1.
Allan Pinkerton
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Allan J. Pinkerton was a Scottish American detective and spy, best known for creating the Pinkerton National Detective Agency. Allan Pinkerton was born in Gorbals, Glasgow, Lanarkshire, Scotland, United Kingdom, to William Pinkerton and his wife, Isobel McQueen and he left school at the age of 10 after his fathers death. Pinkerton read voraciously and was largely self-educated, a cooper by trade, Pinkerton was active in the British Chartist movement as a young man. He secretly married Joan Carfrae, a singer, in Glasgow on 13 March 1842, Pinkerton emigrated to the United States in 1842. In 1843 Pinkerton heard of Dundee Township, Illinois, fifty miles northwest of Chicago on the Fox River and he built a cabin and started a cooperage, sending for his wife in Chicago when their cabin was complete. As early as 1844, Pinkerton worked for the Chicago abolitionist leaders, after observing their movements for some time he informed the local sheriff, who arrested them. This later led to Pinkerton being appointed, in 1849, as the first police detective in Chicago, Cook County, Pinkertons business insignia was a wide open eye with the caption We never sleep. As the US expanded in territory, rail transport increased, in 1859, he attended the secret meetings held by John Brown and Frederick Douglass in Chicago along with abolitionists John Jones and Henry O. Wagoner. At those meetings, Jones, Wagoner, and Pinkerton helped purchase clothes and supplies for Brown, Jones wife, Mary, guessed that the supplies included the suit Brown was hung in after the failure of John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry in November 1859. C. His agents often worked undercover as Confederate soldiers and sympathizers to gather military intelligence, Pinkerton served on several undercover missions as a Union soldier using the alias Major E. J. He was succeeded as Intelligence Service chief by Lafayette Baker, the Intelligence Service was the predecessor of the U. S, following Pinkertons service with the Union Army, he continued his pursuit of train robbers, including the Reno Gang. After James allegedly captured and killed one of Pinkertons undercover agents, some consider this failure Pinkertons biggest defeat. In 1872, the Spanish Government hired Pinkerton to help suppress a revolution in Cuba which intended to end slavery and give citizens the right to vote. If Pinkerton knew this, then it directly contradicts statements in his 1883 book The Spy of the Rebellion, the Spanish government abolished slavery in 1880 and a Royal Decree abolished the last vestiges of it in 1886. Allan Pinkerton died in Chicago on July 1,1884 and it is usually said that Pinkerton slipped on the pavement and bit his tongue, resulting in gangrene. Contemporary reports give conflicting causes, such as that he succumbed to a stroke or to malaria, at the time of his death, he was working on a system to centralize all criminal identification records, a database now maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. Pinkerton is buried in Graceland Cemetery, Chicago and he is a member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame. After his death, the continued to operate and soon became a major force against the labor movement developing in the US
2.
