1.
Shirt
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A shirt is a cloth garment for the upper body. Originally an undergarment worn exclusively by men, it has become, in American English, in British English, a shirt is more specifically a garment with a collar, sleeves with cuffs, and a full vertical opening with buttons or snaps. A shirt can also be worn with a necktie under the shirt collar, the small fringe formed during weaving along one edge of the cloth has been placed by the designer to decorate the neck opening and side seam. The shirt was an item of clothing that men could wear as underwear. Although the womans chemise was a related garment to the mans. In the Middle Ages, it was a plain, undyed garment worn next to the skin, in medieval artworks, the shirt is only visible on humble characters, such as shepherds, prisoners, and penitents. In the seventeenth century, mens shirts were allowed to show, in the eighteenth century, instead of underpants, men relied on the long tails of shirts. To serve the function of drawers, eighteenth-century costume historian Joseph Strutt believed that men who did not wear shirts to bed were indecent. Even as late as 1879, a shirt with nothing over it was considered improper. The shirt sometimes had frills at the neck or cuffs, in the sixteenth century, mens shirts often had embroidery, and sometimes frills or lace at the neck and cuffs and through the eighteenth century long neck frills, or jabots, were fashionable. Coloured shirts began to appear in the nineteenth century, as can be seen in the paintings of George Caleb Bingham. They were considered casual wear, for workers only, until the twentieth century. For a gentleman, to wear a sky-blue shirt was unthinkable in 1860 but had become standard by 1920 and, in 1980, constituted the most commonplace event. European and American women began wearing shirts in 1860, when the Garibaldi shirt, the first documented appearance of the expression “To give the shirt off one’s back, ” happened in 1771 as an idiom that indicates extreme desperation or generosity and is still in common usage. In 1827 Hannah Montague, a housewife in upstate New York, tired of constantly washing her husband’s entire shirt when only the collar needed it, she cut off his collars and devised a way of attaching them to the neckband after washing. It wasnt until the 1930s that collar stays became popular, although these early accessories resembled tie clips more than the small collar stiffeners available today. They connected the collar points to the necktie, keeping them in place Camp shirt – a loose, straight-cut, short sleeved shirt or blouse with a simple placket front-opening, a black tie or white tie. Guayabera – an embroidered dress shirt with four pockets, poet shirt – a loose-fitting shirt or blouse with full bishop sleeves, usually with large frills on the front and on the cuffs
2.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
3.
Textile
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A textile or cloth is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or artificial fibres. Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, hemp, Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or felting. The words fabric and cloth are used in textile assembly trades as synonyms for textile, however, there are subtle differences in these terms in specialized usage. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres, a fabric is a material made through weaving, knitting, spreading, crocheting, or bonding that may be used in production of further goods. Cloth may be used synonymously with fabric but is often a piece of fabric used for a specific purpose. The word textile is from Latin, from the adjective textilis, meaning woven, from textus, the word cloth derives from the Old English clað, meaning a cloth, woven or felted material to wrap around one, from Proto-Germanic kalithaz. The discovery of dyed flax fibres in a cave in the Republic of Georgia dated to 34,000 BCE suggests textile-like materials were made even in prehistoric times. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization, however, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods. Textiles have an assortment of uses, the most common of which are for clothing and for such as bags. In the household they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, window shades, towels, coverings for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, in the workplace they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering. Textiles are used in traditional crafts such as sewing, quilting. Textiles for industrial purposes, and chosen for other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. Technical textiles include textile structures for applications, medical textiles, geotextiles, agrotextiles. In all these applications stringent performance requirements must be met, woven of threads coated with zinc oxide nanowires, laboratory fabric has been shown capable of self-powering nanosystems using vibrations created by everyday actions like wind or body movements. Fashion designers commonly rely on textile designs to set their fashion collections apart from others, armani, the late Gianni Versace, and Emilio Pucci can be easily recognized by their signature print driven designs. Textiles can be made from many materials and these materials come from four main sources, animal, plant, mineral, and synthetic. In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, in the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas, microfibre refers to fibres made of strands thinner than one denier
4.
Warp and weft
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In weaving, the weft is the term for the thread or yarn which is drawn through, inserted over-and-under, the lengthwise warp yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom to create cloth. Warp is the lengthwise or longitudinal thread in a roll, while weft is the transverse thread, a single thread of the weft, crossing the warp, is called a pick. Each individual warp thread in a fabric is called an end or end. The weft is a thread or yarn usually made of spun fibre, the original fibres used were wool, flax or cotton. Today, man-made fibres are used in weaving. Because the weft does not have to be stretched on a loom in the way that the warp is, the weft is threaded through the warp using a shuttle, air jets or rapier grippers. Hand looms were the original weavers tool, with the shuttle being threaded through alternately raised warps by hand, inventions during the 18th century spurred the Industrial Revolution, with the picking stick and the flying shuttle speeding up production of cloth. The power loom patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 allowed sixty picks per minute, a useful way of remembering which is warp and which is weft is, one of them goes from weft to wight. The words woof and weft derive ultimately from the Old English word wefan, Warp means that which is thrown away. Very simple looms use a warp, in which a single. Because the warp is held under tension during the entire process of weaving and warp yarn must be strong, yarn for warp ends is usually spun. Traditional fibres for warping are wool, linen, alpaca, with the improvements in spinning technology during the Industrial Revolution, it became possible to make cotton yarn of sufficient strength to be used as the warp in mechanized weaving. Later, artificial or man-made fibres such as nylon or rayon were employed, while most people are familiar with weft-faced weavings, it is possible to create warp-faced weavings using densely arranged warp threads. In warp-faced weavings, the design for the textile is in the warp, warp-faced weavings are defined by length-wise stripes and vertical designs due to the limitations of color placement. The expression woof and warp is used metaphorically as one might similarly use fabric, e. g. the warp. The expression is used as a metaphor for the structure on which something is built. Warp or woof are also found in the Bible in the discussion of mildews found in cloth materials in Leviticus 13. Weft is also a term for temporary hair extensions
5.
Twill
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Twill is a type of textile weave with a pattern of diagonal parallel ribs. Because of this structure, twill generally drapes well, Twill weaves can be classified from four points of view, According to the stepping, Warp-way, 3/1 warp way twill, etc. Weft-way, 2/3 weft way twill, etc, According to the direction of twill lines on the face of the fabric, S-Twill or left-hand twill weave, 2/1 S, etc. Z-Twill or right-hand twill weave, 3/2 Z, etc, According to the face yarn, Warp face twill weave, 4/2 S, etc. Weft face twill weave, 1/3 Z, etc, double face twill weave, 3/3 Z, etc. According to the nature of the twill line, Simple twill weave, 1/2 S. Expanded twill weave, 4/3 S, 3/2 Z, etc, multiple twill weave, 2/3/3/1 S, etc. In a twill weave, each weft or filling yarn floats across the warp yarns in a progression of interlacings to the right or left and this diagonal pattern is also known as a wale. A float is the portion of a yarn that crosses over two or more perpendicular yarns, a twill weave requires three or more harnesses, depending on its complexity and is the second most basic weave that can be made on a fairly simple loom. The fraction 2⁄1 is read as two up, one down, the minimum number of harnesses needed to produce a twill can be determined by totaling the numbers in the fraction, for the example described, the number of harnesses is three. Twill weave can be identified by its diagonal lines, Twill fabrics technically have a front and a back side, unlike plain weave, whose two sides are the same. The front side of the twill is called the technical face, if there are warp floats on the technical face, there will be filling floats on the technical back. If the twill wale goes up to the right on one side, Twill fabrics have no up and down as they are woven. Sheer fabrics are made with a twill weave. Because a twill surface already has interesting texture and design, printed twills are much less common than printed plain weaves, when twills are printed, this is typically done on lightweight fabrics. Denim, for example, is a twill, the fewer interlacings in twills as compared to other weaves allow the yarns to move more freely, and therefore they are softer and more pliable, and drape better than plain-weave textiles. Twills also recover from creasing better than plain-weave fabrics do, when there are fewer interlacings, the yarns can be packed closer together to produce high-count fabrics. With higher counts, including high-count twills, the fabric is more durable, twills can be divided into even-sided and warp-faced
6.
Cotton duck
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Cotton duck, also simply duck, sometimes duck cloth or duck canvas, is a heavy, plain woven cotton fabric. Duck canvas is more tightly woven than plain canvas, There is also linen duck, which is less often used. Cotton duck is used in a range of applications, from sneakers to painting canvases to tents to sandbags. Duck fabric is woven with two yarns together in the warp and a single yarn in the weft, Duck is classified according to weight in a numerical system, with grade 1 the heaviest and grade 12 the lightest variety. Besides this, traditional names exist, which are used today. The classification system used today dates back to the 1920s, according to the Department of Commerce, The number of the duck is based on the following computation, Number of Duck =19 −. A numbering system is used to describe the various weights of duck cloth, weights below 19 ounces are called numbered duck. Those above 19 ounces are called naught duck, the grade of numbered duck refers to the number of ounces subtracted from 19 for a 36-by-22-inch piece of fabric. For example, a piece of No.8 numbered duck with dimensions of 36 by 22 inches weighs 11 ounces. Number duck classifications per linear yard 22 inches wide Numbered duck is nominally made in weights from 1 to 12, but numbers 7,9, some typical uses of various grades are, No. 6, large boat covers, heavy work clothes No,8, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, work clothes, shower curtains No,12, light clothes Number duck classifications per square yard There is often confusion when it comes to matching up weights and the correct number duck classification. The table below represents the weight and number duck classification per square yard instead of linear yard 22 inches wide. 1, floor & wall covering, sound absorption, equipment covers, heavy bags, horse packs,4, heavy-duty work clothes, hammocks, sand bags, director chairs, place mats, belting No. 6, utility bags, place mats, belting No,8, backpacks, painted floor cloths, tents, tarps, awnings, work clothes, clothes bags No. 10, artist canvas, murals, shower curtains, painted floor cloths, hammocks,12, stretched artist canvas, furniture slip covers, light clothes Duct tape
7.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
8.
