1.
Homebuilt aircraft
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Homebuilt aircraft, also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, are constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft may be constructed from scratch, from plans, or from assembly kits, in the United States, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, homebuilt aircraft may be licensed Experimental under FAA or similar local regulations. With some limitations, the builder of the aircraft must have done it for their own education and recreation rather than for profit, in the US, the primary builder can also apply for a repairmans certificate for that airframe. The repairmans certificate allows the holder to perform and sign off on most of the maintenance, repairs, alberto Santos-Dumont was the first to offer for free construction plans, publishing drawings of its Demoiselle in the June 1910 edition of Popular Mechanics. The first aircraft to be offered for sale as plans, rather than a completed airframe, was the Baby Ace in the late 1920s, homebuilt aircraft gained in popularity in the US in 1924 with the start of the National Air Races, held in Dayton, Ohio. These races required aircraft with useful loads of 150 lb and engines of 80 cubic inches or less, the years after Charles Lindberghs transatlantic flight brought a peak of interest between 1929 and 1933. During this period many aircraft designers, builders and pilots were self-taught, in 1946 Goodyear restarted the National Air Races, including a class for aircraft powered by 200 cubic inch and smaller engines. The midget racer class spread nationally in the US and this led to calls for acceptable standards to allow use of amateur-built aircraft. By the mid-1950s both the US and Canada once again allowed amateur-built aircraft to specified standards and limitations, homebuilt aircraft are generally small, one to four-seat sportsplanes which employ simple methods of construction. Engines are most often the same as, or similar to, the use of automotive engines helps to reduce costs, but many builders prefer dedicated aircraft engines, which are perceived to have better performance and reliability. Other engines that have used include chainsaw and motorcycle engines. In 2003, the number of homebuilts produced in the USA exceeded the number produced by any single certified manufacturer, the history of amateur-built aircraft can be traced to the beginning of aviation. Even if the Wright brothers, Clément Ader, and their successors had commercial objectives in mind, Aviation took a leap forward with the industrialization that accompanied World War I. In the post-war period, manufacturers needed to find new markets, however, these machines were affordable only by the very rich. Many of these were prototypes, but designs such as Bernard Pietenpols first 1923 design were some of the first homebuilt aircraft, in 1928, Henri Mignet published plans for his HM-8 Pou-du-Ciel, as did Pietenpol for his Air Camper. Pietenpol later constructed a factory, and in 1933 began creating and selling partially constructed aircraft kits, in 1936, an association of amateur aviation enthusiasts was created in France. Many types of aircraft began to make an appearance. The articles gained worldwide acclaim and the concept of aircraft homebuilding took off, until the late 1950s, builders had mainly kept to wood-and-cloth and steel tube-and-cloth design
2.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
3.
Ultralight aircraft (Canada)
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The Canadian Aviation Regulations define two types of ultralight aircraft, basic ultra-light aeroplane, and advanced ultra-light aeroplane. Regulation of ultra-light aircraft in Canada is covered by the Canadian Aviation Regulations, the basic ultralight category was established as a new category in 1982 to fill this gap. Many aircraft are available as AULAs in Canada and LSAs in the United States. For a two place aeroplane, MU =160 +0. 3P, in kg, where P is the engine power in kW, MU =350 +0. 5P, in lb. The maximum empty mass, MEmax, includes all equipment that is actually installed in the aeroplane. It includes the mass of the airframe, powerplant, required equipment, optional and specific equipment, fixed ballast, full engine coolant, hydraulic fluid, hence, the maximum empty mass = maximum take-off mass - minimum useful load. The registration marks for an advanced ultra-light aeroplane after 1997 begin with C-Ixxx, prior to that date they were C-Fxxx or C-Gxxx. Pilots holding a Recreational or higher license may carry a passenger in a two-seat advanced ultra-light aeroplane, pilots with only an ultra-light permit may not carry a passenger in an advanced ultralight unless they have received a passenger carrying endorsement. Basic ultralights cannot carry passengers unless the passenger is another pilot, student pilots undergoing training may be carried in basic ultralights. Canadian Basic and Advanced Ultralights may be flown in the USA if the pilot holds a Recreational Pilot Permit or higher designation, pilots holding an Ultralight Pilot Permit with instructor rating and who have at least 2 hours of cross country experience may also fly to the US. Any Canadian Ultralight flying to the US also requires a Special Flight Operations Certificate from the FAA and this is a form the pilot completes which is then valid for 180 days. Officially this category of aircraft are known in Canada as Ultra-light Aeroplanes although in use the American term Ultralight Airplanes is often used
4.
