1.
Homebuilt aircraft
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Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft may be constructed from scratch, from plans, or from assembly kits, in the United States, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, homebuilt aircraft may be licensed Experimental under FAA or similar local regulations. With some limitations, the builder of the aircraft must have done it for their own education and recreation rather than for profit, in the US, the primary builder can also apply for a repairmans certificate for that airframe. The repairmans certificate allows the holder to perform and sign off on most of the maintenance, repairs, alberto Santos-Dumont was the first to offer for free construction plans, publishing drawings of its Demoiselle in the June 1910 edition of Popular Mechanics. The first aircraft to be offered for sale as plans, rather than a completed airframe, was the Baby Ace in the late 1920s, homebuilt aircraft gained in popularity in the US in 1924 with the start of the National Air Races, held in Dayton, Ohio. These races required aircraft with useful loads of 150 lb and engines of 80 cubic inches or less, the years after Charles Lindberghs transatlantic flight brought a peak of interest between 1929 and 1933. During this period many aircraft designers, builders and pilots were self-taught, in 1946 Goodyear restarted the National Air Races, including a class for aircraft powered by 200 cubic inch and smaller engines. The midget racer class spread nationally in the US and this led to calls for acceptable standards to allow use of amateur-built aircraft. By the mid-1950s both the US and Canada once again allowed amateur-built aircraft to specified standards and limitations, homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four-seat sportsplanes which employ simple methods of construction. Engines are most often the same as, or similar to, the use of automotive engines helps to reduce costs, but many builders prefer dedicated aircraft engines, which are perceived to have better performance and reliability. Other engines that have used include chainsaw and motorcycle engines. In 2003, the number of homebuilts produced in the USA exceeded the number produced by any single certified manufacturer, the history of amateur-built aircraft can be traced to the beginning of aviation. Even if the Wright brothers, Clément Ader, and their successors had commercial objectives in mind, Aviation took a leap forward with the industrialization that accompanied World War I. In the post-war period, manufacturers needed to find new markets, however, these machines were affordable only by the very rich. Many of these were prototypes, but designs such as Bernard Pietenpols first 1923 design were some of the first homebuilt aircraft, in 1928, Henri Mignet published plans for his HM-8 Pou-du-Ciel, as did Pietenpol for his Air Camper. Pietenpol later constructed a factory, and in 1933 began creating and selling partially constructed aircraft kits, in 1936, an association of amateur aviation enthusiasts was created in France. Many types of aircraft began to make an appearance. The articles gained worldwide acclaim and the concept of aircraft homebuilding took off, until the late 1950s, builders had mainly kept to wood-and-cloth and steel tube-and-cloth design
2.
Dan Denney
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Dan Denney, of Idaho is the original designer of the Kitfox airplanes and founder of Denney Aerocraft. He was the 1991 recipient of the EAA August Raspet Memorial Award for his contribution to the advancement of light aircraft design. Denney designed and built the Thunder Mustang, a 3/4 scale carbon fiber P-51 replica, the venture was unsuccessful financially, but in 1999 it was the fastest homebuilt kit in production. He built and owned 92XL, the fastest normally aspirated Glasair III ever constructed, after leaving the aviation business, Denney began manufacturing a high end ATV-Sandrail dubbed the Ridge Runner. The product was manufactured in Nampa, Idaho by Denneys new company Ridge Runner of Idaho, Ridge Runner ceased manufacturing operations sometime during 2007 or 2008
3.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
4.
Light-sport aircraft
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In the United States, several distinct groups of aircraft may be flown as light-sport. The accepted consensus standard is defined by ASTM Technical Committee F37, a company must have produced and certified at least one S-LSA in order to be permitted to sell E-LSA kits of the same model. Gross Takeoff Weight,1,320 lbs or 1,430 lbs for seaplanes Max, stall Speed,51 mph /45 knots CAS Max. Landing Gear, Fixed Can be manufactured and sold ready-to-fly under a new Special Light Sport Aircraft certification category, Aircraft must meet industry consensus standards. Aircraft under this certification may be used for sport and recreation, flight training, can be licensed Experimental Light Sport Aircraft if kit- or plans-built. Aircraft under this certification may be used only for sport and recreation, can be licensed Experimental Light Sport Aircraft if the aircraft has previously been operated as an ultralight but does not meet the FAR Part 103 definition of an ultralight vehicle. These aircraft must have been transitioned to E-LSA category no later than January 31,2008, will have a standard FAA registration - N-number. Category and class includes, Airplane, Gyroplane, Airship, Balloon, Weight-Shift-Control, Glider, U. S. or foreign manufacture of light sport aircraft is authorized. Aircraft with an airworthiness certificate that meet above specifications may be flown by sport pilots. However, the aircraft must remain in standard category and cannot be changed to light aircraft category. Several different kinds of aircraft may be certificated as LSA, the US definition of an LSA is similar to some other countries definition of microlight or ultralight aircraft. Except for the LSAs relatively generous MTOW of 1320 pounds, the other countries microlight definitions are less restrictive. By contrast, the US FAA has a definition of ultralight aircraft defined in Federal Aviation Regulations. Ultralight aircraft in the US do not require pilot licensing, medical certification, Aircraft certified as light-sport aircraft exceed the limitations defined for ultralight aircraft and require that the pilot possess, at a minimum, a sport pilot certificate. Several designers and manufacturers of aircraft kits have developed models that are compliant with the light-sport aircraft rules. The FAA announcement said that as a result the policy of reliance on manufacturers Statements of Compliance. AOPA points out that this is a development of a maturing standard and does not expect any significant changes in the rules. Aircraft that met light-sport requirements when the rules were announced appear in FAAs list, Light Sport Aircraft, some additional models of S-LSA, E-LSA and E-AB aircraft that meet light-sport requirements are listed here
5.
Aeropro Eurofox
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The Aeropro Eurofox is a Slovak-built two-seat light high-winged aircraft. It qualifies as an aircraft in the United States. Aeropro was formed in 1990, and established its factory at Nitra in Slovakia, deliveries of the Eurofox commenced in 1990. Since 1999, two versions have been produced, the gear and the Tricycle gear. All versions have a cabin with two-side-by-side seats and folding wings. The Eurofox is sold in Europe as both factory complete and kit form, but is available as a factory built aircraft in the U. S. From 2009, the Eurofox models were marketed in the USA and Canada by Aerotrek Aircraft of Bloomfield and this firm has named the tri-gear version as the Aerotrek A240 and the tailwheel version as the Aerotrek A220. Latest versions can be equipped with a parachute recovery system. Both versions are offered with the 80 hp Rotax 912UL and the 100 hp Rotax 912ULS engines, the Eurofox has been sold in several countries, with over 170 having been delivered by mid-2004. Production continues and over 300 aircraft were flying with private owners by April 2009, sold in North America as the Aerotrek A240. It is an accepted US light-sport aircraft, sold in North America as the Aerotrek A220 It is an accepted US LSA. Data from Aerotrek General characteristics Crew,1 Capacity,1 passenger Length,18 ft 6 in Wingspan,29 ft 11 in Height,7 ft 4 in Wing area,122. r. o, specifications and images of the Eurofox series
6.
Apollo Fox
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The Apollo Fox is a Hungarian ultralight and light-sport aircraft produced by Apollo Ultralight Aircraft, of Eger. The aircraft is supplied complete ready-to-fly, the Apollo Fox is a copy of the Denney Kitfox that was adapted to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight rules and US light-sport aircraft rules. The aircraft fuselage is made from welded steel tubing, while the wing is built with aluminum spars, the fuselage and flying surfaces are covered in doped aircraft fabric. Its 9.15 m span wing is supported by V-struts and jury struts, standard engines available are the 64 hp Rotax 582 two-stroke, the 80 hp Rotax 912UL and the 100 hp Rotax 912ULS four-stroke powerplant. The cabin width is 110 cm, the aircrafts wings fold for storage or ground transportation and can be folded by one person in ten minutes. In 2003 a 100 hp Rotax 912ULS-equipped Fox was flown by Andor Kántás and Csongor Lathky from Sármellék, Hungary to Sydney, Australia, a distance of 25,000 km. Data from Bayerl and Apollo General characteristics Crew, one Capacity, one passenger Length,5.80 m Wingspan,9.15 m Height,1.7 m Wing area,11.47 kg/m2 Official website Photo of Apollo Fox
7.