Indigo dye
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Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive blue color. Historically, indigo was a dye extracted from the leaves of certain plants. A large percentage of indigo dye produced today – several thousand each year – is synthetic. It is the blue often associated with blue jeans, the primary use for indigo is as a dye for cotton yarn, which is mainly for the production of denim cloth for blue jeans. On average, a pair of blue jean trousers requires 3–12 g of indigo, small amounts are used for dyeing wool and silk. Indigo carmine, or indigo, is a derivative which is also used as a colorant. About 20 thousand tons are produced annually, again mainly for blue jeans and it is also used as a food colorant, and is listed in the United States as FD&C Blue No.2. A variety of plants have provided indigo throughout history, but most natural indigo was obtained from those in the genus Indigofera, the primary commercial indigo species in Asia was true indigo. A common alternative used in the relatively colder subtropical locations such as Japans Ryukyu Islands, dyers knotweed was the most important blue dye in East Asia until the arrival of the Indigofera species from the south, which yield more dye. In Central and South America, the species grown is I. suffruticosa, in Europe woad containing the same dye was used for blue-dying. Several plants contain indigo, but low concentrations make them difficult to work with, natural sources also include mollusks, the Murex sea snails produce a mixture of indigo and dibromoindigo which together produce a range of purple hues known as Tyrian purple. Light exposure during part of the process can convert the dibromoindigo into indigo resulting in blue hues known as royal blue or hyacinth purple. The precursor to indigo is indican, a colorless, water-soluble derivative of the amino acid tryptophan, indican readily hydrolyzes to release β-D-glucose and indoxyl. Oxidation by exposure to air converts indoxyl to indigo, indican was obtained from the processing of the plants leaves, which contain as much as 0. 2–0. 8% of this compound. The leaves were soaked in water and fermented to convert the glycoside indican present in the plant to the blue dye indigotin, the precipitate from the fermented leaf solution was mixed with a strong base such as lye, pressed into cakes, dried, and powdered. The powder was mixed with various other substances to produce different shades of blue. Indigo was used in India, which was also the earliest major center for its production, the I. tinctoria species was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the Greeks and the Romans, Indigo is among the oldest dyes to be used for textile dyeing and printing
9.
Jeans
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Jeans are pants, a type of garment, typically made from denim or dungaree cloth. Prior to the Levi Strauss patented trousers, the blue jeans had been long in use for various garments. Originally designed for cowboys and miners, jeans became popular in the 1950s among teenagers, Jeans were a common fashion item in the 1960s Hippie subculture and they continued to be popular in the 1970s and 1980s youth subcultures of punk rock and heavy metal. Historic brands include Levis, Lee, and Wrangler, distressed jeans trousers have become increasingly fashionable, making pre-sale factory distressing a common feature in commercially sold jeans. In the 2010s, jeans are a popular article of casual dress around the world. They come in many styles and colors, however, blue jeans are particularly identified with American culture, especially the Old West. Research on the trade of jean fabric shows that it emerged in the cities of Genoa, Italy, gênes, the French word for Genoa, may be the origin of the word jeans. In Nimes, weavers tried to reproduce jean but instead developed a similar fabric that became known as denim, from de Nimes. Genoa’s jean was a fustian textile of medium quality and of reasonable cost, very similar to cotton corduroy for which Genoa was famous, nimes’s denim was coarser, considered higher quality and was used for over garments such as smocks or overalls. Nearly all Indigo, needed for dyeing, came from indigo bush plantations in India till the late 19th century and it was replaced by indigo synthesis methods developed in Germany. By the 17th century, jean was a crucial textile for working-class people in Northern Italy and this is seen in a series of genre paintings from around the 17th century attributed to an artist now named The Master of the Blue Jeans. The ten paintings depict impoverished scenes with lower-class figures wearing a fabric that looks like denim, the fabric would have been Genoese jean, which was cheaper. Genre painting came to prominence in late 16th century, and the subject matter in all ten paintings places them among others that portray similar scenes. Denim is not the only sturdy cotton fabric used for everything from working clothes to fashion items and this cloth was dungri in Hindi. Dungri was exported to England and used for manufacturing of cheap and it was rumored that men would carry dead dung beetles in their pocket for luck. In English, the word dungri became pronounced as dungaree, the importance of jean is also shown by the history of textile trade. Genoese sailors used jean to cover and protect their goods on the docks from the weather, during the Republic of Genoa, sailors exported jeans throughout Europe. Jean became popular in the United States when Levi Strauss & Co. s introduced blue jean overalls in 1873
10.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
11.
Serge (fabric)
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Serge is a type of twill fabric that has diagonal lines or ridges on both sides, made with a two-up, two-down weave. The worsted variety is used in making military uniforms, suits, great coats and its counterpart, silk serge, is used for linings. French serge is a softer, finer variety, the word is also used for a high quality woolen woven fabric. The name is derived from Old French serge, itself from Latin serica, from Greek σηρικός and it also appears to refer to a form of silk twill produced in the early renaissance in or around Florence, used for clerical cassocks. A reference can be found in Don Quixote, I am more pleased to have found it than anyone had given me a Cassock of the best Florentine serge, from early Saxon times, most English wool was exported. In the early 16th century it went mainly to a Royal monopoly at Calais and was woven into cloth in France or the Low Countries, however, with the capture of Calais by the French on 7 January 1558, England began expanding its own weaving industry. Denim is a fabric with a similar weave, its name is believed to be derived from serge de Nîmes after Nîmes in France. Tweed Red Serge Images from World History, Early Byzantine history A Brief History of Southampton
12.
Genoa
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Genoa is the capital of the Italian region of Liguria and the sixth-largest city in Italy. In 2015,594,733 people lived within the administrative limits. As of the 2011 Italian census, the Province of Genoa, over 1.5 million people live in the wider metropolitan area stretching along the Italian Riviera. Genoa has been nicknamed la Superba due to its glorious past, part of the old town of Genoa was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2006. The citys rich history in notably its art, music. It is the birthplace of Christopher Columbus, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Genoa, which forms the southern corner of the Milan-Turin-Genoa industrial triangle of north-west Italy, is one of the countrys major economic centres. The city has hosted massive shipyards and steelworks since the 19th century, the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is among the oldest in the world and has played an important role in the citys prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Today a number of leading Italian companies are based in the city, including Fincantieri, Selex ES, Ansaldo Energia, Ansaldo STS, Edoardo Raffinerie Garrone, Piaggio Aerospace, the Genoa area has been inhabited since the fifth or fourth millennium BC. In ancient times this area was frequented and inhabited by Ligures, Phoenicians, Phocaeans, Greeks, and Etruscans. The city cemetery, dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, testifies to the occupation of the site by the Greeks, but the fine harbour probably saw use much earlier, perhaps by the Etruscans. In the 5th century BC was founded the first oppidum at the foot of the today called the Castle Hill which now is inside the medieval old town. The ancient Ligurian city was known as Stalia, so referred to by Artemidorus Ephesius and Pomponius Mela, Ligurian Stalia was overshadowed by the powerful Marseille and Vada Sabatia, near modern Savona. Stalia had an alliance with Rome through a foedus aequum in the course of the Second Punic War, the Carthaginians accordingly destroyed it in 209 BC. The town was rebuilt and, after the Carthaginian Wars ended in 146 BC. it received municipal rights, the original castrum thenceforth expanded towards the current areas of Santa Maria di Castello and the San Lorenzo promontory. Trades included skins, wood, and honey, goods were shipped to the mainland, up to major cities like Tortona and Piacenza. Among the archeological remains from the Roman period, an amphitheatre was also found, another theory traces the name to the Etruscan word Kainua which means New City and still another from the Latin word ianua, related to the name of the God Janus, meaning door or passage. The latter is in reference to its position at the centre of the Ligurian coastal arch. The Latin name, oppidum Genua, is recorded by Pliny the Elder as part of the Augustean Regio IX Liguria, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Ostrogoths occupied Genoa
13.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
14.
Jacob W. Davis
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Jacob W. Davis was a Latvian-Jewish tailor and American immigrant who is credited with inventing modern jeans. Jacob Youphes was born to a Jewish family in the city of Riga, then Russian Empire, today Latvia, during his time in Riga city, he trained and worked as a tailor. In 1854, at the age of 23, he emigrated from the Russian Empire to the United States, there he ran a tailors shop before moving to Maine and then, in 1856, San Francisco before moving on to Weatherville. There, Davis met a German immigrant, Annie Parksher, whom he married and together, Jacob, during his time in Canada, Davis worked at the Fraser River panning for gold. In January 1867, Davis returned to San Francisco with Annie, later that year, they moved to Virginia City, Nevada where he sold wholesale tobacco and pork before beginning work once more as a tailor. By 1868, the family had moved, this time to Reno, Nevada which at time was a tiny railroad town. 1869 saw Davis revert to his trade, opening a tailor shop in the main street of the town. In his tailor shop, Davis made functional items such as tents, horse blankets, the fabric Davis worked with was a heavy duty cotton “duck” cloth and a heavy duty cotton “denim” cloth which he bought from Levi Strauss & Co. a dry goods company in San Francisco. To strengthen the stress points of the items he was making. In December 1870, Davis was asked by a customer to make a pair of strong working pants for her husband who was a woodcutter. To create suitably robust pants for working, he used duck cloth and reinforced the weak points in the seams, such was the success of these pants that word spread throughout the labourers along the railroad. Davis was making these working pants in duck cotton and, as early as 1871, before long, he found he could not keep up with demand. Davis had previously applied for patents for other inventions, Strauss agreed, and on May 20. 1873, US Patent No.139,121 for “Improvements in fastening pocket openings” was issued in the name of Jacob W. Davis and Levi Strauss and Company. That same year, Davis started sewing a double orange threaded stitched design onto the pocket of the jeans to distinguish them from those made by his competitors. This trademark feature became Registered U. S. Trade Mark No.1,139,254. By this time, Strauss had set up a sizeable tailor shop in San Francisco for the production of Davis working pants and Jacob, as demand continued to grow, the shop was superseded by a manufacturing plant which Davis managed for Strauss. Davis continued to work there for the remainder of his life, overseeing production of the work pants as well as other lines including work shirts, Davis died in San Francisco in 1908
15.
Levi Strauss & Co.
