1.
Oral hygiene
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Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth and teeth clean to prevent dental problems, most commonly, dental cavities, gingivitis, periodontal diseases and bad breath. There are also oral pathologic conditions in which good oral hygiene is required for healing and these conditions include gingivitis, periodontitis, and dental trauma, such as subluxation, oral cysts, and following wisdom tooth extraction. Teeth cleaning is the removal of plaque and tartar from teeth to prevent cavities, gingivitis, gum disease. Severe gum disease causes at least one-third of adult tooth loss, tooth decay is the most common global disease. Dental sealants, which are applied by dentists, cover and protect fissures and grooves in the surfaces of back teeth. An elastomer strip has shown to force sealant deeper inside opposing chewing surfaces. Since before recorded history, a variety of oral hygiene measures have been used for teeth cleaning and this has been verified by various excavations done throughout the world, in which chew sticks, tree twigs, bird feathers, animal bones and porcupine quills were recovered. Many people used different forms of cleaning tools. In the Muslim world, the miswak, or siwak, made from a twig or root, has properties and has been widely used since the Islamic Golden Age. Rubbing baking soda or chalk against the teeth was also common, generally, dentists recommend that teeth be cleaned professionally at least twice per year. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling, tooth polishing, and, if tartar has accumulated, debridement, however, the American Dental Hygienists Association publicly stated in 1998 that there is an absence of evidence that scaling and polishing provides therapeutic value. Between cleanings by a dental hygienist, good hygiene is essential for preventing tartar build-up which causes the problems mentioned above. This is done through careful, frequent brushing with a toothbrush, powered toothbrushes reduce dental plaque and gingivitis more than manual toothbrushing in both short and long term. Further evidence is needed to determine the importance of these findings. Dentist and dental hygienist are about preventing tooth loss and gum disease, the patient needs to be aware of the importance of brushing and flossing their teeth daily. New parents need to be educated to promote a healthy life, at any age, a person should be notified about how to take care of their teeth and how they will be able to keep their teeth and not need dentures. Plaque is a yellow sticky film that forms on the teeth and gums, the bacteria in plaque convert carbohydrates in food into acid that demineralises teeth, eventually causing cavities. Daily brushing with toothpaste and flossing removes plaque, plaque can also cause inflammation of the gum, making it red, tender and can easily bleed when flossing or brushing your teeth
2.
Doctor of Medicine
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The Doctor of Medicine is a terminal medical degree for practitioners of medicine. The meaning of the varies between different countries. In countries that follow the United States system, the M. D. denotes a first professional degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school. In those countries, the title of the equivalent first professional degree is Bachelor of Medicine, in 1703, the University of Glasgows first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine. North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland, the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB. Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland and these first few North American medical schools that were established were founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. A feminine form, Doctress of Medicine or Medicinae Doctrix, has also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s. The MD degree is earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year and those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows similar practice in the United States and Canada to the M. D. degree and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. The M. D. degree is awarded only by the 137 Medical Schools in the United States, similarly, M. D. s must attend M. D. rated residency and fellowship programs while D. O. s can attend either type of program. The American M. D. degree is recognized by most countries in the world. While the D. O. degree is getting more widely accepted in countries as fully licensed physicians. In Canada, the MD is the medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the medical school in Canada that continues to award the MD. MDCM is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning doctor of medicine, upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD-PhD, the National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities
3.
Surgeon
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In medicine, a surgeon is a doctor who performs operations. Surgeons may be physicians, podiatrists, dentists, or veterinarians, the first person to document a surgery was the 6th Century BC Indian physician-surgeon, Sushrutha. He is considered the greatest medieval surgeon to have appeared from the Islamic World and his greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. He was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, in Europe, surgery was mostly associated with barber-surgeons who also used their hair-cutting tools to undertake surgical procedures, often at the battlefield and also for their royal paymasters. In 1950, the Royal College of Surgeons of England in London began to offer surgeons a formal status via RCS membership. The distinction of Mr is also used by surgeons in the Republic of Ireland, Australia, Barbados, New Zealand, South Africa, Zimbabwe, in many English-speaking countries the military title of surgeon is applied to any medical practitioner, due to the historical evolution of the term. Some physicians who are general practitioners or specialists in medicine or emergency medicine may perform limited ranges of minor, common. Anesthesia often accompanies surgery, and anesthesiologists and nurse anesthetists may oversee this aspect of surgery, Surgeons assistant, surgical nurses, surgical technologists and operating department practitioners are trained professionals who support surgeons. Sushruta Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi Charles Kelman William Stewart Halsted Alfred Blalock C
4.
Mouth
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It is also the cavity lying at the upper end of the alimentary canal, bounded on the outside by the lips and inside by the pharynx and containing in higher vertebrates the tongue and teeth. This cavity is known as the buccal cavity, from the Latin bucca. Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a digestive system, with a mouth at one end. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a used to classify animals into protostome and deuterostome. In the first multicellular animals there was probably no mouth or gut, the particles became enclosed in vacuoles into which enzymes were secreted and digestion took place intracellularly. The digestive products were absorbed into the cytoplasm and diffused into other cells, the vast majority of other multicellular organisms have a mouth and a gut, the lining of which is continuous with the epithelial cells on the surface of the body. A few animals which live parasitically originally had guts but have secondarily lost these structures, the original gut of multicellular organisms probably consisted of a simple sac with a single opening, the mouth. Indigestible waste is ejected through the mouth, in animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the formation of the gut. In deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus while the gut tunnels through to make another opening. In the protostomes, it used to be thought that the formed the mouth while the anus formed later as an opening made by the other end of the gut. More recent research, however, shows that in protostomes the edges of the slit-like blastopore close up in the middle, apart from sponges and placozoans, almost all animals have an internal gut cavity which is lined with gastrodermal cells. In less advanced invertebrates such as the sea anemone, the mouth also acts as an anus, circular muscles around the mouth are able to relax or contract in order to open or close it. A fringe of tentacles thrusts food into the cavity and it can gape widely enough to large prey items. Food passes first into a pharynx and digestion occurs extracellularly in the gastrovascular cavity, annelids have simple tube-like gets and the possession of an anus allows them to separate the digestion of their foodstuffs from the absorption of the nutrients. Many molluscs have a radula which is used to scrape microscopic particles off surfaces, in invertebrates with hard exoskeletons, various mouthparts may be involved in feeding behaviour. Insects have a range of mouthparts suited to their mode of feeding and these include mandibles, maxillae and labium and can be modified into suitable appendages for chewing, cutting, piercing, sponging and sucking. Decapods have six pairs of appendages, one pair of mandibles. Sea urchins have a set of five sharp calcareous plates which are used as jaws and are known as Aristotles lantern, in vertebrates, the first part of the digestive system is the buccal cavity, commonly known as the mouth
5.