Ultralight aircraft (Canada)
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The Canadian Aviation Regulations define two types of ultralight aircraft, basic ultra-light aeroplane, and advanced ultra-light aeroplane. Regulation of ultra-light aircraft in Canada is covered by the Canadian Aviation Regulations, the basic ultralight category was established as a new category in 1982 to fill this gap. Many aircraft are available as AULAs in Canada and LSAs in the United States. For a two place aeroplane, MU =160 +0. 3P, in kg, where P is the engine power in kW, MU =350 +0. 5P, in lb. The maximum empty mass, MEmax, includes all equipment that is actually installed in the aeroplane. It includes the mass of the airframe, powerplant, required equipment, optional and specific equipment, fixed ballast, full engine coolant, hydraulic fluid, hence, the maximum empty mass = maximum take-off mass - minimum useful load. The registration marks for an advanced ultra-light aeroplane after 1997 begin with C-Ixxx, prior to that date they were C-Fxxx or C-Gxxx. Pilots holding a Recreational or higher license may carry a passenger in a two-seat advanced ultra-light aeroplane, pilots with only an ultra-light permit may not carry a passenger in an advanced ultralight unless they have received a passenger carrying endorsement. Basic ultralights cannot carry passengers unless the passenger is another pilot, student pilots undergoing training may be carried in basic ultralights. Canadian Basic and Advanced Ultralights may be flown in the USA if the pilot holds a Recreational Pilot Permit or higher designation, pilots holding an Ultralight Pilot Permit with instructor rating and who have at least 2 hours of cross country experience may also fly to the US. Any Canadian Ultralight flying to the US also requires a Special Flight Operations Certificate from the FAA and this is a form the pilot completes which is then valid for 180 days. Officially this category of aircraft are known in Canada as Ultra-light Aeroplanes although in use the American term Ultralight Airplanes is often used
8.
EAA AirVenture Oshkosh
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EAA AirVenture Oshkosh is an annual gathering of aviation enthusiasts held each summer at Wittman Regional Airport in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, United States. The airshow is sponsored by the Experimental Aircraft Association, an organization based in Oshkosh. The show lasts a week, usually beginning on the last Monday in July, during the gathering, the airports control tower is the busiest in the world. EAA was founded in Hales Corners, Wisconsin in 1953 by Paul Poberezny, although homebuilding is still a large part of the organizations activities, it has grown to include almost every aspect of recreational aviation and aeronautics. In 1959, the EAA fly-in grew too large for the Air Pageant and moved to Rockford, in 1970, when it outgrew its facilities at the Rockford airport, it moved to Oshkosh, Wisconsin. For many years the name of the event was The EAA Annual Convention. In 1998, the name was changed to AirVenture Oshkosh, for many years, access to the flight line was restricted to EAA members. In 1997, the fee structure for the show was changed allowing all visitors access to the entire grounds, EAA AirVenture holds nearly 1,000 forums and workshops. AirVenture has been the breeding ground throughout history for the debuts of numerous revolutionary designs. Richard VanGrunsven debuted his Vans RV-3 at the 1972 AirVenture Oshkosh, VanGrunsven would eventually go on to build more homebuilts than anyone else in the world, exceeding the annual production of all commercial general aviation companies combined. Other past notable designs introduced at AirVenture include Frank Christensens Christen Eagle II aerobatic kit biplane in 1978, Tom Hamiltons Glasair 1 in 1980, the EAA estimated the attendance in 2014 at over 500,000, with 2,081 visitors registered from 69 nations. There were approximately 10,000 aircraft,2,000 show planes, in the past, attendance at the event is tabulated on daily basis rather than an individual basis. For example, in 2006 the Oshkosh Northwestern reported that attendance was estimated at 625,000 by the EAA, the estimate was for total attendees each day, so one person attending 7 days would count as 7 attendees. The paper estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 individuals attended the event and it is unclear whether this practice still exists at EAA Airventure. The large number of arrivals and departures during the fly-in week makes the Wittman Field FAA Control Tower the busiest in the world for that week in number of movements. To accommodate the flow of aircraft around the airport and the nearby airspace. More than 4,000 volunteers contribute approximately 250,000 hours before, during, the EAA AirVenture fly-in has a large economic impact to the Oshkosh area as well as the state of Wisconsin. In 1982, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported that the fly-in had an economic benefit to the Fox Valley region
9.
Boise, Idaho
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Boise is the capital and most populous city of the U. S. state of Idaho, as well as the county seat of Ada County. Located on the Boise River in southwestern Idaho, the population of Boise at the 2010 Census was 205,671 and its estimated population in 2013 was 214,237. The Boise-Nampa metropolitan area, also known as the Treasure Valley, includes five counties with a population of 664,422. It contains the three largest cities, Boise, Nampa, and Meridian. Boise is the third most populous area in the United States Pacific Northwest region, behind Seattle. Accounts differ about the origin of the name, Bonneville of the U. S. Army as its source. After trekking for weeks through dry and rough terrain, his party reached an overlook with a view of the Boise River Valley. The place where they stood is called Bonneville Point, located on the Oregon Trail east of the city, according to the story, a French-speaking guide, overwhelmed by the sight of the verdant river, yelled Les bois. Les bois. —and the name stuck, the name may instead derive from earlier mountain men, who named the river that flows through it. In the 1820s, French Canadian fur trappers set trap lines in the vicinity, set in a high-desert area, the tree-lined valley of the Boise River became a distinct landmark, an oasis dominated by cottonwood trees. They called this La rivière boisée, which means the wooded river, the area was called Boise long before the establishment of Fort Boise by the federal government. The original Fort Boise was 40 miles west, near Parma and this private sector defense was erected by the Hudsons Bay Company in the 1830s. It was abandoned in the 1850s, but massacres along the Oregon Trail prompted the U. S. Army to re-establish a fort in the area in 1863 during the U. S. Civil War. The new location was selected because it was near the intersection of the Oregon Trail with a road connecting the Boise Basin. During the mid-1860s, Idaho City was the largest city in the Northwest, the original territory was larger than Texas. Mullett, the U. S. Assay Office at 210 Main Street was built in 1871, natives and longtime residents use the pronunciation /ˈbɔɪsiː/, as given on the citys website. The pronunciation is used as a shibboleth, as outsiders tend to pronounce the citys name as /ˈbɔɪziː/. Boise is located in southwestern Idaho, about 41 miles east of the Oregon border, the downtown areas elevation is 2,704 feet above sea level
10.
Avid Flyer
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The Avid Flyer is a family of American single engine, high-wing, strut-braced, conventional landing gear-equipped, two seat ultralight aircraft designed for kit construction in the 1980s. Its several variants sold in large numbers, in 1987 a Flyer became the first ultralight to land at the North Pole. The kitbuilt two seat lightplane was designed by Dean Wilson in 1983, the first prototype flying in 1983, Lite Aero production continued until the company went bankrupt in 1998. Avid Aircraft reappeared in 2003, but by 2010 the kits, including new variants, the Avid Flyer is a conventional layout, single engine, side by side two seat light aircraft, with a strut-braced high wing configuration. Aluminum tubes serve as leading edge/main spar and rear spar, each wing being supported by a pair of lift struts. Sawn plywood wing ribs are bonded to the aluminum tube spars using a filled epoxy compound, the Avid Flyer features Junkers style one-piece flaperons supported by three offset hinge arms. The Junkers design moves the control surfaces well underneath the wing, the welded steel tube fuselage is flat sided, narrowing towards a braced cruciform tail group. The horizontal tailplane is carried on the fin just above the fuselage line. The aircrafts conventional rudder and elevator controls are cable operated, the ability to fly from short, unimproved, and back-country strips was also one of Wilsons design priorities. Due to its weight, good power-to-weight ratio, and design features such as the Junkers flaperons. By about 2008, some 2,000 Flyer kits had been built over five continents,346 Flyers and Magnums appear on the European civil registers. Perhaps the most remarkable flight was made by Hubert de Chevigny in an Avid Lite 532 equipped with an additional 300 L fuel tank. Accompanied by Nicholas Hulot in an Aviasud Mistral, he left from Resolute, Canada on 2 April 1987 and they were the first ultralights to do so. Flyer Early versions with straight trailing edge rudder, foldable wings, mk IV Fuller, curved edge rudder and either a 64 hp Rotax 582 or a Rotax 912 engines. The Mark IV was further developed into the Airdale Backcountry, bandit Economy version with 50 hp Rotax 503. Magnum Heavier, powered by a 160 hp Lycoming O-320 or an engine in the 125 hp to 180 hp range
11.