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/ˌliːvaɪ ˈstraʊs/ is a privately owned American clothing company known worldwide for its Levis /ˌliːvaɪz/ brand of denim jeans. It was founded in May 1853 when Levi Strauss came from Buttenheim, Bavaria, to San Francisco, the companys corporate headquarters is located in the Levis Plaza in San Francisco. Levi Strauss started the business at the 90 Sacramento Street address in San Francisco and he next moved the location to 62 Sacramento Street then 63 &65 Sacramento Street. Jacob Davis, a Latvian Jewish immigrant, was a Reno, Davis did not have the required money to purchase a patent, so he wrote to Strauss suggesting that they go into business together. After Levi accepted Jacobs offer, on May 20,1873, Patent 139,121 from the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The patented rivet was later incorporated into the companys jean design, contrary to an advertising campaign suggesting that Levi Strauss sold his first jeans to gold miners during the California Gold Rush, the manufacturing of denim overalls only began in the 1870s. The company created their first pair of Levis 501 Jeans in the 1890s, modern jeans began to appear in the 1920s, but sales were largely confined to the working people of the western United States, such as cowboys, lumberjacks, and railroad workers. Levi’s jeans apparently were first introduced to the East during the dude ranch craze of the 1930s, another boost came in World War II, when blue jeans were declared an essential commodity and were sold only to people engaged in defense work. Between the 1950s and 1980s, Levis jeans became popular among a range of youth subcultures, including greasers, mods, rockers. Levis popular shrink-to-fit 501s were sold in a unique sizing arrangement, the indicated size referred to the size of the prior to shrinking. The company still produces these unshrunk, uniquely sized jeans, additionally, the back pocket rivets, which had been covered in denim since 1937, were removed completely in the 1950s due to complaints they scratched furniture. The acquisition led to the introduction of the modern stone washing technique, simpkins is credited with the companys record-paced expansion of its manufacturing capacity from 16 plants to more than 63 plants in the United States from 1964 to 1974 and 23 overseas. As a result, Levis plants were perhaps the highest performing, best organized, the Dockers brand, launched in 1986 and which is sold largely through department store chains, helped the company grow through the mid-1990s, as denim sales began to fade. Dockers were introduced into Europe in 1996 and led by CEO Jorge Bardina, Levi Strauss attempted to sell the Dockers division in 2004 to relieve part of the companys $2.6 billion outstanding debt. As of 2016, most Levis jeans are made outside the US, though a few of the higher-end, labor history, distributing more than $9 million in restitution to some 1,200 employees. Levi Strauss claimed no knowledge of the offenses, then severed ties to the Tan family and instituted labor reforms, during the mid- and late-1990s, Fuerza Unida picketed the Levi Strauss headquarters in San Francisco and staged hunger strikes and sit-ins in protest at the companys labor policies. The company took on debt in February 1996 to help finance a series of leveraged stock buyouts among family members. The corporations bonds are traded publicly, as are shares of the companys Japanese affiliate, Levi Strauss Japan K. K
16.
Stone washing
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Stone washing is a textile manufacturing process used to give a newly manufactured cloth garment a worn-in appearance. Stone-washing also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and rigid fabrics such as canvas, the process uses large stones to roughen up the fabric being processed. The garments are placed in a large horizontal industrial clothes washer that is filled with large stones. As the wash cylinder rotates, the fibers are repeatedly pounded and beaten as the tumbling stones ride up the paddles inside the drum. A number of people and organizations have claimed to have invented stone-washing, according to Levi Strauss & Co. Donald Freeland, an employee of the Great Western Garment Company, inventor Claude Blankiet has also been credited with having invented the technique in the 1970s. The jeans company Edwin claims to have invented the technique in the 1980s, stonewashed jeans are jeans that have been treated to produce a faded, worn appearance. This is usually accomplished either by washing the jeans with pumice in a rotating drum, stonewashed jeans were a popular 1970s fashion trend, before commercial acid wash denim was introduced in the 1980s. In the 2000s, stonewashed jeans were distressed, with pre-made holes, frayed edges. Claude Blankiet with American Garment Finishers from Texas promoted the use of enzymes in the finishing industry. Cellulase was already used in the pulp, food processing industry. Cellulase is produced primarily by fungi, bacteria and protozoan that catalyze the hydrolysis of cellulose, since the enzyme decomposes cellulose fibers this enhanced the characteristic appearance that the jeans have been abraded with stones. Selecting the most suitable type of enzyme and their application for ageing jeans was the key to success, American Garment Finishers used a new cellulolytic agent patented in 1991 by Novo Nordisk from Denmark because of its safer effect on cotton fiber. Other finishers used an acid side Trichoderma fungi enzyme, cheaper and faster acting, but resulting in excessive fabric tear, acid-washed denim, is washed with pumice stones and chlorine until it is bleached almost white. California surfers and members of the 1960s counterculture prized Levi 501s and other jeans that had been bleached by the water due to their authentic. As natural wear took weeks, or even months, it was not uncommon to hang a few new pairs of jeans to fade in the sun, then turn them over to fade the other side. For many surfers, this process took too long, so they sped up the process by soaking the jeans in diluted bleach. Simple chlorine bleach and muriatic acid were readily available at the time, during the early 1980s, skinheads and punk rockers would spatter bleach on their jeans and battle jackets for a mottled effect similar to camouflage
17.
Shrinkage (fabric)
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Shrinkage is the process in which a fabric becomes smaller than its original size, usually through the process of laundry. Novice users of modern laundry machines sometimes experience accidental shrinkage of garments, others may intentionally shrink a garment to their size. Some may purchase a garment one or more sizes larger in anticipation of shrinkage, for wool garments, shrinkage is due to scales on the fibers which heat, water and agitation cause to stick together. Other fabrics are stretched by mechanical forces during production, and can shrink slightly when heated, some clothes are pre-shrunk to avoid this problem
18.
Sanforization
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Sanforization is a process of treatment used for cotton fabrics mainly and most textiles made from natural or chemical fibres, patented by Sanford Lockwood Cluett in 1930. It is a method of stretching, shrinking and fixing the woven cloth in both length and width before cutting and producing, to reduce the shrinkage which would occur after washing. The cloth is continually fed into the machine and therein moistened with either water or steam. A rotating cylinder presses a rubber sleeve against another, heated, thereby the sleeve briefly gets compressed and laterally expanded, afterwards relaxing to its normal thickness. The cloth to be treated is transported between rubber sleeve and heated cylinder and is forced to follow this brief compression and lateral expansion, the greater the pressure applied to the rubber sleeve during the sanforization process, the less shrinking will occur once the shirt is in use. The aim of the process is a cloth which does not shrink significantly during production by cutting, ironing, sewing or, especially, cloth and articles made from it may be labelled to have a specific shrink-proof value, e. g. of under 1%
19.
Loom
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A loom is a device used to weave cloth and tapestry. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads, the precise shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same. The word loom is derived from the Old English geloma formed from ge- and loma, a root of unknown origin, in 1404 it was used to mean a machine to enable weaving thread into cloth. By 1838 it had gained the meaning of a machine for interlacing thread. Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, the warp, i. e. that which is thrown across, with the transverse threads, the major components of the loom are the warp beam, heddles, harnesses or shafts, shuttle, reed and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening, shedding is the raising of part of the warp yarn to form a shed, through which the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. On the modern loom, simple and intricate shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame and this is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, the weave pattern determines which harness controls which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard Head, as the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns, the shed is created. The filling yarn is inserted through the shed by a carrier device called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the shed, in a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves across the loom, a single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is known as a pick. As the shuttle back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge, or selvage. Between the heddles and the roll, the warp threads pass through another frame called the reed. The portion of the fabric that has already been formed but not yet rolled up on the roll is called the fell. After the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per minute. There are two motions, because with each weaving operation the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth beam. This process is called taking up, at the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or released from the warp beams
20.
Sulzer (manufacturer)
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Sulzer Ltd. is a Swiss industrial engineering and manufacturing firm, founded by Salomon Sulzer-Bernet in 1775 and established as Sulzer Brothers Ltd. in 1834 in Winterthur, Switzerland. Today it is a traded company with international subsidiaries. The companys shares are listed on the Swiss Stock Exchange, Sulzer Brothers helped develop shuttleless weaving, and their core business was loom manufacture. Rudolf Diesel worked for Sulzer in 1879, and in 1893 Sulzer bought certain rights to diesel engines, Sulzer built their first diesel engine in 1898. Chemtech - Components and services for separation columns and static mixing The Sulzer Ltd shares are registered at the SIX Swiss Exchange, Sulzer was blacklisted by the Allies during World War II due to an increase in trade with Axis countries. Sulzer refused to sign an agreement to limit the sale of marine diesel engines to the Axis countries. Sulzer developed a series of rail engines in the 1930s and 1940s which were used extensively in diesel locomotives in the UK, Europe. A small number were used in locomotives in Africa and Australia, the Sulzer LDA engine was widely used by British Rail and Romanian Railways. Many were built under licence by Vickers-Armstrong at Barrow as six-, eight- and twelve-cylinder form, the twelve-cylinder engine was used in the British Rail Class 47, Romanian Railways Class 60/62, Polish Railways Class ST43, China Railways ND2, and several others. The 12LDA28 engine was a bank engine having, in effect. Sulzer V-type engines for rail use bore the type number LVA, in the late 1970s, locomotive rebuilder Morrison Knudsen installed a series of Sulzer power units into several existing locomotives. The first applications were of the marine based 6ASL25/30 & 8ASL25/30 series used in a Morrison-Knudsen demonstrator, teething problems plagued these machines and their operation in revenue earning service was brief. Research into correcting their problems continued but was curtailed by Morrison Knudsen late in 1982. These power units were descendents of the LVA range, in 1990, Sulzer spun off the diesel engine division into a separate company named New Sulzer Diesel and sold most of the shares in it, retaining only a minority ownership. In 1997, NSD was absorbed by Wärtsilä, creating Wärtsilä NSD, Wärtsilä NSD makes the worlds largest diesel engine, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C. They are also one of the few companies that create an intelligent diesel main propulsion engine
21.
Indigofera
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Indigofera is a large genus of over 750 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Fabaceae. They are widely distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, species of Indigofera are mostly shrubs, though some are small trees or annual or perennial herbs. Racemes of flowers grow in the leaf axils, most species have flowers in hues of red, but there are a few white- and yellow-flowered species. The fruit is a pod of varying size and shape. Indigofera is a genus that has shown unique characteristics that make it an interesting candidate as a potential perennial crop. Specifically, there is variation among species with a number of unique characteristics. Some examples of this diversity include differences in thickness, fruit type. Indigofera is a genus that also shows some unique characteristics in its flowering morphology. For example, one characteristic of Indigofera is that it demonstrates an open carpel not seen among many species. The types of produced by different species of Indigofera can also be divided into broad categories that again show great variation. The three basic types of categories can be separated by their curvature including straight, slightly curved. Another way to categorize Indigofera is by its pericarp thickness, several species, especially Indigofera tinctoria and Indigofera suffruticosa, are used to produce the dye indigo. Scraps of Indigo-dyed fabric likely dyed with plants from the genus Indigofera discovered at Huaca Prieta predate Egyptian indigo-dyed fabrics by more than 1,500 years, exports of the crop did not expand until the mid-to late 18th century. When Eliza Lucas Pinckney and enslaved Africans successfully cultivated new strains near Charleston it became the second most important cash crop in the colony before the American Revolution and it comprised more than one-third of all exports in value. The chemical aniline, from many important dyes are derived, was first synthesized from Indigofera suffruticosa. In Indonesia, the Sundanese use Indigofera tinctoria as dye for batik, marco Polo was the first to report on the preparation of indigo in India. Indigo was quite often used in European easel painting during the Middle Ages, several species of this group are used to alleviate pain. The herbs are generally regarded as an analgesic with anti-inflammatory activity, Indigofera articulata was used for toothache, and Indigofera oblongifolia was used as an anti-inflammatory for insect stings, snakebites, and swellings
22.