Dental hygienist
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A dental hygienist is a licensed dental professional, registered with a dental association, or regulatory body within their country of practice. They are a primary healthcare professional who works independently or alongside dentists and they have the training and education that focus and specialize in the prevention and treatment of oral disease. They can choose to work in a range of settings from independent practice, private practice, specialists practices to public sector. Dental hygienists have a scope of clinical procedures they provide to their patients. They assess a patients condition in order to offer patient-specific preventative and educational services to promote, the use of therapeutic methods assists their patients in controlling oral disease, while providing tailored treatment plans that emphasize the importance of behavioral changes. In most jurisdictions, hygienists work for a dentist or dental specialist, the major role of a dental hygienist is to perform periodontal therapy which includes things such periodontal charting, periodontal debridement, prophylaxis for patients with periodontal disease. They are also able to work at a clinic and can perform many tasks there. Such as selecting and sizing of orthodontic bands for dental braces, Dental hygienists work together with other dental professionals, with a higher number working at general practices with dentists, Dental therapists and oral health therapists. A smaller number work at specialist practices alongside orthodontists and periodontists and they help with the contribution of an interdisciplinary approach, aiming to provide optimum oral health care to their patients. Dental hygienists also aim to work inter-professionally to provide oral health care in the best interest of their patient. Dental hygienists also offer expertise in their field and can provide a dental hygiene diagnosis, professional education, They are able to provide education by teaching and training dental hygiene students and dental assistants. They can also choose to present research at a variety of different events, community health, They provide assistance and group talks in community dental clinics, residential care, hospitals and nursing homes. For example, helping clients that suffer from medical and mental disorders, military dentistry, They are able to provide dental care to service members and their dependents or to civilians during humanitarian disasters. Marketing and sales, They can promote dental products and services through dental companies as a company representative. Periodontal therapy is a continuous cycle requiring regular evaluation and maintenance to optimise treatment outcomes, the treatment is normally carried out by a dental hygienist or oral health therapist, but involves all members of the dental team and can include specialists throughout the course of care. The provisional diagnosis is generated following an oral examination, data collection. An ASA physical status classification system is used to indicate future treatment options for the patient, whilst considering the implications of risk factors and this also allows the dental clinician to begin planning all non-surgical therapy. It is normally accomplished with the incorporation of patient education and motivational interviewing, therefore, mechanical and chemical plaque control are involved in this phase
6.
Dental technician
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A dental technologist is a member of the dental team who, upon prescription from a dental clinician, constructs custom made restorative and dental appliances. There are four major disciplines within dental technology, the dentist communicates with the dental technologist with prescriptions, drawings and measurements taken from the patient. The most important aspect of this is a dental impression into which the technologist flows a gypsum dental stone to create a replica of the patients anatomy known as a dental cast, a technologist can then use this cast for the construction of custom appliances. A fixed dental restoration is a designed to replace a tooth or teeth that may have been lost or damaged by injury. These restorations are distinguished from other restorations by the fact that once they have been placed by a dentist the patient can not remove them, such Restorations include, crowns, bridges, veneers, fixed implant restorations, inlays and onlays. Removable restorations are dental appliances to replace one or more teeth that have completely lost. These restorations ideally remain stable in normal function but can be removed by the patient for cleaning, Maxillofacial Prosthetist Technologists In the UK we are referred to as Maxillofacial Prosthetists. In other countries also use terms such as Anaplastologist and Epithetist. The field of Maxillofacial Prosthetics in the UK provides a wide variety of prostheses. Custom made splinting devices, Burns splints, Keloid scar splints, Surgical planning for Jaw surgery, cleft lip and palate Medical Modelling Surgical Simulation modelling, Surgical appliances to help after trauma. Custom made medical device manufacture, TMJ appliances, Tracheal oesophageal valve modifications, Sleep apnoea devices, Oral obturators Nasal septum obturators, Maxillofacial Prosthetists not only work closely with Oral and Maxillofacial surgeons but also treat patients independently in their own clinics. They are registered with the GDC and are able to provide a variety of custom made devices. MPTs in the UK are also registered with the Institute of Maxillofacial Protosthists Technologists, dentistry Dental auxiliary Dental assistant Dental therapist Dental hygienist Denturist Orthodontic Technicians Association Dental Technologists Association The Dental Technician
7.
Pierre Fauchard
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Pierre Fauchard was a French physician, credited as being the father of modern dentistry. He is widely known for writing the first complete description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste. Fauchard was born in a very modest home in Saint-Denis-de-Gastines in 1678, during that time, Fauchard learned that sailors who were on long voyages suffered severely from dental ailments, scurvy in particular. Eventually Major Poteleret inspired and encouraged him to read and carefully investigate the findings of his predecessors in the healing arts and he said he wanted to disseminate the knowledge he learned at sea based on actual practice. This idea led Fauchard to become a combat medic as Potelerets protégé, once Fauchard left the navy, he shortly settled down in Angers, where he practiced medicine at the University of Angers Hospital. In Angers, he started much of the medical work we know today. Fauchard often described himself as a Chirurgien Dentiste, a very rare at the time as dentists in the 17th century generally extracted decayed teeth rather than treating them. Fauchard made remarkable improvisations of dental instruments, often adapting tools from watch makers, jewelers and even barbers, Fauchard introduced dental fillings as treatment for dental cavities. Fauchard was the pioneer of dental prosthesis, and he discovered many methods to replace lost teeth and he suggested that substitutes could be made from carved blocks of ivory or bone and those artificially-made dental pieces would be useful as the natural ones. One of this methods stated that the teeth would be held in place by tying them to the remaining solid teeth by pivots. He also introduced dental braces, although they were made of gold. Waxed linen or silk threads were usually employed to fasten the braces, during 1716 to 1718, Fauchard gained great prestige. During that time he spent long periods away from studying and sharing his medical practice with other surgeons across France. In 1718, Fauchard moved to Paris, finally in 1723, at the age of 45, he completed the first 600-page manuscript for Le Chirurgien Dentiste. Fauchard sought further feedback from his peers over the five years. The book was received in the European medical community. An enlarged edition in French was published in 1746 and a German translation was available in 1773, the book consisted of 38 chapters in volume 1 and 26 chapters in volume 2. Both volumes contained 42 plates depicting surgical instruments and appliances, many of the ideas introduced in the book were totally new to dentistry
8.