STOL
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A short takeoff and landing aircraft is an aircraft with short runway requirements for takeoff and landing. Many STOL-designed aircraft also feature various arrangements for use on runways with harsh conditions, STOL aircraft, including those used in scheduled passenger airline operations, have also been operated from STOLport airfields which feature short runways. Autogyros also have STOL capability, needing a ground roll to get airborne. Runway length requirement is a function of the square of the flying speed. For takeoff, large power/weight ratios and low drag help the plane to accelerate for flight, the landing run is minimized by strong brakes, low landing speed, thrust reversers or spoilers. Overall STOL performance is set by the length of runway needed to land or take off, of equal importance to short ground run is the ability to clear obstacles, such as trees, on both take off and landing. For takeoff, large power/weight ratios and low drag result in a rate of climb required to clear obstacles. For landing, high drag allows the aeroplane to descend steeply to the runway without building excess speed resulting in a ground run. Drag is increased by use of flaps and by a forward slip, normally, a STOL aircraft will have a large wing for its weight. These wings often use aerodynamic devices like flaps, slots, slats, typically, designing an aircraft for excellent STOL performance reduces maximum speed, but does not reduce payload lifting ability. Most STOL aircraft can land either on- or off-airport, typical off-airport landing areas include snow or ice, fields or gravel riverbanks, and water, these areas are often extremely short and obstructed by tall trees or hills. Wheel skis and amphibious floats combine wheels with skis or floats, a number of aircraft modification companies offer STOL kits that can be installed on aircraft to improve their short field performance. Crosswinds STOL of Wasilla, Alaska sells STOL kits for aircraft, including leading edge cuffs, tip spill plates, inboard flap extensions. The company offers kits for Piper PA-12, PA-14, PA-18, PA-20 and 22, Bellanca Champion Model 7 series, the Horton modifications include a drooped leading edge cuff, conical cambered wingtips, control surface gap seals and wing fences. The company says, On an average you can expect to get a 4-7 knot reduction in stall speeds, flying at these lower stall speeds you can reduce the take-off and landing distances by 10%. Horton STOL kits are available for several Cessna and Piper PA-28 models, Micro AeroDynamics markets vortex generator modification kits for STOL benefits. The Micro kits are small vortex generators that are glued to the leading edge, as well as the underside of the elevator. Kits are available for a number of light aircraft types
12.
Conventional landing gear
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Conventional landing gear, or tailwheel-type landing gear, is an aircraft undercarriage consisting of two main wheels forward of the center of gravity and a small wheel or skid to support the tail. The term taildragger is also used, although some claim it should apply only to aircraft with a tail skid rather than a wheel. The term conventional persists for historical reasons, but all modern jet aircraft, in early aircraft, a tailskid made of metal or wood was used to support the tail on the ground. In most modern aircraft with landing gear, a small articulated wheel assembly is attached to the rearmost part of the airframe in place of the skid. This wheel may be steered by the pilot through a connection to the pedals, allowing the rudder. Before aircraft commonly used tailwheels, many aircraft were equipped with steerable tailskids and this is also used on some tricycle gear aircraft, with the nose wheel being the freely castering wheel instead. Like the steerable tailwheel/skid, it is integrated with the rudder pedals on the craft to allow an easy transition between wheeled and aerodynamic control. The tailwheel configuration offers several advantages over the landing gear arrangement. Due to its much further from the center of gravity. As a result, the wheel weighs less and causes less parasitic drag. If a tailwheel fails on landing, the damage to the aircraft will be minimal and this is not the case in the event of a nosewheel failure, which usually results in a prop strike. Tailwheel aircraft are suitable for operation on skis. Tailwheel aircraft are easier to fit into and maneuver inside some hangars, the conventional landing gear arrangement has disadvantages compared to nose wheel aircraft. Tailwheel aircraft are subject to nose-over accidents due to injudicious application of brakes by the pilot. Conventional geared aircraft are more susceptible to ground looping. A ground loop occurs when directional control is lost on the ground and this event can result in damage to the aircrafts undercarriage, tires, wingtips, propeller and engine. Avoiding ground loops requires more pilot training and skill, tailwheel aircraft generally suffer from poorer forward visibility on the ground, compared to nose wheel aircraft. Often this requires continuous S turns on the ground to allow the pilot to see where they are taxiing and they also suffer from lower crosswind capability and in some wind conditions may be unable to use crosswind runways or single-runway airports
13.
Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
14.
Rotax
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Rotax four-stroke and advanced two-stroke engines are used in a wide variety of small land, sea and airborne vehicles. Bombardier Recreational Products use them in their own range of such vehicles, in the light aircraft class, in 1998 Rotax outsold all other engine manufacturers combined. The company was founded in 1920 in Dresden, Germany, as ROTAX-WERK AG, in 1930, it was taken over by Fichtel & Sachs and transferred its operations to Schweinfurt, Germany. Operations were moved to Wels, Austria, in 1943 and finally to Gunskirchen, Austria, in 1959, the majority of Rotax shares were taken over by the Vienna-based Lohner-Werke, a manufacturer of car and railway wagon bodies. In 1970, Lohner-Rotax was bought by the Canadian Bombardier Inc, the former Bombardier branch, Bombardier Recreational Products, now an independent company, uses Rotax engines in its ground vehicles, personal water craft, and snowmobiles. Rotax supplies aircraft engines for aircraft, light aircraft and unmanned aerial vehicles. Rotax engines designed specifically for aircraft include both four-stroke and two-stroke models. This 2-stroke engine series was launched 1997, the company also produces unbranded engines, parts and complete power trains for Original Equipment Manufacturers. Uses include motor bikes and scooters, with complete engines including the Rotax 122, motorcycle manufacturers using Rotax engines include Aprilia, BMW, Buell and KTM. Official Website Rotax Aircraft Engines List of Rotax engines applied to new-build aircraft
15.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
16.
Ultralight aircraft (United States)
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Ultralight aircraft in the United States are much smaller and lighter than ultralight aircraft in all other countries. In the USA ultralights are classified as vehicles and not aircraft and are not required to be registered nor is the pilot required to have a pilot license or certificate. S. S. Operators of ultralight vehicles are not required to meet any aeronautical knowledge, age, ultralight vehicles are not required to be registered or to have registration markings. Ultralight vehicle cannot be flown except between the hours of sunrise and sunset, weight allowances can be made for amphibious landing gear, and ballistic parachute systems. In the United States, while no license or training is required by law for ultralights, training is highly advisable
17.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
18.
Rotax 582
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The Rotax 582 is a 48 kW two-stroke, two-cylinder, rotary intake valve, oil-in-fuel or oil injection pump, liquid-cooled, gear reduction-drive aircraft engine manufactured by BRP-Rotax GmbH & Co. It is for use in non-certified aircraft operating in day visual flight rules, the Rotax 582 is based upon the earlier Rotax 532 engine design and was designed for ultralight aircraft. The 582 increased the bore from the 532 engines 72 to 76 mm and this increased the displacement from 521.2 cc to 580.7 cc, an increase of 11%. The increased displacement had the effect of flattening out the 532s torque curve, reliability over the 532 was also improved. The 582 features liquid-cooled cylinder heads and cylinders with a Rotary Intake Valve, cooling is via an externally mounted radiator. Lubrication is either by use of pre-mixed fuel and oil or oil injection from an externally mounted oil tank, the 582 has dual independent breakerless, magneto capacitor discharge ignition systems and is equipped with two piston-type carburetors. It uses a pneumatic fuel pump to provide fuel pressure. An optional High Altitude Compensation kit is available, the engines propeller drive is via a Rotax type B, C or E style gearbox. The standard engine includes a muffler exhaust system with an extra after-muffler as optional, the standard starter is a recoil start type, with an electric starter optional. An integral alternating current generator producing 170 watts at 12 volts with external rectifier-regulator is optional, the engine includes an intake air filter and can be fitted with an intake silencer system.5 -5.75 effective Rotax aircraft engines Arrow 500 Company website
19.