Sulfur dye
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Sulfur dyes are the most commonly used dyes manufactured for cotton in terms of volume. They are cheap, generally have good wash-fastness, and are easy to apply, Sulfur dyes are predominantly black, brown, and dark blue. Red sulfur dyes are unknown, although a pink or lighter color is available. The forerunner of sulfur dyes is attributed to Cachou de Laval, subsequently, the so-called Vidal Blacks were produced by reactions of various aniline derivatives with sulfur. These experiments demonstrated that deeply colored materials could be produced by combining aromatic compounds. The most important member of the class is Sulfur Black 1 and it is produced by the reaction of 2, 4-dinitrophenol and sodium sulfide in hot water. Like many sulfur dyes, details on the reactions are poorly understood. It is accepted that the sulfide reduces the groups to aniline derivatives. The result are insoluble, high molecular weight species, Sulfur Black 1 is imperfectly understood, and the material is probably heterogeneous. It is speculated to be a polymer consisting of thianthrene and phenothiazine subunits, the so-called sulfur bake dyes are produced from 1, 4-diaminobenzene and diaminotoluene derivatives. These dyes are proposed to consist of polymers with benzothiazole subunits, members of the sulfur bake dyes class are Sulfur Orange 1, Sulfur Brown 21, and Sulfur Green 12. Sodium sulfide or sodium hydrosulfide are suitable reducing agents, after the fabric is removed from the dye solution, it is allowed to stand in air whereupon the dye is regenerated by oxidation. The regenerated parent dye is insoluble in water, oxidation can also be effected in air or by hydrogen peroxide or sodium bromate in a mildly acidic solution. The low water solubility is the basis of the good wash-fastness of these dyed fabrics and these dyes have good all round fastness except to chlorine bleaches. Because the dye is water-insoluble, it not bleed when washed in water. The dye, however, may have poor fastness to rubbing, the dyes are bleached by hypochlorite bleach. Due to the highly polluting nature of the effluent, sulfur dyes are being slowly phased out in the West. Recent advances in dyeing technologies have allowed the substitution of toxic sulfide reducing agents, glucose in basic solution is now used and both low sulfide and zero sulfide products are available
23.
Slim-fit pants
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Slim-fit pants or skinny jeans have a snug fit through the legs and end in a small leg opening that can be anywhere from 9 to 20 in circumference, depending on size. Other names for this style include drainpipes, stovepipes, tight pants, cigarette pants, skinny jeans, pencil pants, skinny pants, gas pipes, in some styles, zippers are needed at the bottom of the leg to facilitate pulling them over the feet. Stretch denim, with anywhere from 2% to 4% spandex, may be used to allow jeans to have a super-slim fit, skinny jeans come in a variety of colors and styles. Before the 18th century, European men wore breeches and hose, in Tudor times, these breeches were loose-fitting, but by the 1660s, tight breeches were fashionable. During the Restoration era, the breeches were introduced to England. From the 16th until the 19th century, the Mughlai nobility attired themselves in tight-fitting Churidars which were tied below the knee. These trousers, and other elements of clothing like the Shalwar Kameez, were often worn by Englishmen working in India. Tight fitting trousers were fashionable from 1805 until 1850, being descended from the loose trousers worn as a political statement by Sans-Culottes during the French Revolution. Pantaloons were tied around the ankle and commonly put into boots, pants, which had come to mean tight-fitting trousers, but now just a synonym, fitted more loosely from the 1840s onwards as mass-production replaced tailoring. Beginning in the Edwardian era and continuing into the 1920s, baggy Oxford or collegiate trousers, as the name suggests, Oxford bags originated at the UKs elite universities, where young upper class men pursued an active, sports-centred lifestyle. Tapered jeans became most notable country music stars and with the birth of rock and roll in the 1950s. Drainpipe jeans and rock n roll were inextricably linked to create the bad boy image that remains today, in the early 1960s, drainpipes were worn by numerous rock bands and musicians, including The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and Bob Dylan. Fashion icon Audrey Hepburn also raised the popularity of drainpipe jeans, slim fitting pants and jeans were essentially worn not just by people who were associated with the Mods or rockers but also ordinary people. The trend lasted until the end of the 1960s when hippie culture gave rise to the return to fashionability of flared pants, in the early 1970s, glam rock and rockabilly bands reviving the Teddy Boy look popularised drainpipe jeans in contrast to the flared trousers worn by hippies. Red tartan drainpipe jeans were popular in the subculture of the late 1970s. Skin-tight acid-washed jeans were popular in the 1980s with most heavy metal bands. This was the trend for those who did not wear spandex and they were often worn with white high-top sneakers or basketball shoes like Converse. By the late 1980s, drainpipe pants were largely superseded by straight leg jeans like Levi 501s, tight fitting jeans were also worn by pop stars like Michael Jackson and Freddie Mercury
24.
Mini-skirt
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A micro-miniskirt or microskirt is a miniskirt with its hemline at the upper thigh. Short skirts have existed for a time, though they were generally not called mini or became a fashion trend until the 1960s. Instances of clothing resembling miniskirts have been identified by archaeologists and historians as far back as c, in the early 20th century, the dancer Josephine Bakers banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt. Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh, stockings with suspenders were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. The popular acceptance of miniskirts peaked in the Swinging London of the 1960s, before that time, short skirts were only seen in sport and dance clothing, such as skirts worn by female tennis players, figure skaters, cheerleaders, and dancers. Several designers have been credited with the invention of the 1960s miniskirt, most significantly the London-based designer Mary Quant, while very short skirts have existed for a long time, they were generally not called mini until the 1960s. Figurines produced by the Vinča culture have been interpreted by archaeologists as representing women in miniskirt-like garments, One of the oldest surviving garments resembling a miniskirt is the short woollen skirt with bronze ornaments worn by the Egtved Girl for her burial in the Nordic Bronze Age. One of the earliest known cultures where women regularly wore clothing resembling miniskirts was a subgroup of the Miao people of China, the Duan Qun Miao. At least one of the One Hundred Miao Pictures albums contains a poem that describes how the womens short skirts. In the early 20th century, the dancer Josephine Bakers banana skirt that she wore for her mid-1920s performances in the Folies Bergère was subsequently likened to a miniskirt, the sci-fi miniskirt was seen in genre films and television programmes as well as on comic book covers. It was later seen as remarkable that only one formal complaint relating to the skirts could be recalled, hewitt pointed out that even though the complainant claimed they could see up her skirt, her matching tights rendered her effectively clothed from neck to ankle. Otherwise, Space Patrol was applauded for being wholesome and family-friendly, although the 30th-century women in Space Patrol were empowered, experts in their field, and largely treated as equals, it was the skirts that fuelled indelible memories. The Space Patrol skirts were not the shortest to be broadcast at the time – the German-made American 1954 series Flash Gordon showed Dale Arden in a shorter skirt. The manager of a shop in Londons Oxford Street began experimenting in 1960 with skirt hemlines an inch above the knees of window mannequins. Hemlines were just above the knee in 1961, and gradually climbed upward over the few years. By 1966, some designs had the hem at the upper thigh, stockings with suspenders were not considered practical with miniskirts and were replaced with coloured tights. Towards the end of the 1960s, a shorter version, called the microskirt or micro-mini
25.
Elastomer
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An elastomer is a polymer with viscoelasticity and very weak inter-molecular forces, generally having low Youngs modulus and high failure strain compared with other materials. The term, which is derived from elastic polymer, is used interchangeably with the term rubber. Each of the monomers which link to form the polymer is made of carbon. Elastomers are amorphous polymers existing above their glass transition temperature, so that considerable segmental motion is possible, at ambient temperatures, rubbers are thus relatively soft and deformable. Their primary uses are for seals, adhesives and molded flexible parts, application areas for different types of rubber are manifold and cover segments as diverse as tires, shoe soles, and dampening and insulating elements. The importance of rubbers can be judged from the fact that global revenues are forecast to rise to US$56 billion in 2020, Rubber like solids with elastic properties are called elastomers. Polymer chains are held together in elastomers by weakest intermolecular forces and this weak binding forces permit the polymers to be stretched. Natural rubber, neoprene rubber, buna-s and buna-n are elastomers, elastomers are usually thermosets but may also be thermoplastic. The long polymer chains cross-link during curing, i. e. vulcanizing, the molecular structure of elastomers can be imagined as a spaghetti and meatball structure, with the meatballs signifying cross-links. The elasticity is derived from the ability of the chains to reconfigure themselves to distribute an applied stress. The covalent cross-linkages ensure that the elastomer will return to its original configuration when the stress is removed, as a result of this extreme flexibility, elastomers can reversibly extend from 5-700%, depending on the specific material. Without the cross-linkages or with short, uneasily reconfigured chains, the stress would result in a permanent deformation. Temperature effects are present in the demonstrated elasticity of a polymer. It is also possible for a polymer to exhibit elasticity that is not due to covalent cross-links, butyl rubber Halogenated butyl rubbers Styrene-butadiene Rubber Nitrile rubber, also called Buna N rubbers Hydrogenated Nitrile Rubbers Therban and Zetpol. One should go through all differentiation while editing between Plastics and articles thereof and Rubber and articles thereof
26.
Spandex
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Spandex, Lycra or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more durable than natural rubber and it is a polyester-polyurethane copolymer that was invented in 1958 by chemist Joseph Shivers at DuPonts Benger Laboratory in Waynesboro, Virginia. When introduced in 1962, it revolutionized many areas of the clothing industry, the name spandex is an anagram of the word expands. Brand names for spandex include Lycra, Elaspan, Acepora, Creora, INVIYA, ROICA and Dorlastan, Linel, Spandex fibers are produced in four different ways, melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning, and solution wet spinning. All of these include the initial step of reacting monomers to produce a prepolymer. Once the prepolymer is formed, it is reacted further in various ways, the solution dry spinning method is used to produce over 94. 5% of the worlds spandex fibers, and the process has five steps,1. The first step is to produce the prepolymer and this is done by mixing a macroglycol with a diisocyanate monomer. The two compounds are mixed in a vessel to produce a prepolymer. A typical ratio of glycol to diisocyanate is 1,2, the prepolymer is further reacted with an equal amount of diamine. This reaction is known as chain extension reaction, the resulting solution is diluted with a solvent to produce the spinning solution. The solvent helps make the solution thinner and more easily handled, the spinning solution is pumped into a cylindrical spinning cell where it is cured and converted into fibers. In this cell, the solution is forced through a metal plate called a spinneret. This causes the solution to be aligned in strands of liquid polymer, as the strands pass through the cell, they are heated in the presence of a nitrogen and solvent gas. This process causes the polymer to react chemically and form solid strands. As the fibers exit the cell, an amount of solid strands are bundled together to produce the desired thickness, each fiber of spandex is made up of many smaller individual fibers that adhere to one another due to the natural stickiness of their surface. The resulting fibers are treated with a finishing agent which can be magnesium stearate or another polymer. This treatment prevents the fibers sticking together and aids in textile manufacture, the fibers are then transferred through a series of rollers onto a spool. Because of its elasticity and strength, spandex has been incorporated into a range of garments
27.