Forensic dentistry
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Forensic dentistry or forensic odontology is the application of dental knowledge to those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system. Forensic dentistry is the handling, examination and evaluation of dental evidence. The evidence that may be derived from teeth is the age and this is done using dental records including radiographs, ante-mortem and post-mortem photographs and DNA. Forensic odontology is derived from Latin, meaning a forum or where legal matters are discussed, the other type of evidence is that of bite marks, left on either the victim, the perpetrator, or on an object found at the crime scene. Bite marks are found on children who are abused. Following the closure of the MSc course at the University of Glamorgan and this is at the University of Dundee in Scotland, which currently has a very limited intake. Forensic odontology is the study of dental applications in legal proceedings, the subject covers a wide variety of topics including individual identification, mass identification, and bite mark analysis. The study of odontology in a case can be a piece of incriminating evidence or an aspect of wide controversy. There have been many cases throughout history which have use of bite marks as evidence. Bite marks are seen in cases involving sexual assault, murder. Biting is often a sign of the perpetrator seeking to degrade the victim while also achieving complete domination, bite marks can be found anywhere on a body, particularly on soft, fleshy tissue such as the stomach or buttocks. In addition, bite marks can be found on objects present at the scene of a crime, bite marks are commonly found on a suspect when a victim attempts to defend him/herself. His bite marks and the marks of other people were compared to the victims marks. The judges readily accepted the bite marks as evidence and this was the first time in what would become the United States that bite marks were used as evidence to solve a crime and he was later convicted and hanged. About two decades later, he was exonerated by the State, and his children compensated for the wrongful execution, another early case was Doyle v. State, which occurred in Texas in 1954. The bite mark in case was on a piece of cheese found at the crime scene of a burglary. The defendant was asked to bite another piece of cheese for comparison. A firearms examiner and a dentist evaluated the bite marks independently, the conviction in this case set the stage for bite marks found on objects and skin to be used as evidence in future cases
9.
American Dental Association
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The American Dental Association is an American professional association established in 1859 which has more than 155,000 members. The ADA publishes a journal of dental related articles named the Journal of the American Dental Association. The American Dental Association was founded August 3,1859, at Niagara Falls, New York, today, the ADA has more than 152,000 members,55 constituent and 545 component dental societies. It is the largest and oldest national dental association in the world and is committed to both the public and the dental profession, the Association has more than 400 employees at its headquarters in Chicago and its office in Washington, D. C. PRC scientists conduct basic and applied studies in research, dental chemistry, polymer chemistry and cariology. The ADA established rigorous guidelines for testing and advertising of products. Today, about 350 manufacturers participate in the program and more than 1300 products have received the Seal of Acceptance. Product manufacturers are charged $14,500 for each product the ADA evaluates, for products that are approved, manufactures pay an annual fee of $3,500. According to the ADA, it not make a profit from the program. The Treasurer and Executive Director serve as ex officio members, the House meets once a year during the Associations annual session. The Associations 11 councils serve as policy recommending agencies, each council is assigned to study issues relating to its special area of interest and to make recommendations on those matters to the Board of Trustees and the House of Delegates. The Associations official publication is The Journal of the American Dental Association, other publications include the ADA News and the ADA Guide to Dental Therapeutics. It is also recognized by 47 individual states, the ADA library has an extensive collection of dental literature with approximately 33,000 books and 17,500 bound journal volumes. The ADA library also subscribes to more than 600 journal titles, the ADA Foundation is the charitable arm of the Association. The ADA advocates several positions to legislators in the U. S. Congress, Dudley the Dinosaur is an advertising character from the ADA. He lives with his mom, little sister Dee Dee, Grandpa and his friends are other dinosaurs and prehistoric creatures like mammoths and saber tooth tigers. He, his friends, and family teaches children how to have healthy teeth, the character Dudley the Dinosaur debuted in winter of 1991 and became the nations first bilingual public service campaign for kids. Dudley has won over 100 major awards, appeared on mugs and he stars in comic books and DVDs available from the ADA
10.
Lucy Hobbs Taylor
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Lucy Hobbs Taylor was the first American woman to graduate from dental school. Lucy Hobbs was born on March 14,1833 in Constable and she entered the working world by teaching school for ten years in Michigan. In 1859, she moved to Cincinnati, intending to become a dentist, when she was refused admission to dental school, she began a private program of study with a professor from the Ohio College of Dental Surgery. After studying dentistry, Lucy Hobbs started her own practice in Cincinnati in 1861 and she soon moved to Bellevue and then McGregor, Iowa, where she spent three years. In 1865, she finally gained all professional recognition when she was allowed to join the Iowa State Dental Society. That November, she entered the Ohio College of Dental Surgery and she later wrote, People were amazed when they learned that a young girl had so far forgotten her womanhood as to want to study dentistry. Hobbs next moved to Chicago where she met James M. Taylor whom she married in April 1867, Taylor then convinced her husband to also enter dentistry. The two then moved to Lawrence, Kansas, where they practiced jointly until James Taylor died in 1886. After her husbands death, Lucy Taylor ceased to be an active dentist, by 1900, almost one thousand women had followed Lucy Taylor into dentistry, an increase many attribute largely to her accomplishments. Amalia Assur Rosalie Fougelberg Matlak, A. Surfing for history, Journal of the History of Dentistry. Before we were created equally, the story of Lucy Hobbs Taylor, Journal of the History of Dentistry. It takes determination to be a dentist, the New York State Dental Journal. A look at womens contributions to dentistry, Journal of the Indiana Dental Association. The New York State Dental Journal, davis, S. Lucy Hobbs Taylor, the mixed blessing of being the first. Journal of the American Dental Association, hewitt, D L. Dentistrys first lady, Lucy Hobbs Taylor. Dr. Lucy Hobbs Taylor, first woman dentist, the first woman dentist Lucy Hobbs Taylor, D. D. S. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, Lucy Hobbs Taylor at Find a Grave
11.