Rotax 912
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Rotax produced its 50, 000th 912-series engine in 2014. The original 80 hp 912 engine has a capacity of 1,211 cc, the later 912S is enlarged to 1,352 cubic centimetres and has a compression ratio of 10.4,1, yielding 100 hp. The 912 A and F are used in certified aircraft, such as the Diamond DA20, the 100 hp versions are used in many light sport aircraft, such as the Zenith STOL CH701 and the Tecnam P2002 Sierra. The 80 hp versions are sufficient to power the new generation of efficient motorgliders, such as the Pipistrel Sinus and it is also fitted to some light twins, such as the Tecnam P2006T. On the 912A, F and UL the standard ratio is 2.27,1 with 2.43,1 optional. Lubrication is dry sump, and fuelling is via dual CV carburetors or fully redundant electronic fuel injection, the electronic fuel injected Rotax 912iS is a recent development. A further derivative, the 135 hp Rotax 915 iS was announced in July 2015, early 912 series engines have a shorter time between overhaul than traditional engines, but are more fuel efficient than similarly sized engines, e. g. Effective 14 December 2009,912 engines have had their recommended Time Between Overhauls raised from 1,200 hours to 1,500 hours, or 1,500 hours to 2,000 hours, depending on serial number. In addition to the fuel consumption they are certified to run on automotive fuel, further reducing running costs. The engines are popular in Europe and in United States Light Sport Category aircraft due to high power-to-weight ratio, low fuel costs, on 8 March 2012 the company displayed its 912 iS variant, a 100 hp version with fuel injection and an electronic engine management unit. The version weighs 63 kg, which is 6 kg more than the standard 912S, the non-certified 912 iS targets the Light Sport and Experimental market and 912 iSc will be certified. Production started in March 2012 and the engine has a 2000-hour recommended time-between-overhaul to start, on 1 April 2014 the company announced its new 912 iS Sport upgrade with greater power and torque and reduced fuel consumption. 912 S# Certified to FAR33,100 hp 912 UL# Uncertified,80 hp 912 ULS# Uncertified,100 hp 912 ULSFR# Uncertified French Authority specification,100 hp The # in the designation stands for, Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D. 100 mm Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D,4 inches Shaft with flange for constant speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches and drive for hydraulic governor for constant speed propeller Shaft with flange for fixed speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches also can be fitted with an adaptor, drive, leaded fuel and AVGAS100 LL can be used but are not recommended
20.
Laminar flow
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In fluid dynamics, laminar flow occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers. At low velocities, the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, there are no cross-currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor eddies or swirls of fluids. In laminar flow, the motion of the particles of the fluid is very orderly with particles close to a surface moving in straight lines parallel to that surface. Laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high momentum diffusion, Laminar flow tends to occur at lower velocities, below a threshold at which it becomes turbulent. Turbulent flow is an orderly flow regime that is characterised by eddies or small packets of fluid particles which result in lateral mixing. In non-scientific terms, laminar flow is smooth while turbulent flow is rough, the type of flow occurring in a fluid in a channel is important in fluid dynamics problems and subsequently affects heat and mass transfer in fluid systems. The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether fully developed flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow, Laminar flow generally occurs when the fluid is moving slowly or the fluid is very viscous. If the Reynolds number is small, much less than 1, then the fluid will exhibit Stokes or creeping flow. The specific calculation of the Reynolds number, and the values where laminar flow occurs, will depend on the geometry of the flow system, Q is the volumetric flow rate. A is the pipes cross-sectional area, V is the mean velocity of the fluid. μ is the viscosity of the fluid. ν is the viscosity of the fluid, ν = μ/ρ. ρ is the density of the fluid, for such systems, laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is below a critical value of approximately 2,040, though the transition range is typically between 1,800 and 2,100. For fluid systems occurring on external surfaces, such as flow past objects suspended in the fluid, the particle Reynolds number Rep would be used for particle suspended in flowing fluids, for example. As with flow in pipes, laminar flow typically occurs with lower Reynolds numbers, while turbulent flow and related phenomena, such as vortex shedding, a common application of laminar flow is in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through a tube or pipe. In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a maximum along the centre of the vessel. The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be calculated by dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements, another example is the flow of air over an aircraft wing. The boundary layer is a thin sheet of air lying over the surface of the wing
21.
Airfoil
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An airfoil or aerofoil is the shape of a wing, blade, or sail. An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force, the component of this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the direction of motion is called drag, subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with a symmetric curvature of upper and lower surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the fluid are called hydrofoils. The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack, when oriented at a suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction opposite to the deflection. This force is known as force and can be resolved into two components, lift and drag. Most foil shapes require an angle of attack to generate lift. This turning of the air in the vicinity of the airfoil creates curved streamlines, resulting in pressure on one side. The lift force can be related directly to the average top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation, a fixed-wing aircrafts wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross sections, as are helicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in propellers, fans, compressors and turbines, sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessile organisms employ airfoils/hydrofoils, common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, an airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor vehicle, improving traction. Any object with an angle of attack in a fluid, such as a flat plate. Airfoils are more efficient lifting shapes, able to more lift. A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right, the curve represents an airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of attack, lift increases in a linear relation. At about 18 degrees this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that, the drop in lift can be explained by the action of the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at and past the stall angle. The thicker boundary layer also causes an increase in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near. Airfoil design is a facet of aerodynamics
22.
Rotax 912S
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Rotax produced its 50, 000th 912-series engine in 2014. The original 80 hp 912 engine has a capacity of 1,211 cc, the later 912S is enlarged to 1,352 cubic centimetres and has a compression ratio of 10.4,1, yielding 100 hp. The 912 A and F are used in certified aircraft, such as the Diamond DA20, the 100 hp versions are used in many light sport aircraft, such as the Zenith STOL CH701 and the Tecnam P2002 Sierra. The 80 hp versions are sufficient to power the new generation of efficient motorgliders, such as the Pipistrel Sinus and it is also fitted to some light twins, such as the Tecnam P2006T. On the 912A, F and UL the standard ratio is 2.27,1 with 2.43,1 optional. Lubrication is dry sump, and fuelling is via dual CV carburetors or fully redundant electronic fuel injection, the electronic fuel injected Rotax 912iS is a recent development. A further derivative, the 135 hp Rotax 915 iS was announced in July 2015, early 912 series engines have a shorter time between overhaul than traditional engines, but are more fuel efficient than similarly sized engines, e. g. Effective 14 December 2009,912 engines have had their recommended Time Between Overhauls raised from 1,200 hours to 1,500 hours, or 1,500 hours to 2,000 hours, depending on serial number. In addition to the fuel consumption they are certified to run on automotive fuel, further reducing running costs. The engines are popular in Europe and in United States Light Sport Category aircraft due to high power-to-weight ratio, low fuel costs, on 8 March 2012 the company displayed its 912 iS variant, a 100 hp version with fuel injection and an electronic engine management unit. The version weighs 63 kg, which is 6 kg more than the standard 912S, the non-certified 912 iS targets the Light Sport and Experimental market and 912 iSc will be certified. Production started in March 2012 and the engine has a 2000-hour recommended time-between-overhaul to start, on 1 April 2014 the company announced its new 912 iS Sport upgrade with greater power and torque and reduced fuel consumption. 912 S# Certified to FAR33,100 hp 912 UL# Uncertified,80 hp 912 ULS# Uncertified,100 hp 912 ULSFR# Uncertified French Authority specification,100 hp The # in the designation stands for, Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D. 100 mm Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D,4 inches Shaft with flange for constant speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches and drive for hydraulic governor for constant speed propeller Shaft with flange for fixed speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches also can be fitted with an adaptor, drive, leaded fuel and AVGAS100 LL can be used but are not recommended
23.