Boot
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A boot is a type of footwear and a specific type of shoe. Most boots mainly cover the foot and the ankle, while some also cover some part of the lower calf, some boots extend up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip. Most boots have a heel that is distinguishable from the rest of the sole. Traditionally made of leather or rubber, modern boots are made from a variety of materials, in some cases, the wearing of boots may be required by laws or regulations, such as the regulations in some jurisdictions requiring workers on construction sites to wear steel-toed safety boots. Some uniforms include boots as the regulated footwear, Boots are recommended as well for motorcycle riders. High-top athletic shoes are not considered boots, even though they do cover the ankle. In Britain, the term may be used to refer to football cleats, early boots consisted of separate leggings, soles, and uppers worn together to provide greater ankle protection than shoes or sandals. Around 1000 BC, these components were more permanently joined to form a unit that covered the feet and lower leg. A type of soft leather boots were worn by nomads in eastern Asia. The Inuit and Aleut natives of Alaska developed traditional winter boots of skin or sealskin featuring decorative touches of seal intestine, dog hair. 17th century European boots were influenced by military styles, featuring thick soles, waterproof gumboots are made in different lengths of uppers. In extreme cases, thigh-boots called waders, worn by anglers, such boots may also be insulated for warmth. With the exception of gum boots, boots sold in retail stores may be considered water resistant, as they are not usually fully waterproof. Most work boots are made from leather. Formerly they were usually shod with hobnails and heel- and toe-plates, but now can usually be seen with a rubber sole. Boots are normally worn with socks to prevent chafes and blisters, to sweat, to improve the foots grip inside the boot. Before socks became widely available, footwraps were worn instead, specialty boots have been designed for many different types of sports, particularly riding, skiing, snowboarding, ice-skating, and sporting in wet/damp conditions. Bovver boots, Doc Martens boots and army boots were adopted by skinheads and punks as part of their dress and have migrated to more mainstream fashion
28.
Sneakers
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Sneakers are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise. Sneakers have evolved to be used for everyday activities. The term generally describes a type of footwear with a sole made of rubber or synthetic material. Examples of such shoes include athletic footwear such as, basketball shoes, tennis shoes, cross trainers, the term sneakers is most commonly used in the Northeastern United States and Southern Florida. It is also used in North Carolina and Canada, the British English equivalent of sneaker in its modern form is trainer. In some urban areas in the United States, the slang for sneakers is kicks, plimsolls are low tech athletic shoes, and are also called sneakers in American English and daps in Welsh English. The word sneaker is often attributed to American Henry Nelson McKinney who was an agent for N. W. Ayer & Son. In 1917, he used the term because the sole made the shoe stealthy. The word was already in use at least as early as 1887, the name sneakers originally referred to how quiet the rubber soles were on the ground, in contrast to noisy standard hard leather sole dress shoes. Someone wearing sneakers could sneak up on someone while someone wearing standards could not, earlier the name sneaks had been used by prison inmates to refer to warders because of the rubber-soled shoes they wore. Alternatively, just like the Plimsoll line on a ship, if water got above the line of the rubber sole, plimsolls were widely worn by vacationers and also began to be worn by sportsmen on the tennis and croquet courts for their comfort. Special soles with engraved patterns to increase the grip of the shoe were developed. Athletic shoes were used for leisure and outdoor activities at the turn of the 20th century - plimsolls were even found with the ill-fated Scott Antarctic expedition of 1911. Plimsolls were made compulsory in schools physical education lessons in the UK, British company J. W. Foster and Sons designed and produced the first shoes designed for running in 1895, the shoes were spiked to allow for greater traction and speed. This style of footwear also became prominent in America at the turn of the 20th century, in 1892, the U. S. Rubber Company introduced the first rubber-soled shoes in the country, sparking a surge in demand and production. The first basketball shoes were designed by Spalding as early as 1907, the market for sneakers grew after World War I, when sports and athletics increasingly became a way to demonstrate moral fiber and patriotism. The U. S. market for sneakers grew steadily as young boys lined up to buy sneakers endorsed by football player Jim Thorpe, during the interwar period, athletic shoes began to be marketed for different sports, and differentiated designs were made available for men and women. Athletic shoes were used by competing athletes at the Olympics, helping to popularise athletic shoes among the general public, in 1936, a French brand, Spring Court, marketed the first canvas tennis shoe featuring signature eight ventilation channels on a vulcanised natural rubber sole
29.
Capri pants
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Capri pants are pants that are longer than shorts but are not as long as trousers. They typically come down to between knee and calf or ankle length, capris are widely popular with people in many countries, especially in the United States, Europe, Latin America, and Asia. Capri pants were introduced by fashion designer Sonja de Lennart in 1948, the pants name derives from the Italian isle of Capri, where they rose to popularity in the late 1950s and early 60s. The American actress Grace Kelly was among the first movie stars who wore capris on the island, capris acceptance in the United States was influenced by the 1960s television series The Dick Van Dyke Show. The character Laura Petrie, the young housewife played by Mary Tyler Moore, caused a fashion sensation –, after a drop in popularity during the 1970s through the 1990s, capris returned to favor in the late 1990s. Spanish tennis player Rafael Nadal wore capri pants in the majority of his matches before 2009
30.
Dress
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A dress is a garment consisting of a skirt with an attached bodice. It consists of a top piece that covers the torso and hangs down over the legs, a dress can be any one-piece garment containing a skirt of any length. Dresses can be formal or informal, in many cultures, dresses are more often worn by women and girls. The hemlines of dresses vary depending on the whims of fashion, at that time, the most-often used English word for a womans skirted garment was gown. Only in the last few decades has gown lost its meaning of a womans garment in the United States in favor of dress. In the ancient world, for example Ancient Greece and Rome, from this developed the dress worn by women and male clothing such as cassocks and Fustanella worn by priests and soldiers respectively. An ancient Greek tunic, appearing on the Charioteer of Delphi inspired an early twentieth gown designer, dresses increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s, then fullness was draped and drawn to the back. Dresses had a day bodice with a high neckline and long sleeves, throughout this period, the length of fashionable dresses varied only slightly, between ankle-length and floor-sweeping. Beginning around 1915, hemlines for daytime dresses left the floor for good, for the next fifty years fashionable dresses became short, then long, then shorter, then long. Since the 1970s, no one type or length has dominated fashion for long, with short and ankle-length styles often appearing side-by-side in fashion magazines. In most varieties of dress codes in Western cultures, a dress of an appropriate style is mandatory for women. They are also popular for special occasions such as proms or weddings. For such occasions they, together with blouse and skirt, remain the de facto standard attire for many girls, the Theory of Fashion Design, Wiley,1965. Picken, Mary Brooks, The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls,1957, tozer, Jane, and Sarah Levitt, Fabric of Society, A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770–1870, Laura Ashley Ltd. 1983, ISBN 0-9508913-0-4 ApparelSeach glossary of textile and apparel terms
31.
Hat
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In the past, hats were an indicator of social status. In the military, hats may denote nationality, branch of service, rank, Police typically wear distinctive hats such as peaked caps or brimmed hats, such as those worn by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Some hats have a protective function, some hats are worn for ceremonial purposes, such as the mortarboard, which is worn during university graduation ceremonies. Some hats are worn by members of a profession, such as the Toque worn by chefs. Some hats have religious functions, such as the mitres worn by Bishops, while there are not many official records of hats before 3,000 BC, they probably were commonplace before that. Archaeologists think that the Venus of Brassempouy from 26,000 years ago may depict a hat. One of the earliest known confirmed hats was worn by a bronze age man whose body was frozen in a mountain between Austria and Italy, where hed been since around 3,300 BC. He was found wearing bearskin cap with a strap, made of several hides stitched together. One of the first pictorial depictions of a hat appears in a painting from Thebes, Egypt. Hats were commonly worn in ancient Egypt, many upper-class Egyptians shaved their head, then covered it in a headdress intended to help them keep cool. Ancient Mesopotamians often wore conical hats or ones shaped somewhat like an inverted vase. Other early hats include the Pileus, a skull like cap, the Phrygian cap, worn by freed slaves in Greece and Rome, and the Greek petasos. Women wore veils, kerchiefs, hoods, caps and wimples, like Otzi, Tollund Man was preserved to the present day with a hat on, probably having died around 400 BC in a Danish bog, which mummified him. He wore a cap made of sheepskin and wool, fastened under the chin by a hide thong. St. Clement, the saint of felt hatmakers, is said to have discovered wool felt when he filled his sandals with flax fibers to protect his feet. In the Middle Ages, hats were a marker of social status, the 1215 Fourth Council of the Lateran required that all Jews identify themselves by wearing the Judenhat, marking them as targets for anti-Semitism. The hats were usually yellow and were pointed or square. In the Middle Ages, hats for women ranged from simple scarves to elaborate hennin, structured hats for women similar to those of male courtiers began to be worn in the late 16th century
32.
Jacket
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A jacket is a mid-stomach–length garment for the upper body. A jacket typically has sleeves, and fastens in the front or slightly on the side, a jacket is generally lighter, tighter-fitting, and less insulating than a coat, which is outerwear. Some jackets are fashionable, while others serve as protective clothing, the word jacket comes from the French word jaquette. The term comes from the Middle French noun jaquet, which refers to a small or lightweight tunic, in Modern French, jaquette is synonymous with jacket. Speakers of American English sometimes informally use the words jacket and coat interchangeably, blouson, a military-style waist length jacket. Bolero, a short jacket for women, originally worn by matadors Bomber jacket. Brunswick, a womans gown of the mid-eighteenth century. Caraco, a jacket of the 18th century. Chefs jacket Dinner jacket, part of the dress code of evening formal wear. Also known as a Dinner suit and a Tuxedo, the field jacket came about during World War II with the US Army introducing the M-1941 and the M-1943 field jacket and issued the jacket to their troops. The most well-known and the most popular type of military field jacket that is on the market today is the M-1965 or M-65 field jacket which came into US military service in 1965. Flak jacket Fleece jacket, a jacket made of synthetic wool such as Polar Fleece Flight jacket, also known as a bomber jacket Gilet
33.
Jeggings
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Jeggings™ /ˈdʒɛɡɪŋz/ are leggings that are made to look like skin-tight denim jeans. Jeggings™ is a brand name owned by Turkish textile company ISKO, a division of Sanko Holding. Jeggings were brought on by the resurgence in style of jeans in the mid- to late-2000s. Since jeggings are typically made of a blend, they are often worn on their own as opposed to under a skirt or dress. Some jeggings have front fastening facilities while others just have an elastic waistband, denim jeggings are essentially a denim fabric with the elasticity of a legging, due to a higher proportion of Spandex in the fiber content. The latter are more similar to skinny jeans than the former, some designers call denim jeggings pull-on jeans rather than jeggings. Jeggings entered the world in early 2009, and were among the most popular clothing items of 2010. Many opt to wear jeggings in order to give the feel as well as the jean appearance. In 2011 Jeggings was entered into the twelfth edition of Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Conan OBrien wore a pair during the taping of Conan on 2 December 2010, the night after admitting his love for jeggings to Project Runways Tim Gunn
34.