Water fluoridation
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Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is effective for preventing cavities, typically a fluoridated compound is added to drinking water, a process that in the U. S. costs an average of about $1.04 per person-year. Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits, in 2011 the World Health Organization suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L, depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride. Bottled water typically has unknown fluoride levels, Dental caries remains a major public health concern in most industrialized countries, affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults. Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear, a Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth. Most European countries have experienced substantial declines in tooth decay without its use, recent studies suggest that water fluoridation, particularly in industrialized nations, may be unnecessary because topical fluorides are widely used, and caries rates have become low. There is no evidence of other adverse effects from water fluoridation. Fluorides effects depend on the daily intake of fluoride from all sources. Drinking water is typically the largest source, other methods of therapy include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt. The views on the most efficient method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed, the Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective way to achieve fluoride exposure that is community-wide. Public water fluoridation was first practiced in the U. S, as of 2012,25 countries have artificial water fluoridation to varying degrees,11 of them have more than 50% of their population drinking fluoridated water. A further 28 countries have water that is naturally fluoridated, though in many of them the fluoride is above the safe level. As of 2012, about 435 million people worldwide received water fluoridated at the recommended level, about 214 million of them living in the United States. Major health organizations such as the World Health Organization and FDI World Dental Federation supported water fluoridation as safe, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention lists water fluoridation as one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20th century in the U. S. Despite this, the practice is controversial as a health measure, some countries and communities have discontinued it. The goal of water fluoridation is to prevent tooth decay by adjusting the concentration of fluoride in water supplies. Tooth decay is one of the most prevalent chronic diseases worldwide, in the U. S. minorities and the poor both have higher rates of decayed and missing teeth, and their children have less dental care. Once a cavity occurs, the fate is that of repeated restorations
12.
Toothpaste
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Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used with a toothbrush as an accessory to clean and maintain the aesthetics and health of teeth. Salt and sodium bicarbonate are among materials that can be substituted for commercial toothpaste, in addition to 20–42% water, toothpastes are derived from a variety of components, the three main ones being abrasives, fluoride, and detergents. Abrasives constitute at least 50% of a typical toothpaste and these insoluble particles help remove plaque from the teeth. The removal of plaque and calculus helps minimize cavities and periodontal disease, representative abrasives include particles of aluminum hydroxide, calcium carbonate, various calcium hydrogen phosphates, various silicas and zeolites, and hydroxyapatite. Abrasives, like the dental polishing agents used in dentists offices, some brands contain powdered white mica, which acts as a mild abrasive, and also adds a cosmetically pleasing glittery shimmer to the paste. The polishing of teeth removes stains from tooth surfaces, but has not been shown to improve dental health over and above the effects of the removal of plaque, the abrasive effect of toothpaste is indicated by its RDA value. Too high RDA values should be considered critical, and some dentists recommend toothpaste of an RDA value no higher than 50 for daily use, Fluoride in various forms is the most popular active ingredient in toothpaste to prevent cavities. Fluoride occurs in small amounts in plants, animals, and some water sources. The additional fluoride in toothpaste has beneficial effects on the formation of dental enamel, sodium fluoride is the most common source of fluoride, but stannous fluoride, olaflur, and sodium monofluorophosphate are also used. Stannous fluoride has been shown to be effective than sodium fluoride in reducing the incidence of dental caries and controlling gingivitis. Much of the toothpaste sold in the United States has 1,000 to 1,100 parts per million fluoride, in European countries, such as the UK or Greece, the fluoride content is often higher, a NaF content of 0. 312% w/w is common. Many, although not all, toothpastes contain sodium lauryl sulfate or related surfactants, SLS is found in many other personal care products, as well, such as shampoo, and is mainly a foaming agent, which enables uniform distribution of toothpaste, improving its cleansing power. Despite the different ingredients included in the toothpaste, recent study indicates that brushing with or without toothpaste has no impact on the level of plaque removal, triclosan, an antibacterial agent, is a common toothpaste ingredient in the United Kingdom. Triclosan or zinc chloride prevent gingivitis and, according to the American Dental Association, helps reduce tartar, a 2006 review of clinical research concluded there was evidence for the effectiveness of 0. 30% triclosan in reducing plaque and gingivitis. Toothpaste comes in a variety of colors, and flavors intended to use of the product. Three most common flavorants are peppermint, spearmint, and wintergreen, Toothpaste flavored with peppermint-anise oil is popular in the Mediterranean region. These flavors are provided by the oils, e. g. peppermint oil. More exotic flavors include Anethole anise, apricot, bubblegum, cinnamon, fennel, lavender, neem, ginger, vanilla, lemon, orange, hydroxyapatite nanocrystals and a variety of calcium phosphates are included in formulations for remineralization, i. e. the reformation of enamel
13.
Teeth cleaning
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Teeth cleaning is part of oral hygiene and involves the removal of dental plaque from teeth with the intention of preventing cavities, gingivitis, and periodontal disease. People routinely clean their own teeth by brushing and interdental cleaning and those with dentures and natural teeth may supplement their cleaning with a denture cleaner. Careful and frequent brushing with a toothbrush helps to prevent build-up of plaque bacteria on the teeth, electric toothbrushes were developed, and initially recommended for people with strength or dexterity problems in their hands, but they have come into widespread general use. The effectiveness of electric toothbrushes at reducing plaque formation and gingivitis is superior to that of conventional manual toothbrushes, in addition to brushing, cleaning between teeth may help to prevent build-up of plaque bacteria on the teeth. This may be done with dental floss or interdental brushes, special appliances or tools may be used to supplement toothbrushing and interdental cleaning. These include special toothpicks, oral irrigators, and other devices, teeth can be cleaned by scrubbing with a twig instead of a toothbrush. Plant sap in the twig takes the place of toothpaste, in many parts of the world teeth cleaning twigs are used. In the Muslim world the miswak or siwak is made from twigs or roots that are said to have an effect when used for cleaning teeth. Teeth cleaning is a procedure for the removal of tartar that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing and it is often done by a dental hygienist. Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling and tooth polishing and debridement if too much tartar has accumulated and this involves the use of various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from the teeth. As to the frequency of cleaning, research on this matter is inconclusive and that is, it has neither been shown that more frequent cleaning leads to better outcomes nor that it does not. Thus, any general recommendation for a frequency of routine cleaning has no empirical basis, moreover, as economists have pointed out, private dentists have an economic incentive to recommend frequent cleaning, because it increases their revenues. Most dental hygienists recommend having the teeth professionally cleaned every six months, more frequent cleaning and examination may be necessary during treatment of dental and other oral disorders. Routine examination of the teeth is recommended at least every year and this may include yearly, select dental X-rays. See also dental plaque identification procedure and removal, good oral hygiene helps to prevent cavities, tartar build-up, and gum disease. Overly vigorous or incorrectly performed brushing or flossing may cause injury to the gingiva, improper or over-vigorous brushing may cause sore gums, damage to tooth enamel, gingivitis, and bleeding gums. Dentists and dental hygienists can instruct and demonstrate proper brushing or flossing techniques, historically, professional tooth cleaning was sometimes referred to as odontexesis or odontexis, and the instruments involved odontoglyphs. World Health Organization site on oral health
14.