Rotax 503
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The Rotax 503 is a 37 kW, inline 2-cylinder, two-stroke aircraft engine, built by BRP-Rotax GmbH & Co. KG of Austria for use in ultralight aircraft, as of 2011 the Rotax 503 is no longer in production. The Rotax 503 features piston ported, air-cooled cylinder heads and cylinders, lubrication is either by use of pre-mixed fuel and oil or oil injection from an externally mounted oil tank. The 503 has dual independent breakerless, magneto ignition systems. It uses a pneumatic fuel pump to provide fuel pressure. An optional High Altitude Compensation kit is available, the engines propeller drive is via a Rotax type B, C, or E style gearbox. The standard engine includes a muffler exhaust system with an extra after-muffler as optional, the standard starter is a recoil start type, with an electric starter optional. An integral alternating current generator producing 170 watts at 12 volts with external rectifier-regulator is optional
24.
Ultralight aircraft
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Ultralight aviation is the flying of lightweight,1 or 2 seat fixed-wing aircraft. Some countries differentiate between control and conventional 3-axis control aircraft with ailerons, elevator and rudder, calling the former microlight. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, mostly stimulated by the gliding movement. As a result, many aviation authorities set up definitions of lightweight, the resulting aeroplanes are commonly called ultralight aircraft or microlights, although the weight and speed limits differ from country to country. In Europe the sporting definition limits the maximum weight to 450 kg. The definition means that the aircraft has a landing speed. In most affluent countries, microlights or ultralight aircraft now account for a significant percentage of the global civilian-owned aircraft, for instance in Canada in October 2010, the ultralight aircraft fleet made up to 19% of the total civilian aircraft registered. In other countries that do not register ultralight aircraft, like the United States, in countries where there is no specific extra regulation, ultralights are considered regular aircraft and subject to certification requirements for both aircraft and pilot. In Australia, ultralight aircraft and their pilots can either be registered with the Hang Gliding Federation of Australia or Recreational Aviation Australia, in all cases, except for privately built single seat ultralight aeroplanes, microlight aircraft or trikes are regulated by the Civil Aviation Regulations. Other than the very earliest aircraft, all two-seat UK microlights have been required to meet airworthiness standard BCAR Section S, in 2007 SSDR, a sub-category of single seat aircraft was introduced, allowing owners more freedom for modification and experiments. In 2015 the SSDR rules changed, the definition of a single seat microlight was adjusted to effectively de-regulate all single seat microlights for airworthiness purposes. There is no requirement or annual inspection regime for SSDR microlights although pilots who fly them must have a normal microlight licence. In the UK the microlight licence is currently called NPPL, the United States FAAs definition of an ultralight is significantly different from that in most other countries and can lead to some confusion when discussing the topic. The governing regulation in the United States is FAR103 Ultralight Vehicles, in 2004 the FAA introduced the Light-sport aircraft category, which resembles some other countries microlight categories. Ultralight aviation is represented by the United States Ultralight Association, which acts as the US aeroclub representative to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, there are several categories of aircraft which qualify as ultralights in some countries, Fixed-wing aircraft, traditional airplane-style designs. Weight-shift control trike, use a hang glider-style wing, below which is suspended a three-wheeled carriage which carries the engine and these aircraft are controlled by pushing against a horizontal control bar in roughly the same way as a hang glider pilot flies. Powered parachute, fuselage-mounted engines with parafoil wings, which are wheeled aircraft, powered paraglider, backpack engines with parafoil wings, which are foot-launched. Powered hang glider, motorized foot-launched hang glider harness, helicopter, there are a number of single-seat and two-place helicopters which fall under the microlight categories in countries such as New Zealand
25.
Hugo Junkers
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Hugo Junkers was a German engineer and aircraft designer. As such, he is credited with pioneering the design of all-metal airplanes. As founder of the Junkers Flugzeug- und Motorenwerke AG, he was one of the mainstays of the German aircraft industry in the years between World War I and World War II. In particular, his multi-engined all-metal passenger- and freight planes helped establish airlines in Germany, although his name is also linked to some of the most successful German warplanes of the Second World War, Hugo Junkers himself had nothing to do with their development. He was forced out of his own company by the Nazi government in 1934 and died on his 76th birthday, as well as aircraft, Junkers also built both diesel and petrol engines and held various thermodynamic and metallurgical patents. He was also one of the sponsors of the Bauhaus movement. Junkers was born in Rheydt in the Prussian Rhine Province, the son of a well-off industrialist, after taking his Abitur exams in 1878, he attended the Royal Polytechnic University in Charlottenburg and the Royal Technical University in Aachen, where he completed his engineering studies in 1883. At first, he returned to Rheydt to work in his fathers company, Slaby placed him with the Continental-Gasgesellschaft in Dessau, where he worked on the development of the first opposed-piston engine. In order to measure heating value, Junkers patented a calorimeter, Junkers personally introduced the calorimeter at the 1893 Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where it was awarded a gold medal. The next year, he patented a gas-fired bath boiler, which he refined as a tankless heater, in 1895, he founded Junkers & Co. to utilize his inventions. From 1897, he was offered a professorship of engineering at Aachen. Junkers aeronautical work began in earnest only at the age of fifty, Reissner had developed an all-metal aircraft, on which work first started in 1909 at the Brand Heath, equipped with corrugated iron wings built by Junkers & Co. in Dessau. The iron wings were patented one year later, Junkers had a wind tunnel built and invented a hydraulic brake. He had far-sighted ideas of metal aeroplanes and flying wings, during World War I, the government forced him to focus on aircraft production. In 1915, he developed the worlds first practical aircraft design, the Junkers J1 Blechesel. During this time, the German governments IdFlieg military aviation inspectorate forced him to merge his firm with Anthony Fokkers to form the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft on 20 October 1917. By 1918, his firm had created the worlds first low-winged, single-seat fighter aircraft, the Junkers D. I, however, the D. I did not enter production until 1918. He also produced a two-seat fighter, the Junkers CL. I, the Junkers F.13 of 1919 was the first of several successful civil aircraft designs produced by Junkers Flugzeugwerke, later designs include the Junkers Ju 52/3m from 1932
26.
Flaperon
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A flaperon on an aircrafts wing is a type of control surface that combines the functions of both flaps and ailerons. Some smaller kitplanes have flaperons for reasons of simplicity of manufacture, in addition to controlling the roll or bank of an aircraft, as do conventional ailerons, both flaperons can be lowered together to function similarly to a set of flaps. On a plane with flaperons, the still has the standard separate controls for ailerons and flaps. A mechanical device called a mixer is used to combine the input into the flaperons. While the use of rather than ailerons and flaps might seem to be a simplification. Some aircraft, such as the Denney Kitfox, suspend the flaperons below the wing to provide undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack or low airspeeds, beneficiaries of such research might include drones and the latest fighter aircraft. These research approaches include flexible wings and fluidics, In flexible wings, the X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort. The Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort and this may be seen as a return to the wing warping used and patented by the Wright brothers. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, as well as simplicity
27.
Rotec R2800
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The Rotec R2800 is a seven-cylinder radial engine built by Rotec Aerosport Pty Ltd in Australia. The R2800 was Rotecs first engine offering when they first opened their doors in 2000, in 2005, Rotec released a more powerful variant, the Rotec R3600 which basically adds two more cylinders for a total of nine and increases the rated horsepower to 150. Both this engine and its larger cousin have been used as both replacement engines for vintage World War I aircraft, and reproduction aircraft from the same vintage. Some notable repro WW I aircraft this engine has been used in are the Fokker Triplane, Sopwith Camel and the Nieuport 17. Other experimental / homebuilt aircraft have also fitted with the Rotec 2800, including the Kitfox Model 7. It is unknown how many Kitfox aircraft are equipped with the Rotec 2800 engine and these engines are not limited to only aircraft applications as JRL Cycles has converted an R2800 for use in a motorcycle. Type, 7-cylinder Air-cooled single-row radial engine Bore,3.149 in Stroke,3.149 in Displacement,171.8 in³ Diameter,31.9 in Dry weight,224 lb Valvetrain, Poppet Valve, two per cylinder
28.