EAA AirVenture Oshkosh
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EAA AirVenture Oshkosh is an annual gathering of aviation enthusiasts held each summer at Wittman Regional Airport in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, United States. The airshow is sponsored by the Experimental Aircraft Association, an organization based in Oshkosh. The show lasts a week, usually beginning on the last Monday in July, during the gathering, the airports control tower is the busiest in the world. EAA was founded in Hales Corners, Wisconsin in 1953 by Paul Poberezny, although homebuilding is still a large part of the organizations activities, it has grown to include almost every aspect of recreational aviation and aeronautics. In 1959, the EAA fly-in grew too large for the Air Pageant and moved to Rockford, in 1970, when it outgrew its facilities at the Rockford airport, it moved to Oshkosh, Wisconsin. For many years the name of the event was The EAA Annual Convention. In 1998, the name was changed to AirVenture Oshkosh, for many years, access to the flight line was restricted to EAA members. In 1997, the fee structure for the show was changed allowing all visitors access to the entire grounds, EAA AirVenture holds nearly 1,000 forums and workshops. AirVenture has been the breeding ground throughout history for the debuts of numerous revolutionary designs. Richard VanGrunsven debuted his Vans RV-3 at the 1972 AirVenture Oshkosh, VanGrunsven would eventually go on to build more homebuilts than anyone else in the world, exceeding the annual production of all commercial general aviation companies combined. Other past notable designs introduced at AirVenture include Frank Christensens Christen Eagle II aerobatic kit biplane in 1978, Tom Hamiltons Glasair 1 in 1980, the EAA estimated the attendance in 2014 at over 500,000, with 2,081 visitors registered from 69 nations. There were approximately 10,000 aircraft,2,000 show planes, in the past, attendance at the event is tabulated on daily basis rather than an individual basis. For example, in 2006 the Oshkosh Northwestern reported that attendance was estimated at 625,000 by the EAA, the estimate was for total attendees each day, so one person attending 7 days would count as 7 attendees. The paper estimated that between 200,000 and 300,000 individuals attended the event and it is unclear whether this practice still exists at EAA Airventure. The large number of arrivals and departures during the fly-in week makes the Wittman Field FAA Control Tower the busiest in the world for that week in number of movements. To accommodate the flow of aircraft around the airport and the nearby airspace. More than 4,000 volunteers contribute approximately 250,000 hours before, during, the EAA AirVenture fly-in has a large economic impact to the Oshkosh area as well as the state of Wisconsin. In 1982, the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel reported that the fly-in had an economic benefit to the Fox Valley region
5.
Boise, Idaho
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Boise is the capital and most populous city of the U. S. state of Idaho, as well as the county seat of Ada County. Located on the Boise River in southwestern Idaho, the population of Boise at the 2010 Census was 205,671 and its estimated population in 2013 was 214,237. The Boise-Nampa metropolitan area, also known as the Treasure Valley, includes five counties with a population of 664,422. It contains the three largest cities, Boise, Nampa, and Meridian. Boise is the third most populous area in the United States Pacific Northwest region, behind Seattle. Accounts differ about the origin of the name, Bonneville of the U. S. Army as its source. After trekking for weeks through dry and rough terrain, his party reached an overlook with a view of the Boise River Valley. The place where they stood is called Bonneville Point, located on the Oregon Trail east of the city, according to the story, a French-speaking guide, overwhelmed by the sight of the verdant river, yelled Les bois. Les bois. —and the name stuck, the name may instead derive from earlier mountain men, who named the river that flows through it. In the 1820s, French Canadian fur trappers set trap lines in the vicinity, set in a high-desert area, the tree-lined valley of the Boise River became a distinct landmark, an oasis dominated by cottonwood trees. They called this La rivière boisée, which means the wooded river, the area was called Boise long before the establishment of Fort Boise by the federal government. The original Fort Boise was 40 miles west, near Parma and this private sector defense was erected by the Hudsons Bay Company in the 1830s. It was abandoned in the 1850s, but massacres along the Oregon Trail prompted the U. S. Army to re-establish a fort in the area in 1863 during the U. S. Civil War. The new location was selected because it was near the intersection of the Oregon Trail with a road connecting the Boise Basin. During the mid-1860s, Idaho City was the largest city in the Northwest, the original territory was larger than Texas. Mullett, the U. S. Assay Office at 210 Main Street was built in 1871, natives and longtime residents use the pronunciation /ˈbɔɪsiː/, as given on the citys website. The pronunciation is used as a shibboleth, as outsiders tend to pronounce the citys name as /ˈbɔɪziː/. Boise is located in southwestern Idaho, about 41 miles east of the Oregon border, the downtown areas elevation is 2,704 feet above sea level
6.