Dental restoration
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A dental restoration or dental filling is a dental restorative material used to restore the function, integrity and morphology of missing tooth structure. The structural loss typically results from caries or external trauma and it is also lost intentionally during tooth preparation to improve the aesthetics or the physical integrity of the intended restorative material. Dental restoration also refers to the replacement of missing tooth structure that is supported by dental implants, Dental restorations can be divided into two broad types, direct restorations and indirect restorations. All dental restorations can be classified by their location and size. A root canal filling is a technique used to fill the space where the dental pulp normally resides. Restoring a tooth to form and function requires two steps, preparing the tooth for placement of restorative material or materials, and placement of restorative material or materials. If permanent restoration can not be carried out immediately after tooth preparation, the prepared tooth, ready for placement of restorative materials, is generally called a tooth preparation. Materials used may be gold, amalgam, dental composites, glass ionomer cement, preparations may be intracoronal or extracoronal. Intracoronal preparations are those preparations which serve to hold restorative material within the confines of the structure of the crown of a tooth, examples include all classes of cavity preparations for composite or amalgam, as well as those for gold and porcelain inlays. Intracoronal preparations are made as female recipients to receive the male components of Removable partial dentures. Examples include crowns and onlays, as well as veneers, in preparing a tooth for a restoration, a number of considerations will come into play to determine the type and extent of the preparation. The most important factor to consider is decay, for the most part, the extent of the decay will define the extent of the preparation, and in turn, the subsequent method and appropriate materials for restoration. Another consideration is unsupported tooth structure, in the photo at right, unsupported enamel can be seen where the underlying dentin was removed because of infiltrative decay. When preparing the tooth to receive a restoration, unsupported enamel is removed to allow for a more predictable restoration, while enamel is the hardest substance in the human body, it is particularly brittle, and unsupported enamel fractures easily. This technique involves placing a soft or malleable filling into the prepared tooth, the advantage of direct restorations is that they usually set quickly and can be placed in a single procedure. Since the material is required to set while in contact with the tooth, where strength is required, especially as the fillings become larger, indirect restorations may be the best choice in some cases. In this technique the restoration is fabricated outside of the using the dental impressions of the prepared tooth. Common indirect restorations include inlays and onlays, crowns, bridges, usually a dental technician fabricates the indirect restoration from records the dentist has provided of the prepared tooth
15.
Dental braces
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Dental braces are devices used in orthodontics that align and straighten teeth and help to position them with regard to a persons bite, while also working to improve dental health. They are often used to correct underbites, as well as malocclusions, overbites, open bites, deep bites, cross bites, crooked teeth, braces can be either cosmetic or structural. Dental braces are used in conjunction with other orthodontic appliances to help widen the palate or jaws and to otherwise assist in shaping the teeth. According to scholars and historians, braces date back to ancient times, around 400-300 BCE, Hippocrates and Aristotle contemplated ways to straighten teeth and fix various dental conditions. Archaeologists have discovered numerous mummified ancient individuals with what appear to be metal bands wrapped around their teeth, catgut, a type of cord made from the natural fibers of an animals intestines, performed a similar role to today’s orthodontic wire in closing gaps in the teeth and mouth. The Etruscans buried their dead with dental appliances in place to maintain space, a Roman tomb was found with a number of teeth bound with gold wire documented as a ligature wire, a small elastic wire that is used to affix the arch wire to the bracket. Roman philosopher and physician Aulus Cornelius Celsus first recorded the treatment of teeth by finger pressure, Orthodontics truly began developing in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1728, French dentist Pierre Fauchard, who is credited with inventing modern orthodontics. Fauchard, in his practice, used a device called a Bandeau, in 1754, another French dentist, Louis Bourdet, dentist to the King of France, followed Fauchards book with The Dentists Art, which also dedicated a chapter to tooth alignment and application. He perfected the Bandeau and was the first dentist on record to recommend extraction of the teeth to alleviate crowding. Several important dentists helped to advance dental braces with specific instruments, in 1819, Delabarre introduced the wire crib, which marked the birth of contemporary orthodontics, and gum elastics were first employed by Maynard in 1843. Tucker was the first to cut rubber bands from rubber tubing in 1850, Dentist, writer, artist, and sculptor Norman William Kingsley in 1858 wrote the first article on orthodontics and in 1880, his book, Treatise on Oral Deformities, was published. In the early 20th century, Edward Angle devised the first simple classification system for malocclusions, such as Class I, Class II, and so on. His classification system is used today as a way for dentists to describe how crooked teeth are, what way teeth are pointing. Angle contributed greatly to the design of orthodontic and dental appliances, other innovations in orthodontics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries included the first textbook on orthodontics for children, published by J. J. Guilford in 1889, and the use of rubber elastics, pioneered by Calvin S. Case, the application of braces moves the teeth as a result of force and pressure on the teeth. There are traditionally four basic elements that are used, brackets, bonding material, arch wire, the teeth move when the arch wire puts pressure on the brackets and teeth. Sometimes springs or rubber bands are used to put more force in a specific direction, braces have constant pressure which, over time, move teeth into the desired positions
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Root canal
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A root canal is the anatomic space within the root of a tooth. At the center of every tooth is an area that houses soft tissues, such as the nerve, blood vessels. This hollow area contains a wide space in the coronal portion of the tooth called the pulp chamber. These canals run through the center of the roots, similar to the way pencil lead runs through a pencil, the pulp receives nutrition through the blood vessels, and sensory nerves carry signals back to the brain. A tooth can be relieved from pain if there is damage to the pulp. The space inside the canals is filled with a highly vascularized, loose connective tissue. The dental pulp is the tissue of which the portion of the tooth is composed. The dental pulp helps complete formation of the secondary one to two years after eruption into the mouth. The dental pulp also nourishes and hydrates the tooth structure, making the more resilient, less brittle. Additionally, the dental pulp provides a hot and cold sensory function, Root canal is also a colloquial term for a dental operation, endodontic therapy, wherein the pulp is cleaned out, the space disinfected and then filled. Root canal anatomy consists of the chamber and root canals. The smaller branches, referred to as canals, are most frequently found near the root end. The total number of root canals per tooth depends on the number of the tooth roots ranging from one to four, sometimes there are more than one root canal per root. Some teeth have a more variable internal anatomy than others, an unusual root canal shape, complex branching, and multiple root canals are considered as the main causes of root canal treatment failures. The specific features and complexity of the anatomy of the teeth have been thoroughly studied. Using a replica technique on thousands of teeth, Hess made clear as early as 1917 that the space of dental roots is often a complex system composed of a central area. Thus, the image of root canals having a smooth, conical shape is generally too idealistic, Root canals presenting an oval cross-section are found in 50%-70% of root canals. In addition, canals with a cross section are common when a single root contains two canals, subtleties that can be more difficult to appreciate on classical radiographs