Jabiru 3300
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The Jabiru 3300 is a lightweight four-stroke, horizontally opposed flat-six air-cooled aircraft engine produced by Jabiru Aircraft. The engines are direct drive and fitted with alternators, silencers, vacuum pump drives, the engine is used to power homebuilt and ultralight aircraft. This was in response to 46 reports of failure in flight. In flight failure modes included, but were not limited to, fuel starvation, both the manufacturer and Recreational Aviation Australia opposed the restrictions as unnecessary and unwarranted. A subsequent tear-down by one engine by CASA resulted in recommendations in June of 2016 for further easing of the restrictions. Type, Flat-6 Bore,97.8 kW at 2,750 RPM,89.5 kW at 3,300 RPM Compression ratio,8,1 Power-to-weight ratio,1
29.
Rotax 912ULS
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Rotax produced its 50, 000th 912-series engine in 2014. The original 80 hp 912 engine has a capacity of 1,211 cc, the later 912S is enlarged to 1,352 cubic centimetres and has a compression ratio of 10.4,1, yielding 100 hp. The 912 A and F are used in certified aircraft, such as the Diamond DA20, the 100 hp versions are used in many light sport aircraft, such as the Zenith STOL CH701 and the Tecnam P2002 Sierra. The 80 hp versions are sufficient to power the new generation of efficient motorgliders, such as the Pipistrel Sinus and it is also fitted to some light twins, such as the Tecnam P2006T. On the 912A, F and UL the standard ratio is 2.27,1 with 2.43,1 optional. Lubrication is dry sump, and fuelling is via dual CV carburetors or fully redundant electronic fuel injection, the electronic fuel injected Rotax 912iS is a recent development. A further derivative, the 135 hp Rotax 915 iS was announced in July 2015, early 912 series engines have a shorter time between overhaul than traditional engines, but are more fuel efficient than similarly sized engines, e. g. Effective 14 December 2009,912 engines have had their recommended Time Between Overhauls raised from 1,200 hours to 1,500 hours, or 1,500 hours to 2,000 hours, depending on serial number. In addition to the fuel consumption they are certified to run on automotive fuel, further reducing running costs. The engines are popular in Europe and in United States Light Sport Category aircraft due to high power-to-weight ratio, low fuel costs, on 8 March 2012 the company displayed its 912 iS variant, a 100 hp version with fuel injection and an electronic engine management unit. The version weighs 63 kg, which is 6 kg more than the standard 912S, the non-certified 912 iS targets the Light Sport and Experimental market and 912 iSc will be certified. Production started in March 2012 and the engine has a 2000-hour recommended time-between-overhaul to start, on 1 April 2014 the company announced its new 912 iS Sport upgrade with greater power and torque and reduced fuel consumption. 912 S# Certified to FAR33,100 hp 912 UL# Uncertified,80 hp 912 ULS# Uncertified,100 hp 912 ULSFR# Uncertified French Authority specification,100 hp The # in the designation stands for, Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D. 100 mm Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D,4 inches Shaft with flange for constant speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches and drive for hydraulic governor for constant speed propeller Shaft with flange for fixed speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches also can be fitted with an adaptor, drive, leaded fuel and AVGAS100 LL can be used but are not recommended
30.
Belite Aircraft
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Belite Aircraft is an American aircraft manufacturer based in Wichita, Kansas and founded by James and Kathy Wiebe in 2009. The company was formed to produce the Belite Aircraft Superlite, a derivative of the Kitfox Lite single-seat ultralight design, as a condition of the transaction, they agreed to rebrand the airplane to prevent any confusion with the larger, two-place light sport Kitfox. In 2013 the company flew the floatplane version of its new Belite Ultra Cub design, designated the Belite Sealite
31.
Wichita, Kansas
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Wichita is the largest city in the state of Kansas and the 48th-largest city in the United States. Located in south-central Kansas on the Arkansas River, Wichita is the county seat of Sedgwick County, as of the 2010 United States Census, the city population was 382,368, as of 2014, it was estimated to have increased to 389,965. In 2015, the population of the Wichita metropolitan area was 644,610. The city began as a trading post on the Chisholm Trail in the 1860s and it subsequently became a key destination for cattle drives traveling north from Texas to access railroads, earning it the nickname Cowtown. In the 1920s and 1930s, businessmen and aeronautical engineers established a number of aircraft manufacturing companies in Wichita including Beechcraft, Cessna. The city transformed into a hub of U. S. aircraft production, in 1937, the city of Wichita established their official flag. As an industrial hub and the largest city in the state, Wichita is a center of culture, media. It hosts several museums, theatres, parks, and entertainment venues. Several universities are located in the city including Wichita State University, the citys daily newspaper, The Wichita Eagle, has the highest circulation of any newspaper in Kansas, and the Wichita broadcast television market includes the western two-thirds of the state. Wichita is also home to the Century II Performing Arts & Convention Center and Kansass largest airport, archaeological evidence indicates human habitation near the confluence of the Arkansas and Little Arkansas Rivers, the site of present-day Wichita, as early as 3000 B. C. In 1541, a Spanish expedition led by explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado found the area populated by the Quivira, or Wichita, conflict with the Osage in the 1750s drove the Wichita further south. Prior to American settlement of the region, the site was located in the territory of the Kiowa, the Wichita returned in 1864 due to the American Civil War and established a settlement on the banks of the Little Arkansas. During this period, trader Jesse Chisholm established a trading post at the site, after the war, the Wichita permanently relocated south to Indian Territory. In 1868, trader James R. Mead established another trading post at the site, and surveyor Darius Munger built a house for use as a hotel, community center, Business opportunities attracted area hunters and traders, and a new settlement began to form. That summer, Mead and others organized the Wichita Town Company, in 1870, Munger and German immigrant William Dutch Bill Greiffenstein filed plats laying out the citys first streets. Wichita formally incorporated as a city on July 21,1870, Wichitas position on the Chisholm Trail made it a destination for cattle drives traveling north from Texas to access railroads which led to markets in eastern U. S. cities. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway reached the city in 1872, as a result, Wichita became a railhead for the cattle drives, earning it the nickname Cowtown. Across the Arkansas River, the town of Delano became an entertainment destination for cattlemen thanks to its saloons, brothels
32.
Kansas
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Kansas /ˈkænzəs/ is a U. S. state located in the Midwestern United States. Its capital is Topeka and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas is named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribes name is said to mean people of the wind or people of the south wind. For thousands of years, what is now Kansas was home to numerous, tribes in the eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. When it was opened to settlement by the U. S. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided. The abolitionists eventually prevailed, and on January 29,1861, after the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. By 2015, Kansas was one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, corn, sorghum, and soybeans. Kansas, which has an area of 82,278 square miles is the 15th largest state by area and is the 34th most populous of the 50 United States with a population of 2,911,641, residents of Kansas are called Kansans, officially. Mount Sunflower is Kansass highest point at 4,041 feet, for a millennia, the land that is currently Kansas was inhabited by Native Americans. The first European to set foot in present-day Kansas was Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, in 1803, most of modern Kansas was secured by the United States as part of the Louisiana Purchase. Southwest Kansas, however, was still a part of Spain, Mexico, from 1812 to 1821, Kansas was part of the Missouri Territory. The Santa Fe Trail traversed Kansas from 1821 to 1880, transporting manufactured goods from Missouri and silver and furs from Santa Fe, wagon ruts from the trail are still visible in the prairie today. In 1827, Fort Leavenworth became the first permanent settlement of white Americans in the future state, the Kansas–Nebraska Act became law on May 30,1854, establishing the U. S. territories of Nebraska and Kansas, and opening the area to broader settlement by whites. Kansas Territory stretched all the way to the Continental Divide and included the sites of present-day Denver, Colorado Springs, Missouri and Arkansas sent settlers into Kansas all along its eastern border. These settlers attempted to sway votes in favor of slavery, the secondary settlement of Americans in Kansas Territory were abolitionists from Massachusetts and other Free-Staters, who attempted to stop the spread of slavery from neighboring Missouri. Directly presaging the American Civil War, these forces collided, entering into skirmishes that earned the territory the name of Bleeding Kansas, Kansas was admitted to the United States as a free state on January 29,1861, making it the 34th state to enter the Union. He was roundly condemned by both the conventional Confederate military and the partisan rangers commissioned by the Missouri legislature and his application to that body for a commission was flatly rejected due to his pre-war criminal record
33.