Chicago Police Department
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The Chicago Police Department is the law enforcement agency of the U. S. city of Chicago, Illinois, under the jurisdiction of the City Council. It is the second-largest non-federal law enforcement agency in the United States and it has about 12,244 officers and over 1,925 other employees. Tracing its roots back to 1835, the Chicago Police Department is one of the oldest modern police forces in the world, the Superintendent of Police leads the Chicago Police Department. With the assistance of the First Deputy Superintendent, the Superintendent manages four bureaus, the current First Deputy Superintendent is Kevin Navarro, appointed by Mayor Rahm Emanuel. He was preceded by Garry F. McCarthy, former director of the Newark, New Jersey, Police Department, as superintendent, McCarthy was the highest paid city employee with an annual salary of $260,004. McCarthy resigned at the request of Mayor Emanuel on December 1,2015 over the high murder rate. The mayor appointed former Bureau of Patrol Chief Eddie Johnson as Superintendent on 28 March 2016, prior to McCarthys appointment, Jody P. Weis had served as superintendent of police since February 2008. At the time, Weis was the second Chicago police superintendent hired from outside of the city and he replaced Philip J. Cline, who officially retired on August 3,2007. Weis contract expired on March 1,2011, Mayor Richard M. Daley appointed Clines predecessor, Terry Hillard, on an interim basis. The Bureau of Internal Affairs is commanded by Chief Eddie L Welch III, There are 25 police districts, each led by a commander who oversees his or her district. Commanders report to the three deputy chiefs, who report to the Bureau of Patrol Chief. Wilson was brought on as Superintendent of Police, and served until 1967 when he retired, investigative functions are under the Bureau of Detectives. The Bureau of Detectives is Headed by the Chief of Detectives, the Detective Division includes the three Area Detective Divisions. The Organized Crime Division includes the Narcotics Section, Gang Investigations Section, Gang Enforcement Section, Vice Control Section, the Chief of Detectives heads the Detective Division, the Chief of Organized Crime heads that division—both reporting to the First Deputy Superintendent. Two Deputy Chiefs assist the Chief of Detectives while one Deputy Chief assists the Chief of OCD, the city is covered by three Detective Division Areas, each led by a Commander. The Bureau of Patrol includes the twenty-two districts, also included in the Bureau of Patrol are the Special Functions Group, the Marine & Helicopter Units, Mounted Units, SWAT, the Traffic Section, and Canine Units. A full-time SWAT team, organized in 2005, includes 70 members, the dignitary protection unit, based at OHare International Airport, is the only unit that uses two-wheeled motorcycles. The Mounted Unit maintains 32 gelded horses at the South Shore Cultural Center, the marine unit maintains nine boats, these bear an angled rendering of the Chicago City Flag at the bow, patterned after the United States Coast Guard racing stripe
3.
Pinkerton (detective agency)
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Pinkerton became famous when he claimed to have foiled a plot to assassinate president-elect Abraham Lincoln, who later hired Pinkerton agents for his personal security during the Civil War. Pinkertons agents performed services ranging from security guarding to private military contracting work, Pinkerton was the largest private law enforcement organization in the world at the height of its power. The ensuing battle between Pinkerton agents and striking workers led to the deaths of seven Pinkerton agents and nine steelworkers, the organization was pejoratively called the Pinks by its opponents. The company now operates as Pinkerton Consulting & Investigations, Inc. d. b. a, Pinkerton Corporate Risk Management, a division of the Swedish security company Securitas AB. The former Government Services division, PGS, now operates as Securitas Critical Infrastructure Services, in the 1850s, Allan Pinkerton met Chicago attorney Edward Rucker in a local Masonic Hall and formed the North-Western Police Agency, later known as the Pinkerton Agency. Historian Frank Morn writes, By the mid-1850s a few businessmen saw the need for control over their employees. In February 1855, Allan Pinkerton, after consulting with six midwestern railroads, in 1871, Congress appropriated $50,000 to the new Department of Justice to form a suborganization devoted to the detection and prosecution of those guilty of violating federal law. The amount was insufficient for the DOJ to fashion an integral investigating unit, white, who had been hired as a Special Officer during a strike, was shot and killed. July 19,1919, Hans Rassmuson, Special Officer, was shot, March 12,1924, Frank Miller, Pinkerton Watchman, was shot and killed. Gowen, then president of the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad, hired the agency to investigate the labor unions in the companys mines, the incident inspired Arthur Conan Doyles Sherlock Holmes novel The Valley of Fear. This resulted in a fight and siege in which 16 men were killed and 23 others were wounded. To restore order, two brigades of the Pennsylvania militia were called out by the Governor, as a legacy of the Pinkertons involvement a bridge connecting the nearby Pittsburgh suburbs of Munhall and Rankin was named Pinkertons Landing Bridge. In 1895, detective Frank Geyer tracked down the murderer of the three Pitezel children, leading to the trial and execution of the United States first known serial killer H. H. Holmes. His story is told in his book, The Holmes-Pitezel Case, Pinkertons had previously apprehended Holmes in 1894 in Boston on an outstanding warrant for insurance fraud perpetrated in Chicago. Harry Orchard was arrested by the Idaho police and confessed to Pinkerton agent James McParland that he assassinated former Governor Frank Steunenberg of Idaho in 1905. Orchard testified, under threat of hanging, against Western Federation of Miners president Big Bill Haywood, with a stirring defense by Clarence Darrow, Haywood and the other defendants of the WFM were acquitted in a nationally publicized trial. Orchard received a sentence, but it was commuted. In 1890, Indiana University hired the Pinkerton Agency to investigate the authorship of a student bogus that had been distributed throughout town, while boguses were not uncommon, this particular one attacked IU faculty and students with such graphic language that Bloomington residents complained
4.