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Oral surgery
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Oral and maxillofacial surgery specializes in treating many diseases, injuries and defects in the head, neck, face, jaws and the hard and soft tissues of the oral and maxillofacial region. It is an internationally recognized surgical specialty, oral and maxillofacial surgery is widely recognized as one of the specialties of dentistry. In many countries, however, maxillofacial surgery is a medical specialty requiring both medical and dental degrees, culminating in an appropriate qualification, all oral and maxillofacial surgeons however must obtain a university degree in dentistry before beginning residency training in oral and maxillofacial surgery. In the United States oral and maxillofacial residency programs are four or six years in duration. Programs that grant the MD degree are six years in duration, however, the public funds spent for 14 years of training are of a major concern for governments. Soft and hard tissue trauma of the oral and maxillofacial region, in the United States, oral and maxillofacial surgeons are required to undergo five months of intensive general anesthesia training. An additional month of pediatric anesthesia training is also required, lasers were first introduced to OMS in the mid-1980s starting with the CO2 laser. The CO2 laser remains the standard for the soft tissue surgery because of the ease of simultaneous photo-thermal ablation and coagulation. The CO2 laser is used in oral and dental surgery for virtually all soft-tissue procedures, the CO2 lasers 10,600 nm wavelength is also safe around implants as it is reflected by titanium, and thus has been gaining popularity in the field of periodontology. It may be effective in treating peri-implantitis, oral and maxillofacial surgeons specialise in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the mouth, jaws, face and neck. Many OMF surgeons focus on one of areas to develop a sub-specialist interest within the scope of the wider specialty. Oral and maxillofacial surgery requires four to six years of formal university training after dental school. In the United States, four-year residency programs grant a certificate of specialty training in oral and maxillofacial surgery, six-year residency programs grant the specialty certificate in addition to a degree such as a medical degree, or research degree. Both four- and six-year graduates are designated US Board Eligible, approximately 50% of the training programs in the US and 66% of Canadian training programs are dual-degree. Oral and maxillofacial surgery departments are available at public hospitals managed by the Hospital Authority
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Antibiotic
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Antibiotics, also called antibacterials, are a type of antimicrobial drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria, a limited number of antibiotics also possess antiprotozoal activity. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses such as the cold or influenza. Drugs which inhibit viruses are termed antiviral drugs or antivirals rather than antibiotics, sometimes the term antibiotic is used to refer to any substance used against microbes, synonymous with antimicrobial. Some sources distinguish between antibacterial and antibiotic, antibacterials are used in soaps and disinfectants, while antibiotics are used as medicine, Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. However, their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. All classes of antibiotics in use today were first discovered prior to the mid 1980s, substances with antibiotic properties had been used for various purposes since ancient times. Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore, mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials, more recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics. In 1874, physician Sir William Roberts noted that cultures of the mold Penicillium glaucum that is used in the making of types of blue cheese did not display bacterial contamination. In 1876, physicist John Tyndall also contributed to this field, Louis Pasteur conducted research showing that Bacillus anthracis would not grow in the presence of the related mold Penicillium notatum. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and molds engage in a battle for survival. Duchesne observed that E. coli was eliminated by the fungus Penicillium glaucum when they were grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he inoculated animals with lethal doses of typhoid bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum. Unfortunately Duchesnes army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research, Duchesne died of tuberculosis, a disease now treated by antibiotics. In 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming identified penicillin, a molecule produced by molds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of disease-causing bacteria when he noticed the spores of a mold, Penicillium chrysogenum
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Analgesic
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An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems and they are distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily affect, and in some instances completely eliminate, sensation. Analgesics include paracetamol, the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as the salicylates, when choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent, the World Health Organization pain ladder specifies mild analgesics as its first step. Topical nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs provided pain relief in common such as muscle sprains. Since the side effects are also lesser, topical preparations could be preferred over oral medications in these conditions, each different type of analgesic has its own associated side effects. Drugs for pain are typically classified by chemical structure and they may also be classified in other ways. Sometimes they are classified by use for classes of medical condition. Other times they are sorted by the needs of populations who would use them. They might be listed by availability in an area, perhaps to prevent recommending a drug which is illegal in one place even if it is easily available elsewhere. Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a used to treat pain. It is typically used for mild to moderate pain, in combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is used for more severe pain such as cancer pain and after surgery. It is typically used either by mouth or rectally but is also available intravenously, effects last between two and four hours. Paracetamol is classified as a mild analgesic, paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, are a class that groups together drugs that provide analgesic and antipyretic effects. The most prominent members of group of drugs, aspirin. These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs, the cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions, COX1 and COX2. Research suggested most of the effects of NSAIDs to be mediated by blocking the COX1 enzyme. Thus, the COX2 inhibitors were developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme and these drugs are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular
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Local anesthetic