STOL
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A short takeoff and landing aircraft is an aircraft with short runway requirements for takeoff and landing. Many STOL-designed aircraft also feature various arrangements for use on runways with harsh conditions, STOL aircraft, including those used in scheduled passenger airline operations, have also been operated from STOLport airfields which feature short runways. Autogyros also have STOL capability, needing a ground roll to get airborne. Runway length requirement is a function of the square of the flying speed. For takeoff, large power/weight ratios and low drag help the plane to accelerate for flight, the landing run is minimized by strong brakes, low landing speed, thrust reversers or spoilers. Overall STOL performance is set by the length of runway needed to land or take off, of equal importance to short ground run is the ability to clear obstacles, such as trees, on both take off and landing. For takeoff, large power/weight ratios and low drag result in a rate of climb required to clear obstacles. For landing, high drag allows the aeroplane to descend steeply to the runway without building excess speed resulting in a ground run. Drag is increased by use of flaps and by a forward slip, normally, a STOL aircraft will have a large wing for its weight. These wings often use aerodynamic devices like flaps, slots, slats, typically, designing an aircraft for excellent STOL performance reduces maximum speed, but does not reduce payload lifting ability. Most STOL aircraft can land either on- or off-airport, typical off-airport landing areas include snow or ice, fields or gravel riverbanks, and water, these areas are often extremely short and obstructed by tall trees or hills. Wheel skis and amphibious floats combine wheels with skis or floats, a number of aircraft modification companies offer STOL kits that can be installed on aircraft to improve their short field performance. Crosswinds STOL of Wasilla, Alaska sells STOL kits for aircraft, including leading edge cuffs, tip spill plates, inboard flap extensions. The company offers kits for Piper PA-12, PA-14, PA-18, PA-20 and 22, Bellanca Champion Model 7 series, the Horton modifications include a drooped leading edge cuff, conical cambered wingtips, control surface gap seals and wing fences. The company says, On an average you can expect to get a 4-7 knot reduction in stall speeds, flying at these lower stall speeds you can reduce the take-off and landing distances by 10%. Horton STOL kits are available for several Cessna and Piper PA-28 models, Micro AeroDynamics markets vortex generator modification kits for STOL benefits. The Micro kits are small vortex generators that are glued to the leading edge, as well as the underside of the elevator. Kits are available for a number of light aircraft types
7.
