1.
Surgeon
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In medicine, a surgeon is a doctor who performs operations. Surgeons may be physicians, podiatrists, dentists, or veterinarians, the first person to document a surgery was the 6th Century BC Indian physician-surgeon, Sushrutha. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon to have appeared from the Islamic World and his greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. He was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, in Europe, surgery was mostly associated with barber-surgeons who also used their hair-cutting tools to undertake surgical procedures, often at the battlefield and also for their royal paymasters. In 1950, the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London began to offer surgeons a formal status via RCS membership. The distinction of Mr is also used by surgeons in the Republic of Ireland, Australia, Barbados, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe, in many English-speaking countries the military title of surgeon is applied to any medical practitioner, due to the historical evolution of the term. Some physicians who are general practitioners or specialists in medicine or emergency medicine may perform limited ranges of minor, common. Anesthesia often accompanies surgery, and anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists may oversee this aspect of surgery, Surgeons assistant, surgical nurses, surgical technologists and operating department practitioners are trained professionals who support surgeons. Sushruta Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Charles Kelman William Stewart Halsted Alfred Blalock C
2.
Mouth
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It is also the cavity lying at the upper end of the alimentary canal, bounded on the outside by the lips and inside by the pharynx and containing in higher vertebrates the tongue and teeth. This cavity is known as the buccal cavity, from the Latin bucca. Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a digestive system, with a mouth at one end. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome. In the first multicellular animals there was probably no mouth or gut, the particles became enclosed in vacuoles into which enzymes were secreted and digestion took place intracellularly. The digestive products were absorbed into the cytoplasm and diffused into other cells, the vast majority of other multicellular organisms have a mouth and a gut, the lining of which is continuous with the epithelial cells on the surface of the body. A few animals which live parasitically originally had guts but have secondarily lost these structures, the original gut of multicellular organisms probably consisted of a simple sac with a single opening, the mouth. Indigestible waste is ejected through the mouth, in animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the formation of the gut. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus while the gut tunnels through to make another opening. In the protostomes, it used to be thought that the formed the mouth while the anus formed later as an opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the slit-like blastopore close up in the middle, apart from sponges and placozoans, almost all animals have an internal gut cavity which is lined with gastrodermal cells. In less advanced invertebrates such as the sea anemone, the mouth also acts as an anus, circular muscles around the mouth are able to relax or contract in order to open or close it. A fringe of tentacles thrusts food into the cavity and it can gape widely enough to large prey items. Food passes first into a pharynx and digestion occurs extracellularly in the gastrovascular cavity, annelids have simple tube-like gets and the possession of an anus allows them to separate the digestion of their foodstuffs from the absorption of the nutrients. Many molluscs have a radula which is used to scrape microscopic particles off surfaces, in invertebrates with hard exoskeletons, various mouthparts may be involved in feeding behaviour. Insects have a range of mouthparts suited to their mode of feeding and these include mandibles, maxillae and labium and can be modified into suitable appendages for chewing, cutting, piercing, sponging and sucking. Decapods have six pairs of appendages, one pair of mandibles. Sea urchins have a set of five sharp calcareous plates which are used as jaws and are known as Aristotles lantern, in vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the buccal cavity, commonly known as the mouth
3.
Pierre Fauchard
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Pierre Fauchard was a French physician, credited as being the father of modern dentistry. He is widely known for writing the first complete description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste. Fauchard was born in a very modest home in Saint-Denis-de-Gastines in 1678, during that time, Fauchard learned that sailors who were on long voyages suffered severely from dental ailments, scurvy in particular. Eventually Major Poteleret inspired and encouraged him to read and carefully investigate the findings of his predecessors in the healing arts and he said he wanted to disseminate the knowledge he learned at sea based on actual practice. This idea led Fauchard to become a combat medic as Potelerets protégé, once Fauchard left the navy, he shortly settled down in Angers, where he practiced medicine at the University of Angers Hospital. In Angers, he started much of the medical work we know today. Fauchard often described himself as a Chirurgien Dentiste, a very rare at the time as dentists in the 17th century generally extracted decayed teeth rather than treating them. Fauchard made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watch makers, jewelers and even barbers, Fauchard introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth and he suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone and those artificially-made dental pieces would be useful as the natural ones. One of this methods stated that the teeth would be held in place by tying them to the remaining solid teeth by pivots. He also introduced dental braces, although they were made of gold. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces, during 1716 to 1718, Fauchard gained great prestige. During that time he spent long periods away from studying and sharing his medical practice with other surgeons across France. In 1718, Fauchard moved to Paris, finally in 1723, at the age of 45, he completed the first 600-page manuscript for Le Chirurgien Dentiste. Fauchard sought further feedback from his peers over the five years. The book was received in the European medical community. An enlarged edition in French was published in 1746 and a German translation was available in 1773, the book consisted of 38 chapters in volume 1 and 26 chapters in volume 2. Both volumes contained 42 plates depicting surgical instruments and appliances, many of the ideas introduced in the book were totally new to dentistry
4.
