of Maritime Southeast Asia sailed eastward, and spread to the islands of Melanesia and Micronesia between 1200 BC and 500 AD respectively, the Austronesian inhabitants that spread westward through Maritime Southeast Asia had reached some parts of mainland Southeast Asia, and later on Madagascar. Sailing from Melanesia, and Micronesia, the Austronesian peoples discovered Polynesia by 1000 BC and these people settled most of the Pacific Islands. They had settled Rapa Nui by 300 AD, Hawaii by 400 AD, there is evidence, based in the spreading of the sweet potato, that they reached South America where they traded with the Native Americans. In the Indian Ocean they sailed west from Maritime Southeast Asia and this out of Taiwan model has been recently challenged by a 2008 study. Examination of mitochondrial DNA lineages shows that they have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia for a period than previously believed. Population dispersals occurred at the time as sea levels rose
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Han Chinese
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The Han Chinese, Han people or simply Han are an ethnic group native to East Asia. They constitute approximately 92% of the population of China, 95% of Taiwan, 76% of Singapore, 23% of Malaysia, Han Chinese are the worlds largest ethnic group with over 1.3 billion people. Similarly, the Chinese language also came to be named the Han language ever since, in the Oxford Dictionary, the Han are defined as The dominant ethnic group in China. In the Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, the Han are called the dominant population in China, as well as in Taiwan, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the Han are the Chinese peoples especially as distinguished from non-Chinese elements in the population. The name Hanzhong, in turn, was derived from the Han River, which flows through the regions plains. The river, in turn, derives its name from such as Tianhan, Yinhan, Xinghan or Yunhan, all ancient Chinese poetic nicknames for the Milky Way. This gave rise to a commonly used nowadays by overseas Chinese for ethnic identity – Huaren. The term is used in conversation and is also an element in the Cantonese word for Chinatown. The vast majority of Han Chinese – over 1.2 billion of them – live in areas under the jurisdiction of the Peoples Republic of China, where they constitute about 92% of its population. Han Chinese also constitute the majority in both of the administrative regions of the PRC—about 95% and 96% of the population of Hong Kong and Macau. There are over 22 million Han Chinese in Taiwan, they began migrating from the coastal provinces of mainland China to Taiwan during the 13th to 17th century. At first, these migrants chose to settle in locations that bore a resemblance to the areas they had left behind in mainland China, hoklo immigrants from Quanzhou settled in coastal regions, and those from Zhangzhou tended to gather on inland plains, while the Hakka inhabited hilly areas. Clashes between these groups over land, water, and cultural differences led to the relocation of some communities, of about 40 million overseas Chinese worldwide, nearly 30 million live in Southeast Asia. They are collectively called Nanyang Chinese, according to a population genetic study, Singapore is the country with the biggest proportion of Hans in Southeast Asia. Up until the past few decades, overseas Han communities originated predominantly from areas in southern China, christmas Island has a Chinese majority at 70%, large Chinese populations also live in Malaysia and Thailand. Prior to the 1965 split, Malaysia and Singapore used to have the largest overseas Chinese population in the world and this position has since been taken by Thailand. The prehistory of the Han ethnic group is closely intertwined with both records and mythology. Han Chinese trace their ancestry from a confederation of late neolithic/early bronze-age agricultural tribes that lived along the Guanzhong, the Yellow Emperor is traditionally credited to have united with the neighbouring Shennong tribes after defeating their leader, Flame Emperor, at the Battle of Banquan
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Southern Min
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Southern Min, or Minnan, is a branch of Min Chinese spoken in certain parts of China including southern Fujian, eastern Guangdong, Hainan, and southern Zhejiang, and in Taiwan. The Min Nan dialects are spoken by descendants of emigrants from these areas in diaspora, most notably the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia. In common parlance, Southern Min usually refers to Hokkien, including Amoy and Taiwanese Hokkien, the Southern Min dialect group also includes Teochew, though Teochew has limited mutual intelligibility with Hokkien. Hainanese is not mutually intellgible with other Southern Min and is considered a separate branch of Min. Southern Min is not mutually intelligible with Eastern Min, Pu-Xian Min, any other Min branch, Hakka, Cantonese, Shanghainese or Mandarin. Southern Min dialects are spoken in the part of Fujian. The variant spoken in Leizhou, Guangdong as well as Hainan is Hainanese and is not mutually intelligible with other Southern Min or Teochew, Hainanese is classified in some schemes as part of Southern Min and in other schemes as separate. Puxian Min was originally based on the Quanzhou dialect, but over time became heavily influenced by Eastern Min, eventually losing intellegility with Minnan. A forms of Southern Min spoken in Taiwan, collectively known as Taiwanese, Southern Min is a first language for most of the Hoklo people, the main ethnicity of Taiwan. The correspondence between language and ethnicity is not absolute, as some Hoklo have very limited proficiency in Southern Min while some non-Hoklo speak Southern Min fluently, there are many Southern Min speakers also among Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. Many ethnic Chinese immigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian and brought the language to what is now Burma, Indonesia and present-day Malaysia and Singapore. In general, Southern Min from southern Fujian is known as Hokkien, Hokkienese, many Southeast Asian ethnic Chinese also originated in the Chaoshan region of Guangdong and speak Teochew language, the variant of Southern Min from that region. Southern Min-speakers form the majority of Chinese in Singapore, with the largest group being Hokkien, despite the similarities the two groups are rarely seen as part of the same Minnan Chinese subgroups. The variants of Southern Min spoken in Zhejiang province are most akin to that spoken in Quanzhou, the variants spoken in Taiwan are similar to the three Fujian variants and are collectively known as Taiwanese. Those Southern Min variants that are known as Hokkien in Southeast Asia also originate from these variants. The variants of Southern Min in the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province are known as Teochew or Chaozhou. Teochew is of importance in the Southeast Asian Chinese diaspora, particularly in Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Sumatra. The Philippines variant is mostly from the Quanzhou area as most of their forefathers are from the aforementioned area, the Southern Min language variant spoken around Shanwei and Haifeng differs markedly from Teochew and may represent a later migration from Zhangzhou
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