Conventional landing gear
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Conventional landing gear, or tailwheel-type landing gear, is an aircraft undercarriage consisting of two main wheels forward of the center of gravity and a small wheel or skid to support the tail. The term taildragger is also used, although some claim it should apply only to aircraft with a tail skid rather than a wheel. The term conventional persists for historical reasons, but all modern jet aircraft, in early aircraft, a tailskid made of metal or wood was used to support the tail on the ground. In most modern aircraft with landing gear, a small articulated wheel assembly is attached to the rearmost part of the airframe in place of the skid. This wheel may be steered by the pilot through a connection to the pedals, allowing the rudder. Before aircraft commonly used tailwheels, many aircraft were equipped with steerable tailskids and this is also used on some tricycle gear aircraft, with the nose wheel being the freely castering wheel instead. Like the steerable tailwheel/skid, it is integrated with the rudder pedals on the craft to allow an easy transition between wheeled and aerodynamic control. The tailwheel configuration offers several advantages over the landing gear arrangement. Due to its much further from the center of gravity. As a result, the wheel weighs less and causes less parasitic drag. If a tailwheel fails on landing, the damage to the aircraft will be minimal and this is not the case in the event of a nosewheel failure, which usually results in a prop strike. Tailwheel aircraft are suitable for operation on skis. Tailwheel aircraft are easier to fit into and maneuver inside some hangars, the conventional landing gear arrangement has disadvantages compared to nose wheel aircraft. Tailwheel aircraft are subject to nose-over accidents due to injudicious application of brakes by the pilot. Conventional geared aircraft are more susceptible to ground looping. A ground loop occurs when directional control is lost on the ground and this event can result in damage to the aircrafts undercarriage, tires, wingtips, propeller and engine. Avoiding ground loops requires more pilot training and skill, tailwheel aircraft generally suffer from poorer forward visibility on the ground, compared to nose wheel aircraft. Often this requires continuous S turns on the ground to allow the pilot to see where they are taxiing and they also suffer from lower crosswind capability and in some wind conditions may be unable to use crosswind runways or single-runway airports
8.
Radial engine
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The radial engine is a reciprocating type internal combustion engine configuration in which the cylinders radiate outward from a central crankcase like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a star when viewed from the front, and is called a star engine in some languages. The radial configuration was very commonly used for aircraft engines before gas turbine engines became predominant, instead, the pistons are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their connecting rods attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod, extra rows of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter. Four-stroke radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston firing order can be maintained, for example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1,3,5,2,4 and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps compress the next cylinder to fire, if an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types, as with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston. The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the direction to the crankshaft. The cam lobes are placed in two rows for the intake and exhaust, for the example, four cam lobes serve all five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves. C. M. Manly constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, manlys engine produced 52 hp at 950 rpm. This was installed in his triplane and made a number of short free-flight hops, another early radial engine was the three-cylinder Anzani, originally built as a W3 fan configuration, one of which powered Louis Blériots Blériot XI across the English Channel. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the engine design in 1909, offering it to the Salmson company. It was similar in concept to the radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a factor with the early stationary radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow. Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines, in the early 1920s Le Rhône converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines. By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the inline engine
9.
Two-stroke engine
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A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast to an engine, which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a power cycle. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the combustion stroke, two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the power band. Compared to four-stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a reduced number of moving parts. The first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Dugald Clerk, however, unlike most later two-stroke engines, his had a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged engine, employing the area below the piston as a pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph Day. The first truly practical two-stroke engine is attributed to Yorkshireman Alfred Angas Scott, gasoline versions are particularly useful in lightweight or portable applications such as chainsaws and motorcycles. In a two-stroke engine, the transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less than in a four-stroke. Two-stroke petrol engines are preferred when mechanical simplicity, light weight, the Japanese manufacturer Suzuki did the same in the 1970s. Production of two-stroke cars ended in the 1980s in the West, eastern Bloc countries continued until around 1991, with the Trabant and Wartburg in East Germany. They are also common in power tools used outdoors, such as lawnmowers, chainsaws, with direct fuel injection and a sump-based lubrication system, a two-stroke engine produces air pollution no worse than a four-stroke, and it can achieve higher thermodynamic efficiency. Therefore, the cycle has also been used in large diesel engines, most notably large industrial and marine engines, as well as some trucks. Although the principles remain the same, the details of various two-stroke engines differ depending on the type. The design types vary according to the method of introducing the charge to the cylinder, the method of scavenging the cylinder, piston port is the simplest of the designs and the most common in small two-stroke engines. All functions are controlled solely by the covering and uncovering the ports as it moves up. In the 1970s, Yamaha worked out some principles for this system. They found that, in general, widening an exhaust port increases the power by the amount as raising the port. However, there is a limit to the width of a single exhaust port
10.