Overall
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An overall, over all, overalls, bib-and-brace overalls, dungarees or party bibs are a type of garment which is usually used as protective clothing when working. Some people call an overall a pair of overalls by analogy with pair of trousers, overalls are usually made of denim and often have riveted pockets, similar to those on jeans. Bib overalls have long associated with rural men and boys in the Southern United States. They are often worn with no shirt at all by children, teen boys, the bib overalls fashion trend among American youth culture peaked in the latter half of the 1970s, and again for females in the late 1990s. In the 20th century, overalls were also worn as casual clothes, due to their comfort, handiness. Overalls are also made in corduroy in addition to denim, in British English such bib type overalls are usually called pairs of dungarees. Shortalls are a type of overalls in which the legs of the garment resemble those of shorts, the word is a contraction of these two words. They are often worn during the summer, also seen now are skirtalls which are like shortalls except that the bottom of the garment resembles a skirt. Sometimes it could be capri overalls which are a type of overalls whose legs are like the legs of capri pants, shortalls designed for toddlers often have crotch and leg snaps to facilitate diaper changes. Salopettes is the French word for bib-and-brace overalls
35.
Shorts
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They are called shorts because they are a shortened version of trousers, which cover the entire leg. Shorts are typically worn in warm weather or in an environment where comfort, there are a variety of shorts, ranging from knee-length short trousers that can in some situations be worn as formal clothes to beachwear and athletic shorts. Some types of shorts are worn by women, such as culottes. The American term short pants is probably the nearest equivalent in the US, there they might now be called dress shorts, a somewhat similar garment worn by men in Australia is called stubbies. Shorts is used unqualified in British English to refer to sports shorts, athletic shorts, or casual shorts, the term boxer shorts was an American coinage for a particular kind of mens underwear, and is now common in Britain. However, boxer shorts are often referred to as boxers in the USA, the word pants refers to outerwear in American usage but when used unqualified in British English generally means underwear. In much of Europe and the Americas during the 19th and early 20th centuries shorts were worn as outerwear only by boys until they reached a certain height or maturity. When boys got older, typically around puberty, they would receive their first pair of long trousers and this produced the perception that shorts were only for young boys. Because of this, men would not wear shorts to avoid looking immature, women tended not to wear shorts in most cultures, due to social mores, they were expected to wear dresses, or skirts and blouses. In the 1890s, knee pants became the standard wear for American boys, many urban school portraits from the 1890s show all but the oldest boys wearing knee pants. North American boys normally wore knee pants with short stockings and this began to change after the 1900s when North American boys began wearing knickerbockers, while short pants became more popular in Europe. In the 1930s, shorts started to be worn for comfort by both men and women. However, it was taboo to wear shorts outside certain activities. By the late 20th century however it became common for men to wear shorts as casual wear in summer, however, in many countries there are few formal settings where wearing shorts would be acceptable, as they are considered casual wear. Notable exceptions where men may wear short trousers to the office or at a formal gathering are South Africa, Bermuda, Australia and New Zealand. Since the 1990s, casual office dress has grown to include formal shorts in some UK and U. S. businesses, in some countries adult women can be seen wearing loose-fitting shorts that end at or just below the knee, as these are seen as sufficiently modest. Capris Three quarter pants Media related to Shorts at Wikimedia Commons
36.
Daisy Duke
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Daisy Duke is a fictional character, played by Catherine Bach, from the American television series The Dukes of Hazzard. She is the cousin of Bo and Luke, the protagonists of the show. Although never mentioned in the series itself, some material for the show suggests that Daisys parents, along with Bo. However, in the 1997 reunion movie, Daisy says her mother died when she was a baby, Daisy frequently becomes involved in the Dukes car chases, originally in her Plymouth Road Runner or, from the mid-second season onwards and more famously, in her Jeep. Daisy also works as a waitress at the Boars Nest, the tavern owned by Boss Hogg that was the main meeting place in Hazzard. She also aspires to be both a singer-songwriter and a journalist and she drives like Richard Petty, shoots like Annie Oakley, and knows the words to all of Dolly Partons songs. Daisy Duke is a well-meaning though sometimes naive, often scantily dressed rogue Southern belle, as with her cousins Bo and Luke Duke, Daisy has a habit of landing herself/her family in trouble, though always believes in doing the right thing, especially when helping others in need. In addition to fending off intoxicated would-be suitors at The Boars Nest, Boss does in fact fire her on a few occasions, but by various story twists, always ends up re-hiring her by the end of the episode. As with her cousins, Daisy never finds a long-lasting beau of her own over the course of the series and this crush is unrequited, although Daisy is aware of it and often displays care and concern for Enos. In the 1997 reunion movie, she is said to have left Hazzard to get married at some point after the original series, Daisys first car in the series is a yellow 1974 Plymouth Road Runner with a black stripe along the sides and over the roof. The car meets its demise when the accelerator sticks while Bo and Luke are driving it during a chase in the second-season episode The Runaway, sending it over a cliff. Because the episodes were broadcast in a different order to that in which they were filmed, after losing that car, at the end of The Runaway she receives her trademark white 1980 Jeep CJ-7 Golden Eagle, named Dixie. However, as other vehicles in the show, there are different versions of the Jeep used for filming of various episodes. Sometimes the Jeep has a different paint scheme, and alternates between automatic and manual transmissions. The design of the roll-bars also varies slightly across the seasons, on a number of occasions Daisy also drives Uncle Jesses pickup truck, and certain storylines occasionally call for her to drive the General Lee. Daisy Duke is both the female protagonist and the sex symbol on Dukes of Hazzard. In two episodes Daisy wears a red bikini to distract Cletus and a truck driver and she appears numerous times wearing short, tight denim shorts, which later became colloquially known as Daisy Dukes. The network censors believed that Daisys famous cut-off shorts alone would be too revealing, Bach herself had concerns about the shorts, saying she could not wear them in a restaurant scene in the show
37.
Cut-offs
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They are called shorts because they are a shortened version of trousers, which cover the entire leg. Shorts are typically worn in warm weather or in an environment where comfort, there are a variety of shorts, ranging from knee-length short trousers that can in some situations be worn as formal clothes to beachwear and athletic shorts. Some types of shorts are worn by women, such as culottes. The American term short pants is probably the nearest equivalent in the US, there they might now be called dress shorts, a somewhat similar garment worn by men in Australia is called stubbies. Shorts is used unqualified in British English to refer to sports shorts, athletic shorts, or casual shorts, the term boxer shorts was an American coinage for a particular kind of mens underwear, and is now common in Britain. However, boxer shorts are often referred to as boxers in the USA, the word pants refers to outerwear in American usage but when used unqualified in British English generally means underwear. In much of Europe and the Americas during the 19th and early 20th centuries shorts were worn as outerwear only by boys until they reached a certain height or maturity. When boys got older, typically around puberty, they would receive their first pair of long trousers and this produced the perception that shorts were only for young boys. Because of this, men would not wear shorts to avoid looking immature, women tended not to wear shorts in most cultures, due to social mores, they were expected to wear dresses, or skirts and blouses. In the 1890s, knee pants became the standard wear for American boys, many urban school portraits from the 1890s show all but the oldest boys wearing knee pants. North American boys normally wore knee pants with short stockings and this began to change after the 1900s when North American boys began wearing knickerbockers, while short pants became more popular in Europe. In the 1930s, shorts started to be worn for comfort by both men and women. However, it was taboo to wear shorts outside certain activities. By the late 20th century however it became common for men to wear shorts as casual wear in summer, however, in many countries there are few formal settings where wearing shorts would be acceptable, as they are considered casual wear. Notable exceptions where men may wear short trousers to the office or at a formal gathering are South Africa, Bermuda, Australia and New Zealand. Since the 1990s, casual office dress has grown to include formal shorts in some UK and U. S. businesses, in some countries adult women can be seen wearing loose-fitting shorts that end at or just below the knee, as these are seen as sufficiently modest. Capris Three quarter pants Media related to Shorts at Wikimedia Commons
38.
Denim skirt
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A denim skirt, sometimes referred to as a jean skirt or jeans skirt, is a skirt made of denim, the same material as blue jeans. Denim skirts come in a variety of styles and lengths to suit different populations and occasions, shorter skirts made of denim are commonly worn by teenagers and young adults. Some are modeled after a style of jeans, with a front fly, belt loops. Others are constructed more like other types of skirts, with a column of front button, closures on the side or back, like jeans, denim skirts vary in shades of blue, ranging from very pale to very dark, or occasionally in other colors. Denim skirts were first introduced in mainstream fashion lines in the 1970s, circa-1983, denim miniskirts—with a pencil skirt silhouette—became a popular teenage fashion. They were initially in darker blues, but eventually pinstripes and acid wash, the trend lasted through the mid-1980s, until the late 1980s when knit miniskirts became dominant. The popularity of denim skirts waned in the end of the 1980s until re-emerging in the latter portion of the 1990s. Marnie Bjornson, a figure in the Reykjavik style scene, is credited with reinvigorating the denim skirt in 1996. The denim miniskirt of the early 21st century was shorter than its 1980s counterpart, the classic style of a denim skirt resembles a common pair of jeans, with a front fly, a fitted waist, belt loops, and pockets. There have been a number of other styles constructed over time to resemble other types of skirts. Several types of skirts are common in denim than in other fabrics—they typically include skirts with a variety of panels. These include chevron, diagonal, diamond, horizontal, multiple vertical panels, denim skirts not made from pants are often designed as though they were made from pants, i. e. with front and back triangular denim panels. Also, to make the look more feminine, denim skirts are, trimmed with fringes, lace, leather fringes, or decorated with embroidery, patchwork, rhinestones, writing. Prints are quite rare on denim skirts, deviating from the front fly and button closure is common though, with back or side zippers or a column of front buttons being common. One style denim skirts share with jeans is the ripped or destroyed look, another style shared with jeans and jeans cutoffs, but maybe even more popular in denim skirts, is the rough hem. This is achieved by not hemming the skirt and washing the skirt by machine several times, the resulting edge of the skirt will have a frayed or unraveling look, popular with teenagers and young women. The longer unraveled threads are cut off for an even fuzzy look
39.