Water fluoridation
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Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities, typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in the U. S. costs an average of about $1.04 per person-year. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits, in 2011 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L, depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride. Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels, Dental caries remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear, a Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth. Most European countries have experienced substantial declines in tooth decay without its use, recent studies suggest that water fluoridation, particularly in industrialized nations, may be unnecessary because topical fluorides are widely used, and caries rates have become low. There is no evidence of other adverse effects from water fluoridation. Fluorides effects depend on the daily intake of fluoride from all sources. Drinking water is typically the largest source, other methods of therapy include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt. The views on the most efficient method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed, the Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective way to achieve fluoride exposure that is community-wide. Public water fluoridation was first practiced in the U. S, as of 2012,25 countries have artificial water fluoridation to varying degrees,11 of them have more than 50% of their population drinking fluoridated water. A further 28 countries have water that is naturally fluoridated, though in many of them the fluoride is above the safe level. As of 2012, about 435 million people worldwide received water fluoridated at the recommended level, about 214 million of them living in the United States. Major health organizations such as the World Health Organization and FDI World Dental Federation supported water fluoridation as safe, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists water fluoridation as one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20th century in the U. S. Despite this, the practice is controversial as a health measure, some countries and communities have discontinued it. The goal of water fluoridation is to prevent tooth decay by adjusting the concentration of fluoride in water supplies. Tooth decay is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases worldwide, in the U. S. minorities and the poor both have higher rates of decayed and missing teeth, and their children have less dental care. Once a cavity occurs, the fate is that of repeated restorations
5.
Toothpaste
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Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush as an accessory to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Salt and sodium bicarbonate are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste, in addition to 20–42% water, toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergents. Abrasives constitute at least 50% of a typical toothpaste and these insoluble particles help remove plaque from the teeth. The removal of plaque and calculus helps minimize cavities and periodontal disease, representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide, calcium carbonate, various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite. Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists offices, some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque, the abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values should be considered critical, and some dentists recommend toothpaste of an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use, Fluoride in various forms is the most popular active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride occurs in small amounts in plants, animals, and some water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel, sodium fluoride is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride, olaflur, and sodium monofluorophosphate are also used. Stannous fluoride has been shown to be effective than sodium fluoride in reducing the incidence of dental caries and controlling gingivitis. Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride, in European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher, a NaF content of 0. 312% w/w is common. Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate or related surfactants, SLS is found in many other personal care products, as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power. Despite the different ingredients included in the toothpaste, recent study indicates that brushing with or without toothpaste has no impact on the level of plaque removal, triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar, a 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0. 30% triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis. Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors, and flavors intended to use of the product. Three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen, Toothpaste flavored with peppermint-anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the oils, e. g. peppermint oil. More exotic flavors include Anethole anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates are included in formulations for remineralization, i. e. the reformation of enamel
6.
Dental restoration
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A dental restoration or dental filling is a dental restorative material used to restore the function, integrity and morphology of missing tooth structure. The structural loss typically results from caries or external trauma and it is also lost intentionally during tooth preparation to improve the aesthetics or the physical integrity of the intended restorative material. Dental restoration also refers to the replacement of missing tooth structure that is supported by dental implants, Dental restorations can be divided into two broad types, direct restorations and indirect restorations. All dental restorations can be classified by their location and size. A root canal filling is a technique used to fill the space where the dental pulp normally resides. Restoring a tooth to form and function requires two steps, preparing the tooth for placement of restorative material or materials, and placement of restorative material or materials. If permanent restoration can not be carried out immediately after tooth preparation, the prepared tooth, ready for placement of restorative materials, is generally called a tooth preparation. Materials used may be gold, amalgam, dental composites, glass ionomer cement, preparations may be intracoronal or extracoronal. Intracoronal preparations are those preparations which serve to hold restorative material within the confines of the structure of the crown of a tooth, examples include all classes of cavity preparations for composite or amalgam, as well as those for gold and porcelain inlays. Intracoronal preparations are made as female recipients to receive the male components of Removable partial dentures. Examples include crowns and onlays, as well as veneers, in preparing a tooth for a restoration, a number of considerations will come into play to determine the type and extent of the preparation. The most important factor to consider is decay, for the most part, the extent of the decay will define the extent of the preparation, and in turn, the subsequent method and appropriate materials for restoration. Another consideration is unsupported tooth structure, in the photo at right, unsupported enamel can be seen where the underlying dentin was removed because of infiltrative decay. When preparing the tooth to receive a restoration, unsupported enamel is removed to allow for a more predictable restoration, while enamel is the hardest substance in the human body, it is particularly brittle, and unsupported enamel fractures easily. This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth, the advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, where strength is required, especially as the fillings become larger, indirect restorations may be the best choice in some cases. In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided of the prepared tooth
7.