Rotax 912
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Rotax produced its 50, 000th 912-series engine in 2014. The original 80 hp 912 engine has a capacity of 1,211 cc, the later 912S is enlarged to 1,352 cubic centimetres and has a compression ratio of 10.4,1, yielding 100 hp. The 912 A and F are used in certified aircraft, such as the Diamond DA20, the 100 hp versions are used in many light sport aircraft, such as the Zenith STOL CH701 and the Tecnam P2002 Sierra. The 80 hp versions are sufficient to power the new generation of efficient motorgliders, such as the Pipistrel Sinus and it is also fitted to some light twins, such as the Tecnam P2006T. On the 912A, F and UL the standard ratio is 2.27,1 with 2.43,1 optional. Lubrication is dry sump, and fuelling is via dual CV carburetors or fully redundant electronic fuel injection, the electronic fuel injected Rotax 912iS is a recent development. A further derivative, the 135 hp Rotax 915 iS was announced in July 2015, early 912 series engines have a shorter time between overhaul than traditional engines, but are more fuel efficient than similarly sized engines, e. g. Effective 14 December 2009,912 engines have had their recommended Time Between Overhauls raised from 1,200 hours to 1,500 hours, or 1,500 hours to 2,000 hours, depending on serial number. In addition to the fuel consumption they are certified to run on automotive fuel, further reducing running costs. The engines are popular in Europe and in United States Light Sport Category aircraft due to high power-to-weight ratio, low fuel costs, on 8 March 2012 the company displayed its 912 iS variant, a 100 hp version with fuel injection and an electronic engine management unit. The version weighs 63 kg, which is 6 kg more than the standard 912S, the non-certified 912 iS targets the Light Sport and Experimental market and 912 iSc will be certified. Production started in March 2012 and the engine has a 2000-hour recommended time-between-overhaul to start, on 1 April 2014 the company announced its new 912 iS Sport upgrade with greater power and torque and reduced fuel consumption. 912 S# Certified to FAR33,100 hp 912 UL# Uncertified,80 hp 912 ULS# Uncertified,100 hp 912 ULSFR# Uncertified French Authority specification,100 hp The # in the designation stands for, Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D. 100 mm Shaft with flange for fixed pitch propeller, P. C. D,4 inches Shaft with flange for constant speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches and drive for hydraulic governor for constant speed propeller Shaft with flange for fixed speed propeller P. C. D. 4 inches also can be fitted with an adaptor, drive, leaded fuel and AVGAS100 LL can be used but are not recommended
11.
Rotax 503
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The Rotax 503 is a 37 kW, inline 2-cylinder, two-stroke aircraft engine, built by BRP-Rotax GmbH & Co. KG of Austria for use in ultralight aircraft, as of 2011 the Rotax 503 is no longer in production. The Rotax 503 features piston ported, air-cooled cylinder heads and cylinders, lubrication is either by use of pre-mixed fuel and oil or oil injection from an externally mounted oil tank. The 503 has dual independent breakerless, magneto ignition systems. It uses a pneumatic fuel pump to provide fuel pressure. An optional High Altitude Compensation kit is available, the engines propeller drive is via a Rotax type B, C, or E style gearbox. The standard engine includes a muffler exhaust system with an extra after-muffler as optional, the standard starter is a recoil start type, with an electric starter optional. An integral alternating current generator producing 170 watts at 12 volts with external rectifier-regulator is optional
12.
Flaperon
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A flaperon on an aircrafts wing is a type of control surface that combines the functions of both flaps and ailerons. Some smaller kitplanes have flaperons for reasons of simplicity of manufacture, in addition to controlling the roll or bank of an aircraft, as do conventional ailerons, both flaperons can be lowered together to function similarly to a set of flaps. On a plane with flaperons, the still has the standard separate controls for ailerons and flaps. A mechanical device called a mixer is used to combine the input into the flaperons. While the use of rather than ailerons and flaps might seem to be a simplification. Some aircraft, such as the Denney Kitfox, suspend the flaperons below the wing to provide undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack or low airspeeds, beneficiaries of such research might include drones and the latest fighter aircraft. These research approaches include flexible wings and fluidics, In flexible wings, the X-53 Active Aeroelastic Wing is a NASA effort. The Adaptive Compliant Wing is a military and commercial effort and this may be seen as a return to the wing warping used and patented by the Wright brothers. In this use, fluidics promises lower mass, costs, and very low inertia and response times, as well as simplicity
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