Belite Aircraft Superlite
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The Belite Superlite is a single-seat, high-wing, single-engine ultralight aircraft developed from the Kitfox Lite aircraft especially for the United States FAR103 Ultralight Vehicles category. Designer James Wiebe bought the assets and tooling of the Kitfox Lite from Skystar and he modified the prototype Kitfox Lite to meet FAR103 regulations requiring an ultralight aircraft to have an empty weight of less than 254 lb. The fuselage is made from 4130 steel tubing, flaperons and vortex generators are used for roll control and low speed flight. The wings are foldable for storage, items were substituted with carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer to make the aircraft lighter than a Kitfox Lite. This included the tailwheel leaf spring, wing spars, wing ribs, lift struts, firewall, elevator, a variety of engines may be used such as the Hirth F33, Hirth F-23, Zanzottera MZ34, 1/2 Volkswagen air-cooled engine and the Zanzottera MZ201. 254 The basic ultralight fuselage design, for powerplants of 28 to 45 hp, Superlite Maximum weight reduction fuselage for larger engines of 50 hp, with an empty weight of 278 lb when equipped with the Hirth F-23 engine of 50 hp. A Belite was mauled by a bear claw with the damage being limited to the fabric skin of the rear fuselage. The control surfaces were not damaged during the destruction, the aircraft was then repaired with Duct-Tape and successfully flown. Note, This is not to be confused with Speed tape
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer
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Carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon fiber reinforced plastic or carbon fiber reinforced thermoplastic, is an extremely strong and light fiber-reinforced plastic which contains carbon fibers. The spelling fibre is common in British Commonwealth countries, the binding polymer is often a thermoset resin such as epoxy, but other thermoset or thermoplastic polymers, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are sometimes used. The composite may contain other fibers, such as an aramid, aluminium, ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene or glass fibers, the properties of the final CFRP product can also be affected by the type of additives introduced to the binding matrix. The most frequent additive is silica, but other such as rubber. The material is referred to as graphite-reinforced polymer or graphite fiber-reinforced polymer. In product advertisements, it is referred to simply as graphite fiber for short. In this case the composite consists of two parts, a matrix and a reinforcement, in CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a resin, such as epoxy. Because CFRP consists of two elements, the material properties depend on these two elements. The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity, measured by stress, unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber, the following equation, E c = V m E m + V f E f is valid for composite materials with the fibers oriented in the direction of the applied load. Typical epoxy-based CFRPs exhibit virtually no plasticity, with less than 0. 5% strain to failure, although CFRPs with epoxy have high strength and elastic modulus, the brittle fracture mechanics present unique challenges to engineers in failure detection since failure occurs catastrophically. As such, recent efforts to toughen CFRPs include modifying the existing epoxy material, One such material with high promise is PEEK, which exhibits an order of magnitude greater toughness with similar elastic modulus and tensile strength. However, PEEK is much more difficult to process and more expensive, despite its high initial strength-to-weight ratio, a design limitation of CFRP is its lack of a definable fatigue endurance limit. This means, theoretically, that stress cycle failure cannot be ruled out, environmental effects such as temperature and humidity can have profound effects on the polymer-based composites, including most CFRPs. While the carbon fibers themselves are not affected by the moisture diffusing into the material, the carbon fibers can cause galvanic corrosion when CRP parts are attached to aluminum. The primary element of CFRP is a filament, this is produced from a precursor polymer such as polyacrylonitrile, rayon. Precursor compositions and mechanical processes used during spinning filament yarns may vary among manufacturers, after drawing or spinning, the polymer filament yarns are then heated to drive off non-carbon atoms, producing the final carbon fiber
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Wingspan
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The wingspan of a bird or an airplane is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777 has a wingspan of about 60 metres, and a wandering albatross caught in 1965 had a wingspan of 3.63 metres, the official record for a living bird. The term wingspan, more technically extent, is used for other winged animals such as pterosaurs, bats, insects, etc. In humans, the term also refers to the distance between the length from one end of an individuals arms to the other when raised parallel to the ground at shoulder height at a 90º angle. Former professional basketball player Manute Bol stands at 77 and owns one of the largest wingspans at 86, the wingspan of an aircraft is always measured in a straight line, from wingtip to wingtip, independently of wing shape or sweep. The lift from wings is proportional to their area, so the heavier the animal or aircraft the bigger that area must be. The area is the product of the times the width of the wing, so either a long. For efficient steady flight, the ratio of span to chord, long-ranging birds, like albatrosses, and most commercial aircraft maximize aspect ratio. Alternatively, animals and aircraft which depend on maneuverability need to be able to roll fast to turn, for them, short-span, broad wings are preferred. The highest aspect ratio wings are aircraft propellers, in their most extreme form as helicopter rotors. In basketball and gridiron football, a measurement is used to determine the players wingspan. This is called reach in boxing terminology, the wingspan of Manute Bol, at 8 feet 6 inches, is the longest in NBA history, and his vertical reach was 10 feet 5 inches
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Aircraft engine
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An aircraft engine is the component of the propulsion system for an aircraft that generates mechanical power. Aircraft engines are almost always either lightweight piston engines or gas turbines, in commercial aviation, the major players in the manufacturing of turbofan engines are Pratt & Whitney, General Electric, Rolls-Royce, and CFM International. In general aviation, the dominant manufacturer of engines has been Pratt & Whitney. General Electric announced in 2015 entrance into the market,1848, John Stringfellow made a steam engine for a 10-foot wingspan model aircraft which achieved the first powered flight, albeit with negligible payload. 1903, Charlie Taylor built an inline aeroengine for the Wright Flyer,1903, Manly-Balzer engine sets standards for later radial engines. 1906, Léon Levavasseur produces a successful water-cooled V8 engine for aircraft use,1908, René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine. 1908, Louis Seguin designed the Gnome Omega, the worlds first rotary engine to be produced in quantity. In 1909 a Gnome powered Farman III aircraft won the prize for the greatest non-stop distance flown at the Reims Grande Semaine dAviation setting a record for endurance of 180 kilometres. 1910, Coandă-1910, a ducted fan aircraft exhibited at Paris Aero Salon. The aircraft never flew, but a patent was filed for routing exhaust gases into the duct to augment thrust,1930, Frank Whittle submitted his first patent for turbojet engine. June 1939, Heinkel He 176 is the first successful aircraft to fly powered solely by a rocket engine. August 1939, Heinkel HeS3 turbojet propels the pioneering German Heinkel He 178 aircraft,1940, Jendrassik Cs-1, the worlds first run of a turboprop engine. It is not put into service,1943 Daimler-Benz DB670, first turbofan runs 1944, Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet, the worlds first rocket-propelled combat aircraft deployed. 1945, First turboprop powered aircraft flies, a Gloster Meteor with two Rolls-Royce Trent engines,1947, Bell X-1 rocket propelled aircraft exceeds the speed of sound. 1948,100 shp 782, the first turboshaft engine to be applied to aircraft use,1949, Leduc 010, the worlds first ramjet-powered aircraft flight. 1950, Rolls-Royce Conway, the worlds first production turbofan, enters service,1968, General Electric TF39 high bypass turbofan enters service delivering greater thrust and much better efficiency. 2002, HyShot scramjet flew in dive,2004, NASA X-43, the first scramjet to maintain altitude. This is typically to differentiate them from radial engines, a straight engine typically has an even number of cylinders, but there are instances of three- and five-cylinder engines
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V speeds