Law enforcement agency
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A law enforcement agency, in North American English, is a government agency responsible for the enforcement of the laws. Outside North America, such organizations are usually called police services, LEAs which have their ability to apply their powers restricted in some way are said to operate within a jurisdiction. LEAs will have some form of restriction on their ability to apply their powers. Sometimes a LEA’s jurisdiction is determined by the complexity or seriousness of the non compliance with a law, differentiation of jurisdiction based on the seriousness and complexity of the non compliance either by law or by policy and consensus can coexist in countries. Other LEAs have a jurisdiction defined by the type of laws they enforce or assist in enforcing, for example, Interpol does not work with political, military, religious, or racial matters. A LEA’s jurisdiction usually also includes the bodies they support. Jurisdictionally, there can be an important difference between international LEAs and multinational LEAs, even though both are referred to as international, even in official documents. An international law enforcement agency has jurisdiction and or operates in countries and across State borders. International LEAs are typically also multinational, for example Interpol, within a country, the jurisdiction of law enforcement agencies can be organized and structured in a number of ways to provide law enforcement throughout the country. A law enforcement agency’s jurisdiction can be for the country or for a division or sub-division within the country. In Australia for example, each state has its own LEAs, in the United States for example, typically each state and county or city has its own LEAs. Often a LEA’s jurisdiction will be divided into operations areas for administrative. An operations area is called a command or an office. Sometimes the one jurisdiction is covered by more than one LEA, again for administrative and logistical efficiency reasons, or arising from policy. The primary difference between separate agencies and operational areas within the one jurisdiction is the degree of flexibility to move resources between versus within agencies. When multiple LEAs cover the one legal jurisdicition, each agency still typically organises itself into operations areas, when a LEA’s jurisdiction is for the whole country, it is usually one of two broad types, either federal or national. When the country has a constitution a whole of country LEA is referred to as a federal law enforcement agency. The responsibilities of a federal LEA vary from country to country. S, a federal police agency is a federal LEA which also has the typical police responsibilities of social order and public safety as well as federal law enforcement responsibilities
5.
Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
6.