Dental braces
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Dental braces are devices used in orthodontics that align and straighten teeth and help to position them with regard to a persons bite, while also working to improve dental health. They are often used to correct underbites, as well as malocclusions, overbites, open bites, deep bites, cross bites, crooked teeth, braces can be either cosmetic or structural. Dental braces are used in conjunction with other orthodontic appliances to help widen the palate or jaws and to otherwise assist in shaping the teeth. According to scholars and historians, braces date back to ancient times, around 400-300 BCE, Hippocrates and Aristotle contemplated ways to straighten teeth and fix various dental conditions. Archaeologists have discovered numerous mummified ancient individuals with what appear to be metal bands wrapped around their teeth, catgut, a type of cord made from the natural fibers of an animals intestines, performed a similar role to today’s orthodontic wire in closing gaps in the teeth and mouth. The Etruscans buried their dead with dental appliances in place to maintain space, a Roman tomb was found with a number of teeth bound with gold wire documented as a ligature wire, a small elastic wire that is used to affix the arch wire to the bracket. Roman philosopher and physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus first recorded the treatment of teeth by finger pressure, Orthodontics truly began developing in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1728, French dentist Pierre Fauchard, who is credited with inventing modern orthodontics. Fauchard, in his practice, used a device called a Bandeau, in 1754, another French dentist, Louis Bourdet, dentist to the King of France, followed Fauchards book with The Dentists Art, which also dedicated a chapter to tooth alignment and application. He perfected the Bandeau and was the first dentist on record to recommend extraction of the teeth to alleviate crowding. Several important dentists helped to advance dental braces with specific instruments, in 1819, Delabarre introduced the wire crib, which marked the birth of contemporary orthodontics, and gum elastics were first employed by Maynard in 1843. Tucker was the first to cut rubber bands from rubber tubing in 1850, Dentist, writer, artist, and sculptor Norman William Kingsley in 1858 wrote the first article on orthodontics and in 1880, his book, Treatise on Oral Deformities, was published. In the early 20th century, Edward Angle devised the first simple classification system for malocclusions, such as Class I, Class II, and so on. His classification system is used today as a way for dentists to describe how crooked teeth are, what way teeth are pointing. Angle contributed greatly to the design of orthodontic and dental appliances, other innovations in orthodontics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included the first textbook on orthodontics for children, published by J. J. Guilford in 1889, and the use of rubber elastics, pioneered by Calvin S. Case, the application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements that are used, brackets, bonding material, arch wire, the teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction, braces have constant pressure which, over time, move teeth into the desired positions
8.
Sinus lift
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When a tooth is lost the alveolar process begins to remodel. The vacant tooth socket collapses as it leaving an edentulous area. This collapse causes a loss in height and width of the surrounding bone. In addition, when a maxillary molar or premolar is lost, the floor of the maxillary sinus expands, overall, this leads to a loss in volume of bone that is available for implantation of dental implants, which rely on osseointegration, to replace missing teeth. The goal of the lift is to graft extra bone into the maxillary sinus. Sinus augmentation is performed when the floor of the sinus is too close to an area where dental implants are to be placed and this procedure is performed to ensure a secure place for the implants while protecting the sinus. Lowering of the sinus can be caused by, Long-term tooth loss without the required treatment, periodontal disease, Patients who have the following may be good candidates for sinus augmentation. Lost more than one tooth in the posterior maxilla, lost a significant amount of bone in the posterior maxilla. Missing teeth due to genetics or birth defect, minus most of the maxillary teeth and need a strong sinus floor for multiple implants. Prior to undergoing sinus augmentation, diagnostics are run to determine the health of the patient’s sinuses, panoramic radiographs are taken to map out the patients upper jaw and sinuses. In special instances, a computed tomography or CT scan is taken to measure the height and width. There are several variations of the sinus lift technique, there are multiple ways to perform sinus augmentation. The procedure is performed from inside the mouth where the surgeon makes an incision into the gum. Once the incision is made, the surgeon then pulls back the gum tissue, the surgeon then cuts a window to the sinus, which is exposing the Schneiderian membrane. The membrane is separated from the bone, and bone graft material is placed into the newly created space, the gums are then sutured close and the graft is left to heal for 4–12 months. The graft material used can be either an autograft, an allograft, a xenograft, studies indicate that the mere lifting of the sinus membrane, creation of a void space and blood clot formation might result in new bone owing to the principles of guided bone regeneration. In some cases the dental implant is inserted during the same sinus lift procedure. As an alternative, sinus augmentation can be performed by a less invasive osteotome technique and this technique is normally performed when the sinus floor needs to be lifted less than 4 mm
9.
Doctor of Medicine
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The Doctor of Medicine is a terminal medical degree for practitioners of medicine. The meaning of the varies between different countries. In countries that follow the United States system, the M. D. denotes a first professional degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school. In those countries, the title of the equivalent first professional degree is Bachelor of Medicine, in 1703, the University of Glasgows first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland, the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland and these first few North American medical schools that were established were founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. A feminine form, Doctress of Medicine or Medicinae Doctrix, has also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. The MD degree is earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year and those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows similar practice in the United States and Canada to the M. D. degree and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. The M. D. degree is awarded only by the 137 Medical Schools in the United States, similarly, M. D. s must attend M. D. rated residency and fellowship programs while D. O. s can attend either type of program. The American M. D. degree is recognized by most countries in the world. While the D. O. degree is getting more widely accepted in countries as fully licensed physicians. In Canada, the MD is the medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD. MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning doctor of medicine, upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD-PhD, the National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities