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A local anesthetic is a medication that causes reversible absence of pain sensation, although other senses are often affected, as well. Also, when it is used on specific nerve pathways, paralysis also can be achieved, clinical LAs belong to one of two classes, aminoamide and aminoester local anesthetics. Synthetic LAs are structurally related to cocaine and they differ from cocaine mainly in that they have a very low abuse potential and do not produce hypertension or vasoconstriction. In a medical setting, pain alleviation is desired when its function is no longer needed. Besides improving patient comfort, pain therapy can also reduce harmful physiological consequences of untreated pain, acute pain can often be managed using analgesics. However, conduction anesthesia may be preferable because of pain control. For purposes of pain therapy, LA drugs are given by repeated injection or continuous infusion through a catheter. Low doses of LA drugs can be sufficient so that muscle weakness does not occur, LAs can be applied repeatedly or continuously for prolonged periods to relieve chronic pain, usually in combination with medication such as opioids, NSAIDs, and anticonvulsants. Virtually every part of the body can be anesthetized using conduction anesthesia, however, only a limited number of techniques are in common clinical use. Sometimes, conduction anesthesia is combined with general anesthesia or sedation for the patients comfort and it may also be suitable for other kinds of punctures such as ascites drainage and amniocentesis. Surface anesthesia also facilitates some endoscopic procedures such as bronchoscopy or cystoscopy, the local adverse effects of anesthetic agents include neurovascular manifestations such as prolonged anesthesia and paresthesia. These are symptoms of localized nerve impairment or nerve damage, of particular note, the use of topical anesthetics for relief of eye pain can result in severe corneal damage. The risk of temporary or permanent nerve damage varies between different locations and types of nerve blocks, permanent nerve damage after a peripheral nerve block is rare. Symptoms are likely to resolve within a few weeks, the vast majority of those affected recover within four to six weeks, 99% of these people have recovered within a year. An estimated one in 5,000 to 30,000 nerve blocks results in degree of permanent persistent nerve damage. Symptoms may continue to improve for up to 18 months following injury, the conduction of electric impulses follows a similar mechanism in peripheral nerves, the central nervous system, and the heart. The effects of local anesthetics are, therefore, not specific for the conduction in peripheral nerves. Side effects on the nervous system and the heart may be severe
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Hypnotic
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This group is related to sedatives. Whereas the term sedative describes drugs that serve to calm or relieve anxiety, because these two functions frequently overlap, and because drugs in this class generally produce dose-dependent effects they are often referred to collectively as sedative-hypnotic drugs. Hypnotic drugs are prescribed for insomnia and other sleep disorders. When prescribed, hypnotic medication should be used for the shortest period of time necessary, most hypnotics prescribed today are either benzodiazepines or nonbenzodiazepines. Among individuals with sleep disorders,13. 7% are taking or prescribed nonbenzodiazepines, while 10. 8% are taking benzodiazepines, early classes of drugs, such as barbiturates, have fallen out of use in most practices but are still prescribed for some patients. In children, prescribing hypnotics is not yet acceptable unless used to treat night terrors or somnambulism, falling outside of the above-mentioned categories, the neuro-hormone melatonin has a hypnotic function. Research about using medications to treat insomnia evolved throughout the last half of the 20th century, treatment for insomnia in psychiatry dates back to 1869 when chloral hydrate was first used as a soporific. Barbiturates emerged as the first class of drugs that emerged in the early 1900s, although the best drug family at the time they were dangerous in overdose. During the 1970s, quinazolinones and benzodiazepines were introduced as alternatives to replace barbiturates. Benzodiazepines are not without their drawbacks, substance dependence is possible, questions have been raised as to whether they disturb sleep architecture. Nonbenzodiazepines are the most recent development, although its clear that they are less toxic than their predecessors, barbiturates, comparative efficacy over benzodiazepines have not been established. Without longitudinal studies, it is hard to determine, however some psychiatrists recommend these drugs, other sleep remedies that may be considered sedative-hypnotics exist, psychiatrists will sometimes prescribe medicines off-label if they have sedating effects. Examples of these include mirtazapine, clonidine, quetiapine, and the over-the-counter sleep aid diphenhydramine, off-label sleep remedies are particularly useful when first-line treatment is unsuccessful or deemed unsafe. Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system depressants, and can produce a wide spectrum of effects. They are also effective as anxiolytics, hypnotics, and anticonvulsants, barbiturates also have analgesic effects, however, these effects are somewhat weak, preventing barbiturates from being used in surgery in the absence of other analgesics. They have dependence liability, both physical and psychological, however, barbiturates are still used in general anesthesia, for epilepsy, and assisted suicide. Barbiturates are derivatives of barbituric acid, the principal mechanism of action of barbiturates is believed to be positive allosteric modulation of GABAA receptors. Examples include amobarbital, pentobarbital, phenobarbital, secobarbital, and sodium thiopental, quinazolinones are also a class of drugs which function as hypnotic/sedatives that contain a 4-quinazolinone core
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Epidemiology
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Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease, epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results. Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in research, public health studies. However, the term is used in studies of zoological populations, although the term epizoology is available. The distinction between epidemic and endemic was first drawn by Hippocrates, to distinguish between diseases that are visited upon a population from those that reside within a population. The term epidemiology appears to have first been used to describe the study of epidemics in 1802 by the Spanish physician Villalba in Epidemiología Española, epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Therefore, this epidemiology is based upon how the pattern of the disease cause changes in the function of everyone, Hippocrates believed sickness of the human body to be caused by an imbalance of the four humors. The cure to the sickness was to remove or add the humor in question to balance the body and this belief led to the application of bloodletting and dieting in medicine. He coined the terms endemic and epidemic, in the middle of the 16th century, a doctor from Verona named Girolamo Fracastoro was the first to propose a theory that these very small, unseeable, particles that cause disease were alive. They were considered to be able to spread by air, multiply by themselves, in this way he refuted Galens miasma theory. In 1543 he wrote a book De contagione et contagiosis morbis, the development of a sufficiently powerful microscope by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1675 provided visual evidence of living particles consistent with a germ theory of disease. Wu Youke developed the concept that some diseases were caused by transmissible agents and his book Wenyi Lun can be regarded as the main etiological work that brought forward the concept, ultimately attributed to Westerners, of germs as a cause of epidemic diseases. His concepts are considered in current scientific research in relation to Traditional Chinese Medicine studies. Another pioneer, Thomas Sydenham, was the first to distinguish the fevers of Londoners in the later 1600s and his theories on cures of fevers met with much resistance from traditional physicians at the time. He was not able to find the cause of the smallpox fever he researched and treated. John Graunt, a haberdasher and amateur statistician, published Natural and Political Observations, upon the Bills of Mortality in 1662. In it, he analysed the mortality rolls in London before the Great Plague, presented one of the first life tables and he provided statistical evidence for many theories on disease, and also refuted some widespread ideas on them. John Snow is famous for his investigations into the causes of the 19th century cholera epidemics and he began with noticing the significantly higher death rates in two areas supplied by Southwark Company
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Endodontics
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Endodontics is the dental specialty concerned with the study and treatment of the dental pulp. Endodontics has evolved tremendously in the past decade and its applications have improved the quality of dental treatment. Endodontists perform a variety of procedures including endodontic therapy, endodontic retreatment, surgery, treating cracked teeth, root canal therapy is one of the most common procedures. If the dental pulp becomes diseased or injured, endodontic treatment is required to save the tooth, in the United States after finishing a dental degree, a dentist must undergo 2-3 additional years of postgraduate training to become an Endodontist. American Dental Association accredited programs are a minimum of two years in length, following successful completion of this training the dentist becomes Board eligible to sit for the American Board of Endodontics examination. Successful completion of board certification results in Diplomate status in the American Board of Endodontics, although general dentists can perform endodontic treatment, there are several things which set endodontists apart. Endodontists use microscopes during treatment to treat the small internal anatomy of teeth without taking away too much tooth structure. Also, endodontists use CBCT to assess case difficulty and for diagnosis, the overall dental care of patients is improved with an endodontist on the dental team. In Egypt, the students need at least 3 years of post-graduating programs