Keds (shoes)
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Keds is an American brand of canvas shoes with rubber soles. Founded in 1916, the company is owned by Wolverine World Wide, the original shoe design, the Champion, was the first mass-marketed canvas-top sneaker. In 1916, U. S. Rubber, one of the original 12 stocks in the Dow Jones Industrial Average in 1896, initially, the brand name Peds was chosen for the company from the Latin word for feet, but the name was already trademarked. Keds was founded in 1916 and was acquired by Stride Rite Corporation. Because the shoes had a rubber sole, they became known as sneakers as the rubber soles allowed sneaking around silently. By the early 1920s, the shoes were worn by Olympic soccer players, national and international tennis champions, in 1926, the Keds Triumph shoe was introduced. Keds released Kedettes, a line of washable high-heeled shoes for women, in 1949, Pro-Keds were introduced as a line of sneakers designed for athletic performance. Designed specifically for players, the original style, the Royal Tread, was endorsed by George Mikan. In 1953, the Minneapolis Lakers were outfitted with Pro-Keds, Pro-Keds were intended to compete with the industry standard, Converse. The shoe earned cult status in the community by the late 1970s. Stride Rite Corporation purchased Keds and Sperry Top-Sider from Uniroyal in 1979 for $18 million, from the mid-1980s through the mid-1990s, Keds were very popular with girls from elementary school age through tween and teens and college age and beyond. They were often worn with slouch socks worn over leggings with an oversized sweater, moms also wore this same trend as their daughters. Many cheerleaders also wore Keds as part of their uniform from the mid 80s to the mid 90s, in the 1990s, Demi Moore voiced a television campaign for Keds. Mischa Barton, who starred in The O. C. became the face of Keds in an ad campaign in the late 2000s, in January 2012, Rick Blackshaw was appointed brand president of Keds. Collective Brands Inc. the parent company of Stride Rite Corporation, in 2012, Keds announced a partnership with singer Taylor Swift, including product collaborations. Keds sponsored Swifts The Red Tour in 2013, and the 1989 World Tour in 2015, from June 2013 to July 2014 the one season 36 episode show Sam and Cat featured Cat played by Ariana Grande. Ariana Grande wore Keds in every episode of the show, footwear Plus recognized Keds as the Best Collab in 2014 for its Keds x Taylor Swift collection. In September 2014, Wolverine World Wide announced that Rick Blackshaw would be the president of Sperry Top-Sider
40.
Converse (shoe company)
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Converse /ˈkɒnvərs/ is an American shoe company with a production output that primarily consists of apparel, skating shoes and lifestyle brand footwear. Converse is known as one of Americas most iconic footwear companies, the company was founded in 1908. Converse has been a subsidiary of Nike, Inc. since 2003, the company lost a huge monopoly after other companies presented their own styles, but Converse rebounded and changed the targeted audience. During World War II, the company shifted its manufacturing from the public and it was one of the few producers of athletic shoes and for over a half century the company dominated the American court shoe market. Converse manufactures its products under the Cons, Chuck Taylor All-Star, John Varvatos, at age 47, Marquis Mills Converse, who was previously a respected manager at a footwear manufacturing firm, opened the Converse Rubber Shoe Company in February 1908 in Malden, Massachusetts. The company was a shoe manufacturer, providing winterized rubber soled footwear for men, women. Then in 1921, a player named Charles H. Chuck Taylor walked into Converse complaining of sore feet and he continued this work until shortly before his death in 1969. Converse also customized shoes for the New York Renaissance, the first all-African American professional basketball team, when the U. S. entered World War II in 1941, Converse shifted production to manufacturing rubberized footwear, outerwear, and protective suits for the military. Widely popular during the 1950s and 1960s, Converse promoted a distinctly American image with its Converse Yearbook, artist Charles Kerins created cover art that celebrated Converses role in the lives of high school and college athletes. Through its shoes, Converse developed into a brand. In the 1970s, Converse purchased the rights to Jack Purcell sneakers from B. F. Goodrich. Converse found themselves no longer the official shoe of the National Basketball Association, the chevron and star insignia—a logo that remains on a large portion of Converse footwear other than the All Star—was created by Jim Labadini, an employee. By the second half of the 1990s, Converse was slipping repeatedly into receivership as debt piled up yearly, the loss of market share, combined with poor business decisions, forced Converse to file for bankruptcy on January 22,2001. In July 2003, Nike paid $309 million to acquire Converse, Nike approached the 1980s revival around 2005 to relaunch the footwear of choice of that decade, and the Chucks quickly became a cultural phenomenon once again. As a result, Nike expanded the Converse brand to other businesses apart from shoes, much akin to its other brands. By November 2012, Converse had disappeared completely from the NBA, as the last dozen players wearing the brand left the NBA or switched shoes over a period of a year. Carlos Arroyo went overseas in late 2011, and Maurice Evans last played for the Washington Wizards in April 2012, udonis Haslem, the last NBA player wearing Converse on the court, followed Miami Heat teammate Dwyane Wade to switch to Li-Ning in late November 2012
41.
Chuck Taylor All-Stars
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Chuck Taylor All-Stars or Converse All Stars is the brand name for a pair of casual shoes developed and produced by Converse, which has been a subsidiary of Nike, Inc. since 2003. The design of the Chuck Taylor All-Star has remained unchanged since its introduction. The shoes consist of an upper portion, a toe cap usually made of white rubber. Although Chuck Taylors are made of materials such as leather. The innovative detail of the shoe was the loose lining of soft canvas. This was intended to move along with sweaty gym socks and prevent blisters, an improved model, the Chuck Taylor II, was announced by company management in July 2015. Incorporating Nike technology, it retains the appearance of the original while employing a modern lightweight material for the insole. Converse Rubber Shoe Company was created by Marquis Mills Converse in 1908 in Malden, in 1917, the company designed the forerunner of the modern All Star, marketed under the name Non-Skids. The shoe was composed of a sole and canvas upper and was designed to be a high performance athletic shoe for basketball players. In 1921, American basketball player Charles Chuck Taylor joined a team sponsored by the Converse Company called The Converse All Stars. Taylor held basketball clinics in high schools all over the country and while teaching the fundamentals of the game, as a salesman and athlete for the company, Taylor also made improvements to the shoe he loved. His ideas for the shoe were designed to provide enhanced flexibility and support, a variety of professional basketball players soon wore All Stars and they became the envy of all aspiring basketball players. Soon after, All Stars were being worn by athletes in the Olympics, as the years went on, the shoe gained more popularity and became a favorite for numerous groups and subcultures. Throughout the years, Converse Chuck Taylor All Stars made a shift from athletic sportswear to casual footwear, originally an elite basketball shoe, the Chuck Taylor All Star evolved into the shoe of choice for many subcultures, particularly artists and musicians. In recent years, it has become a mainstream trend seemingly endorsed by everyone except podiatrists. Instead these had star chevrons glued to the sides of the similar to the Converse All Star II that had been sold earlier. Micheal Ray Richardson actually wore Leather Converse All Stars briefly with the New Jersey Nets after 1982, in 2003, Nike bought Converse brand name for around $305 million. While Converse dominated the U. S. sneaker market from the 1920s until the 1970s, it began to due to competition
42.
Suit (clothing)
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In clothing, a suit is a set of garments made from the same cloth, usually consisting of at least a jacket and trousers. Lounge suits, which originated in Britain as country wear, are the most common style of Western suit and this article discusses the lounge suit, elements of informal dress code. The variations in design, cut, and cloth, such as two- and three- piece, or single- and double- breasted, determine the social, often, suits are worn, as is traditional, with a collared shirt and necktie. Until around the 1960s, as with all mens clothes, a hat would have also worn when the wearer was outdoors. Suits also come with different numbers of pieces, a suit has a jacket and the trousers. Originally, as with most clothes, a tailor made the suit from his clients selected cloth, the suit was custom made to the measurements, taste, and style of the man. Since the Industrial Revolution, most suits are mass-produced, and and it was in the search for more comfort that the loosening of rules gave rise in the late 19th century to the modern lounge suit. As a suit covers all or most of the wearers body, brooks Brothers is generally credited with first offering the ready-to-wear suit, a suit which was sold already manufactured and sized, ready to be tailored. It was Haggar Clothing that first introduced the concept of suit separates in the US, the concept of separately sold jackets and trousers, there are many possible variations in the choice of the style, the garments and the details of a suit. The silhouette of a suit is its outline, tailored balance created from a canvas fitting allows a balanced silhouette so a jacket need not be buttoned and a garment is not too tight or too loose. A proper garment is shaped from the neck to the chest, shape is the essential part of tailoring that often takes hand work from the start. Good tailoring anywhere in the world is characterised by strongly tapered sides and minimal shoulder, more casual suits are characterised by less construction and tailoring, much like the sack suit is a loose American style. The acid test of authentic tailoring standards is the wrinkle that comes from poor tailoring, for interim fittings, Rock Of Eye, drawing and cutting inaccuracies are overcome by the fitting. Suits are made in a variety of fabrics, but most commonly from wool, the two main yarns produce worsteds and woollens. These can be woven in a number of ways producing flannel, tweed, gabardine, other materials are used sometimes, either alone or blended with wool, such as cashmere. Silk alone or blended with wool is sometimes used, synthetic materials, while cheaper, e. g. polyester, are very rarely recommended by experts. For hot weather, linen is also used, and in North America cotton seersucker is worn, the main four colours for suits worn in business are black, light grey, dark grey, and navy, either with or without patterns. In particular, grey flannel suiting has been very widely since the 1930s
43.
Belt (clothing)
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A belt is a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather or heavy cloth, and worn around the waist. A belt supports trousers or other articles of clothing and it is an item of accessory. Belts have been documented as male clothing since the Bronze Age, both genders have used them off and on, depending on the current fashion. In the western world, belts have been common for men, with the exception of the early Middle Ages, late 17th century Mantua. Art Nouveau belt buckles are now collectors items, in the latter half of the 19th century and until the First World War, the belt was a decorative as well as utilitarian part of military uniform, particularly among officers. These tightly cinched belts served to draw in the waist and give the wearer a trim physique, emphasizing wide shoulders, in modern times, men started wearing belts in the 1920s, as trouser waists fell to a lower line. Before the 1920s, belts served mostly a decorative purpose, and were associated with the military, moreover, prior to that trousers did not even have belt loops. As sportswear, trousers with belt loops were already present in the 19th century, today it is common for men to wear a belt with their trousers. In some countries, especially the United States, a belt can be associated with corporal punishment. Moreover, belts are convenient disciplinary tools, as they are immediately available for use. The belt can symbolize fatherly authority and paternal responsibility for childrens behavior. Since the mid-1990s, the practice of sagging has been practised at times among young men and this practice is sometimes incorrectly believed to have originated with prison gangs and the prohibition of belts in prison. One specialized type of belt is the utility belt or Police duty belt, Police officers, soldiers, and repair personnel are typical roles which use this kind of belt. Duty belts are generally wider than dress belts, and are stiffer to provide for the carry of heavy items such as pistols. It is common practice for such a belt to be a symbol of authority or to indicate that the wearer is on duty. Such belts are worn even if no equipment is carried on them, a notable fictional example is Batmans utility belt. The obi is traditionally part of a Japanese kimono, a common sight in fantasy and role playing characters is the excessive use of belts in all different sizes on the characters person. Usually they are used for securing clothing or armor, but others just have several belts around the arms, legs, neck, waist, hips, sometimes they are used in place of eye patches or to decorate weapons
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Handbag
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A handbag, also purse or pouch in North American English, is a handled medium-to-large bag that is often fashionably designed, often used by women, to hold personal items. The term purse originally referred to a bag for holding coins. In British English, it is used to refer to a small coin bag. A handbag is an accessory that holds objects beyond currency. American English typically uses the terms purse and handbag interchangeably, the term handbag began appearing in the early 1900s. Initially, it was most often used to refer to mens hand-luggage, womens bags grew larger and more complex during this period, and the term was attached to the accessory. Handbags are valued for their stylishness as visual accessories as well as for their function, the verb to handbag derives from UK prime minister Margaret Thatchers habit of pulling scraps of paper out of her handbag in meetings and reading aloud the comments she had written on them. The verbs more general meaning of treating ruthlessly came to symbolise Thatchers whole style of government, julian Critchley, one of her biggest Tory backbench critics, once said, Margaret Thatcher and her handbag is the same as Winston Churchill and his cigar. Early modern Europeans wore purses for one purpose, to carry coins. Purses were made of fabric or leather and were worn by men as often as ladies. In the 17th century, young girls were taught embroidery as a skill for marriage. By the late 18th century, fashions in Europe were moving towards a slender shape for these accessories, inspired by the silhouettes of Ancient Greece, women wanted purses that would not be bulky or untidy in appearance, so reticules were designed. Reticules were made of fine fabrics like silk and velvet, carried with wrist straps, first becoming popular in France, they crossed over into Britain, where they became known as indispensables. Men, however, did not adopt the trend and they used purses and pockets, which became popular in mens trousers. The modern purse, clutch, pouch or handbag came about in England during the Industrial Revolution, H. J. Cave obliged and produced the first modern set of luxury handbags, as we would recognize them today, including a clutch and a tote. These are now on display in the Museum of Bags and Purses in Amsterdam. H. J. Cave did continue to sell and advertise the handbags, but many critics said that women did not need them, H. J. However, H. J. Cave resumed handbag production in 2010. During the 1940s, the rationing of textiles for World War II led to the manufacturing of handbags made in materials like raffia or crocheted from yarn, some women crocheted their own small handbags from commercial patterns during this period
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Tote bag
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A tote bag is a large and often unfastened bag with parallel handles that emerge from the sides of its pouch. The archetypal tote is made of cloth, perhaps with thick leather at its handles or bottom. Common fabrics include heavy canvas, possibly dyed, or treated to resist moisture, jute is another traditional material, though less popular. In recent decades, heavy nylon and other easy-care synthetics have become common, many of todays inexpensive or free totes are often made from recycled matter, from minimally-processed natural fibers, or from byproducts of processes that refine organic materials. The term tote or tate, meaning to carry, can be traced back to the 17th century but was not used to describe bags until 1900. However, the tote bag craze in the United States began in the 1940s with the release of L. L. Beans Boat Bag in 1944, because they were easier than carrying luggage, most people opted for using tote bags. During the 1950s, tote bags began to enter into the main culture, women primarily utilized them as practical handheld bags because they didnt require much care. It wasnt until the 1960s when the tote bag embraced personal style, bonnie Cashin released her own line of tote bags called Cashin Carry Tote Bags which combined style and functionality. In the 1990s, Kate Spade ultimately transformed how American culture embraced tote bags when she began carrying them as fashion bags, today, fashion lovers and consumers can find tote bags in a variety of decorations and themes. Recently, tote bags have been sold as a more eco-friendly replacement for disposable plastic bags given how they can be reused multiples times over. However, a study by the UK Environment Agency found that cotton canvas bags have to be reused at least 327 times before they can match the carbon expenditure of a disposable plastic bag. Meanwhile, tote bags made from recycled polypropylene plastic require 26 reuses to match, but as these tote bags have grown in stature and ubiquity, their abundance has encouraged consumers to see them as a disposable item that they dont need to reuse, defeating their very purpose. This can be seen by a 2014 study which found that owners of reusable bags forget them on approximately 40% of their grocery trips, moreover, about half of respondents typically chose to use plastic bags over reusable ones, despite owning reusable bags and recognizing their benefits. Are Tote Bags Really Good for the Environment
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Bean bag
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A bean bag is a sealed bag containing dried beans, PVC pellets, expanded polystyrene, or expanded polypropylene. The bags are used for throwing games, but have various other applications. Designed by Piero Gatti, Cesare Paolini and Franco Teodoro and produced by the Italian company Zanotta in 1969 and it is said that they noticed the staff would sit on bags filled with styrofoam during their coffee and cigarette breaks. The original beanbag chair was called Sacco, which was a leather bag filled with styrofoam beans and is still in production today. Bean bags can be made from materials including leather, suede, corduroy, polyester bean bags are waterproof and can be used outdoors. Giant bean bags can also be used as an alternative to buying a sofa or couch. Quite a variety of bags are sold, including baby bean bags that are known for helping babies that suffer from colic. They are also known for helping with plagiocephaly or more commonly referred to as flat head syndrome in babies. In August 2014, Ace Bayou Corp recalled 2.2 million bean bag chairs in the United States due to a fault which allowed the chairs to be unzipped by children. Two children died from suffocation after climbing inside the chairs and inhaling the foam beads, Bean bag toss is a game similar to horseshoes and quoits, played with bean bags and two goals. Footbag is a type of ball-shaped bean bag that is used to various games. Bean bags are commonly used for juggling. The game is popular in American elementary schools as a safer alternative to dodgeball. Bean bags are used as bean bag round ammunition for non lethal impact weapons, clutching technology for robots makes use of bean bags. Smaller bean bags can be used to stabilize a photograph or video camera when a tripod is not available, media related to Beanbags at Wikimedia Commons wikiHow To Make a Bean Bag
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Lampshade
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A lampshade is a fixture that covers the lightbulb on a lamp to diffuse the light it emits. Conical, cylindrical and other forms on floor-, desk- or table top-mounted as well as suspended lamp models are the most common and are made in a range of materials. The term can apply to the glass hung under many designs of ceiling lamp. Beyond its practical purpose, significant emphasis is usually given to decorative. In the late 17th-century in Paris the first public lanterns made their appearance in the centre of the streets and they lit the road during the night. In 1763, the made their appearance. These were oil lamps with reflectors which were hung above the center of streets, the first public oil lamps in Milan, financed by revenues from a lottery, date from 1785. These were lanterns containing an oil lamp with a number of wicks, a semi-spherical reflector above the flame projected the light downwards, while another reflector, slightly concave and near the flame, served to direct the light latterly. Friedrich Albert Winsor first had the idea of industrializing lighting by producing gas in a factory, in the first decades of the 19th century, competing gas companies laid the first gas mains in major cities. But there were fears of explosion and toxicity, the flame fed by the gas coming out of the nozzle was intense, uniform and adjustable, white and brilliant instead of the reddish or orange of oil lamps or candles. Theatre audiences regularly suffered from headaches and the sulphur and ammonia formed during combustion of the gas ruined furniture, gas light had to be filtered by opal glass or light fabric shades. Lampshades were no longer used to direct the light but to attenuate it, to disguise the intense electric light, lampshades were used. Some were made by Tiffany in colored glass, the great advantage of the electric light bulb was the absence of flame and traces of combustion, thus avoiding all risks of intoxication, explosion or fire. Modern lampshades can be classified by Shape, by Material, by Fitter, or by Function Lampshades are classified in 4 basic shapes, drum, empire, beyond the basics, lampshade shapes also include square, cut-corner, hexagon, gallery, oval, or scalloped shapes. Lampshades are made of fabric, parchment, glass, Tiffany glass, common fabric materials include silk, linen, cotton, or even paper. Fabric shades are reinforced by metal frames to give the lampshades their shape, for this reason, paper shades can be more fragile than fabric shades. Darker shades sometimes add a reflective liner such as gold or silver in order to light output. A fitter describes how the lampshade connects to the lamp base, the most common lampshade fitter is a Spider fitter
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Upholstery
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Upholstery is the work of providing furniture, especially seats, with padding, springs, webbing, and fabric or leather covers. The word upholstery comes from the Middle English word upholder, which referred to a tradesman who held up his goods, a person who works with upholstery is called an upholsterer, an apprentice upholsterer is sometimes called an outsider or trimmer. Traditional upholstery uses materials like coil springs, animal hair, coir, straw and hay, hessians, linen scrims, wadding, etc. and is done by hand, in contrast, modern upholsterers employ synthetic materials like dacron and vinyl, serpentine springs, and so on. Upholder is a term used for upholsterer, but it appears to have a connotation of repairing furniture rather than creating new upholstered pieces from scratch. In 18th-century London, upholders frequently served as interior decorators responsible for all aspects of a rooms decor and these individuals were members of the Worshipful Company of Upholders, whose traditional role, prior to the 18th century, was to provide upholstery and textiles and the fittings for funerals. In the great London furniture-making partnerships of the 18th century, a cabinet-maker usually paired with an upholder, Vile and Cobb, Ince and Mayhew, Chippendale and Rannie or Haig. In the USA, Grand Rapids, Michigan and Hickory, North Carolina are centers for furniture manufacture along with Long Eaton, Nottinghamshire and these craftsmen continue to create or recreate many antique and modern pieces of furniture. Furniture reupholstery continues to thrive in the UK with several businesses small, traditional upholstery is a craft which evolved over centuries for padding and covering chairs, seats and sofas, before the development of sewing machines synthetic fabrics and plastic foam. In the Middle Ages, domestic interiors were becoming more comfortable, by the beginning of the 17th century chair seats were being padded, but this form of upholstery was still fairly basic. The stuffing was heaped on a platform and held in place with a decorative top fabric. This produced a dome shape sloping towards the seat. Only towards the end of the 17th century did upholsterers start to develop the techniques that would distribute, curled horsehair was being used more consistently for stuffing that was easier to hold in place with stitches in twine that were developed from saddlery techniques. Thus layers of stuffing could be distributed evenly and secured to stay in place, on a basic level, squab cushions were made more stable by using tufting ties. Stuffed edge rolls appeared on seat fronts providing support for cushions to be retained, what we now think of as classic upholstery shapes and techniques flourished in the 18th century. Frames of elegant line and proportion were sympathetically matched by expertly executed upholstery, by now, the upholsterers technical knowledge meant that stuffings could be controlled along upright and sloping lines, giving new levels of comfort and a simply stated elegance. Later in the century, the border was replaced by a piece of linen or scrim taken over the stuffed seat. At the same time the blind stitch and top-stitching combination had evolved. In the Victorian era, fashions of opulence and comfort gave rise to excesses of stuffing and padding, mass production techniques made upholstered furniture available in large quantity to all sections of society
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