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In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, the actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the indicated airspeed, so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors. In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs, the lower ends of the green arc and the white arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, and stalling speed with wing flaps fully extended, respectively. These are the speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight. The yellow range is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement, and the red line is the Vne. Proper display of V speeds is a requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries. The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular governments aviation regulations, in the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations or FARs. In Canada, the body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual. V-speed definitions in FAR23,25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, the descriptions below are for use by pilots. These V-speeds are defined by regulations and they are typically defined with constraints such as weight, configuration, or phases of flight, some of these constraints have been omitted to simplify the description. Some of these V-speeds are specific to types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations. Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the speed of sound, e. g. VMO, Maximum operating speed, MMO, V1 is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue if a engine fails or another problem occurs. Aborting a takeoff after V1 is strongly discouraged because the aircraft will by definition not be able to stop before the end of the runway, Transport Canada defines it as, Critical engine failure recognition speed and adds, This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the flight manual of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft. Getting to grips with aircraft performance, flight Operations Support & Line Assistance
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Stall (fluid mechanics)
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In fluid dynamics, a stall is a reduction in the lift coefficient generated by a foil as angle of attack increases. This occurs when the angle of attack of the foil is exceeded. The critical angle of attack is typically about 15 degrees, but it may vary depending on the fluid, foil. Stalls in fixed-wing flight are often experienced as a reduction in lift as the pilot increases the wings angle of attack. A stall does not mean that the engine have stopped working, vectored thrust in manned and unmanned aircraft is used to surpass the stall limit, thereby giving rise to post-stall technology. Because stalls are most commonly discussed in connection with aviation, this article discusses stalls as they relate mainly to aircraft, the principles of stall discussed here translate to foils in other fluids as well. A stall is a condition in aerodynamics and aviation wherein the angle of attack increases beyond a point such that lift begins to decrease. The angle at which this occurs is called the angle of attack. The critical angle of attack is the angle of attack on the lift coefficient versus angle-of-attack curve at which the lift coefficient occurs. Flow separation begins to occur at angles of attack while attached flow over the wing is still dominant. As angle of attack increases, the regions on the top of the wing increase in size. At the critical angle of attack, separated flow is so dominant that additional increases in angle of attack produce less lift, a fixed-wing aircraft during a stall may experience buffeting or a change in attitude. Most aircraft are designed to have a stall with characteristics that will warn the pilot. For example, an aircraft that does not buffet before the stall may have an alarm or a stick shaker installed to simulate the feel of a buffet by vibrating the stick fore. The buffet margin is, for a set of conditions, the amount of ‘g’. The critical angle of attack in steady straight and level flight can be attained only at low airspeed, attempts to increase the angle of attack at higher airspeeds can cause a high-speed stall or may merely cause the aircraft to climb. Any yaw of the aircraft as it enters the stall regime can result in autorotation, as air no longer flows smoothly over the wings during a stall, aileron control of roll becomes less effective, whilst simultaneously the tendency for the ailerons to generate adverse yaw increases. This characteristic increases the lift from the wing and increases the likelihood of the aircraft entering into a spin
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Rate of climb
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In aeronautics, the rate of climb is an aircrafts vertical speed – the rate of positive altitude change with respect to time or distance. In most ICAO member countries, even in otherwise metric countries, elsewhere, it is commonly expressed in metre per second. The rate of climb in an aircraft is indicated with a speed indicator or instantaneous vertical speed indicator. The rate of decrease in altitude is referred to as the rate of descent or sink rate, a decrease in altitude corresponds with a negative rate of climb. There are a number of designated airspeeds relating to rates of ascent. Vx is the forward airspeed for best angle of climb. This is the speed at which an aircraft gains the most altitude in a horizontal distance. By contrast, Vy is the indicated airspeed for best rate of climb, a rate which allows the aircraft to reach a specified altitude in the minimum amount of time regardless of the horizontal distance required. Vx is always lower than Vy, maximum power and climb rates are typically specified as normal operating procedures for small aircraft, such as a Cessna 150, but only during emergencies for large jet liners. Climbing at Vx allows pilots to maximize altitude gain per horizontal distance and this occurs at the speed for which the difference between thrust and drag is the greatest. In a jet airplane, this is approximately minimum drag speed, climbing at Vy allows pilots to maximize altitude gain per time. This occurs at the speed for which the difference between power and the power required to overcome the aircrafts drag is the greatest. Vx increases with altitude and Vy decreases with altitude until they converge at the absolute ceiling. A small four-seat aircraft like the Cessna 172 has a Vy of 75 KIAS providing a climb of rate of 721 ft/min, a large passenger jet, the Airbus A320, has a Vx of 220KIAS and a Vy of 270KIAS. Angle of climb V speeds Variometer
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Wing loading
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In aerodynamics, wing loading is the loaded mass of the aircraft divided by the area of the wing. An aircraft with a low wing loading has a wing area relative to its mass. The faster an aircraft flies, the lift is produced by each unit of wing area, so a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight. This increased wing load also increases takeoff and landing distances and speeds, a high wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints apply to winged biological organisms, the table, which shows wing loadings, is intended to give an idea of the range of wing loadings used by aircraft. There will be variations amongst variants of any particular type, the dates are approximate, indicating period of introduction. The upper critical limit for bird flight is about 25 kg/m2, an analysis of bird flight which looked at 138 species ranging in mass from 10 g to 10 kg, from small passerines to swans and cranes found wing loadings from about 1 to 20 kg/m2. The wing loadings of some of the lightest aircraft fall comfortably within this range, one typical hang glider has a maximum wing loading of 6.3 kg/m2, and an ultralight rigid glider 8.3 kg/m2. Wing loading is a measure of the general maneuvering performance of an aircraft. Wings generate lift owing to the motion of air over the wing surface, larger wings move more air, so an aircraft with a large wing area relative to its mass will have more lift available at any given speed. Therefore, an aircraft with wing loading will be able to take off. It will also be able to turn at a higher speed. Quantitatively, the lift force L on a wing of area A, traveling at speed v is given by L A =12 v 2 ρ C L, where ρ is the density of air and CL is the lift coefficient. The latter is a number of order unity which depends on the wing cross-sectional profile. At take-off or in flight, neither climbing nor diving, the lift force. With L/A = Mg/A =WSg, where M is the mass, WS = M/A the wing loading and g the acceleration due to gravity. As a consequence, aircraft with the same CL at takeoff under the atmospheric conditions will have takeoff speeds proportional to W S. So if a wing area is increased by 10% and nothing else changed
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Aero-Works Aerolite 103
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The Aero-Works Aerolite 103 is an American single seat, high-wing, pusher configuration ultralight aircraft, designed by Terry Raber and introduced by Aero-Works, Inc, of Millersburg, Ohio in 1997. The aircrafts model number indicates that it was designed to comply with the Federal Aviation Administration FAR103 ultralight rules, production of the aircraft ended in 2005 when the manufacturer went out of business. The aircraft was designed to meet the requirements of FAR103 Ultralight Vehicles, the builder-achieved empty weights vary from 252 lb to 300 lb, with 275 lb being typical. To remain under the FAR103 empty weight requires the use of a light-weight engine, the Aerolite 103 features a high wing with half-span flaps that are extended by use of an overhead bellcrank to a maximum of 40 degrees. The flight controls are three-axis and are actuated by a wheel mounted on a control column via flexible push-pull cables, the engine throttle is a twist-grip type and incorporates a brake lever to operate the non-differential mechanical drum brakes installed on the main wheels of the tricycle landing gear. The aircraft has conventional nose wheel steering connected to the rudder pedals, the main landing gear utilizes sprung-tubes for suspension and absorbing landing loads. There is a fourth small caster-wheel under the tail, because when the seat is unoccupied the aircraft rests on its tail. The Aerolite 103 is sold as a kit aircraft. The kit includes an assembly manual and pre-built fuselage, wings, control surfaces. The wings are covered by the builder with pre-sewn Dacron envelopes, the company estimates the time to complete the airframe at 60–80 hours. The kit does not include powerplant, propeller or instruments, when the aircraft was first introduced the standard engine was the 35 hp 2si 460-F35, with the 40 hp Rotax 447 optional. In 2009 the standard recommended engine was the Rotax 447, with the 46 hp Rotax 503 single carburettor engine optional, in July 2009 there were 12 Aerolite 103s registered as experimental amateur-builts in the USA. org
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