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Pathology
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Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis. Similarly, a condition is one caused by disease, rather than occurring physiologically. A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist, as a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease, cause, mechanisms of development, structural alterations of cells, and the consequences of changes. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types, organs, the sense of the word pathology as a synonym of disease or pathosis is very common in health care. The persistence of this usage despite attempted proscription is discussed elsewhere, the study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Notably, many advances were made in the era of Islam, during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed. By the 17th century, the study of microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word cell, setting the stage for later germ theory. However, pathology as an area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This realization led to the understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, by the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the discrete but deeply interconnected aims of biological research, anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a known as general pathology. Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level, however, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of pathology that focuses on the skin. It is unique, in there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. The completion of this allows one to take a subspecialty board examination. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope, more than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions and neoplasms
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Radiology
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Radiology is a specialty that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases seen within the body. Interventional radiology is the performance of medical procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies, the acquisition of medical images is usually carried out by the Radiographer, often known as a Radiologic Technologist. Depending on location, the Diagnostic Radiologist, or Reporting Radiographer, then interprets or reads the images and produces a report of their findings and this report is then transmitted to the Clinician who requested the imaging, either routinely or emergently. Radiographs are produced by transmitting X-rays through a patient, the X-rays are projected through the body onto a detector, an image is formed based on which rays pass through versus those that are absorbed or scattered in the patient. Röntgen discovered X-rays on November 8,1895 and received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery in 1901, in film-screen radiography, an X-ray tube generates a beam of X-rays, which is aimed at the patient. The film is then developed chemically and an image appears on the film, film-screen radiography is being replaced by computed radiography but more recently by digital radiography and the EOS imaging. In the two latest systems, the X-rays strike sensors that converts the signals generated into digital information, in digital radiography the sensors shape a plate, but in the EOS system, which is a slot-scanning system, a linear sensor vertically scans the patient. Plain radiography was the imaging modality available during the first 50 years of radiology. Due to its availability, speed, and lower costs compared to other modalities, also despite the large amount of data in CT scans, MR scans and other digital-based imaging, there are many disease entities in which the classic diagnosis is obtained by plain radiographs. Examples include various types of arthritis and pneumonia, bone tumors, fractures, congenital skeletal anomalies, mammography and DXA are two applications of low energy projectional radiography, used for the evaluation for breast cancer and osteoporosis, respectively. Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and this allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Two radiocontrast agents are presently in common use, barium sulfate is given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple forms, is given by oral, rectal, intra-arterial or intravenous routes. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in areas more or less than in normal tissues. CT imaging uses X-rays in conjunction with computing algorithms to image the body, in CT, an X-ray tube opposite an X-ray detector in a ring-shaped apparatus rotate around a patient, producing a computer-generated cross-sectional image. CT is acquired in the plane, with coronal and sagittal images produced by computer reconstruction. Radiocontrast agents are used with CT for enhanced delineation of anatomy. Although radiographs provide higher resolution, CT can detect more subtle variations in attenuation of X-rays
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Orthodontics
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Orthodontia, also known as orthodontics and dentofacial orthopedics, is a specialty field of dentistry. An orthodontist is a specialist who has special training in a dental school or college after they have graduated in dentistry. It was established by the efforts of pioneering orthodontists such as Edward Angle, the specialty deals primarily with the diagnosis, prevention and correction of malpositioned teeth and the jaws. Orthodontics is derived from the Greek orthos and -odont-, the history of orthodontics has been intimately linked with the history of dentistry for more than 2000 years. Dentistry had its origins as a part of medicine, according to the American Association of Orthodontists, archaeologists have discovered mummified ancients with metal bands wrapped around individual teeth. Malocclusion is not a disease, but abnormal alignment of the teeth, Orthodontic treatment can focus on dental displacement only, or deal with the control and modification of facial growth. In the latter case it is defined as dentofacial orthopedics. This often requires additional training, in addition to the formal three-year specialty training, for comprehensive orthodontic treatment, metal wires are inserted into orthodontic brackets, which can be made from stainless steel or a more aesthetic ceramic material. The wires interact with the brackets to move teeth into the desired positions, invisalign or other aligner trays consist of clear plastic trays that move teeth. Functional appliances are used to redirect jaw growth. Additional components—including removable appliances, headgear, expansion appliances, and many other devices—may also be used to move teeth, functional appliances, for example, are used in growing patients with the aim of modifying the jaw dimensions and relationship if these are altered. This therapy, termed Dentofacial Orthopedics, is followed by fixed multibracket therapy to align the teeth. Orthodontia is the specialty of dentistry that is concerned with the treatment of improper bites, Orthodontic treatment can help fix the patients teeth and set them in the right place. Orthodontists usually use braces and clear aligners to set the patients teeth, Orthodontists work on reconstructing the entire face rather than focusing only on teeth. After a course of active orthodontic treatment, patients will typically wear retainers, the retainers are generally worn full-time for a period, anywhere from just a few days to a year, then part-time for as long as the orthodontist recommends. It is possible for the teeth to stay aligned without regular retainer wear, for this reason, many orthodontists prescribe night-time or part-time retainer wear for many years after orthodontic treatment. Adult orthodontic patients are likely to need lifetime retention. Orthodontics was the first recognized specialty field within dentistry, many countries have their own systems for training and registering orthodontic specialists