Frederick Abberline
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Frederick George Abberline was a Chief Inspector for the London Metropolitan Police and a prominent police figure in the investigation into the Jack the Ripper serial killer murders of 1888. Frederick Abberline was the youngest son of Edward Abberline, a saddlemaker and Sheriffs Officer and Clerk of the Market, minor government positions. Edward Abberline died in 1849, and his widow opened a shop and brought up her four children, Emily, Harriett, Edward and Frederick. Frederick was a clockmaker until he left home to go to London, PC Abberline so impressed his superiors that they promoted him to Sergeant two years later on 19 August 1865. On his promotion he moved to Y Division, throughout 1867 he investigated Fenian activities as a plain clothes officer. He was promoted to Inspector on 10 March 1873, and three days later, on 13 March transferred to H Division in Whitechapel, on 8 April 1878 Abberline was appointed Local Inspector in charge of H Divisions CID. Following the murder of Mary Ann Nichols on 31 August 1888 and he was placed in charge of the various detectives investigating the Ripper murders. Among the many suspects in the case, Abberlines primary suspect was Severin Antoniovich Klosowski, among other theories he had about the murders was his theory that the murders could have been perpetrated by a female killer. Abberline was subsequently involved in the investigation of the Cleveland Street scandal in 1889, Abberline was married twice, once in March 1868 to 25-year-old Martha Mackness, the daughter of a labourer, from Elton, Northamptonshire, she died of tuberculosis two months after the marriage. On 17 December 1876, over a decade before the Ripper murders, Abberline married 32-year-old Emma Beament, although they had no children, there is no credible evidence that the couple were unhappy, and the marriage lasted until Frederick’s death over 50 years later. On his retirement from the Pinkerton Detective Agency in 1904 Abberline retired to Bournemouth, a blue plaque commemorating Abberline was unveiled at 195 Holdenhurst Road on 29 September 2001. Several fictional retellings of the surrounding the Jack the Ripper murders have cast Abberline in a lead role. The suggestion is often but erroneously made for the sake of drama that Abberline was unmarried and formed an attachment to one of the connected to the events. The two most popular depictions have also cast him as an addict, for which there is no known historical basis. Abberline was played by Michael Caine in the 1988 television miniseries Jack the Ripper, in this, the character was an aging alcoholic whose quest to solve the murder gives him the strength to give up drinking. The films version of Abberline was portrayed as an intelligent young detective who is ahead of his time in his deductive techniques, in the film, Abberline dies of an overdose in his late 30s, in reality, he died of natural causes aged 86. Abberline was played by Gordon Christie in the 1973 television miniseries Jack the Ripper, in The Ripper, an episode of the television series The Collector, Abberline was played by Robert Wisden. Abberline appears as a character in the anime series Black Butler named Fred Abberline
7.
Metropolitan Police
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As of March 2016, the Met employed 48,661 full-time personnel. This included 32,125 sworn police officers,9,521 police staff and this number excludes the 3,271 Special Constables, who work part-time and who have the same powers and uniform as their regular colleagues. This makes the Metropolitan Police the largest police force in the United Kingdom by a significant margin, the post of Commissioner was first held jointly by Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne. The post is occupied by the now-outgoing Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe. The Commissioners deputy, the Deputy Commissioner, is currently Craig Mackey, a number of informal names and abbreviations exists for the Metropolitan Police Service, the most common being the Met. In colloquial London, it is referred to as the Old Bill. The Met is also referred to by the metonym Scotland Yard after the location of its headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The Mets current headquarters is New Scotland Yard, in Victoria, the Metropolitan Police Service, whose officers became affectionately known as bobbies, was founded in 1829 by Robert Peel under the Metropolitan Police Act 1829. In 1839, the Marine Police Force, which had formed in 1798, was amalgamated into the Metropolitan Police. In 1837, it also incorporated with the Bow Street Horse Patrol that had organised in 1805. Since January 2012, the Mayor of London is responsible for the governance of the Metropolitan Police through the Mayors Office for Policing, the mayor is able to appoint someone to act on his behalf, the current office-holder is Deputy Mayor for Policing and Crime, Sophie Linden. The work of MOPAC is scrutinised by the Police and Crime Committee of the London Assembly, the area policed by the Metropolitan Police Service is known as the Metropolitan Police District. In terms of policing, the Met is divided into a number of Borough Operational Command Units. The City of London is a police area and is the responsibility of the separate City of London Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for policing of the network in the United Kingdom. Within London, they are responsible for the policing of the London Underground, Tramlink, The Emirates Air Line. There is also a park police force, the Kew Constabulary, responsible for the Royal Botanic Gardens. Officers also have limited powers in Scotland and Northern Ireland, within the MPD, the Met will take over the investigation of any serious crime from the British Transport Police and Ministry of Defence Police, if it is deemed appropriate
8.
Jack the Ripper
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The name Jack the Ripper originated in a letter written by someone claiming to be the murderer that was disseminated in the media. The letter is believed to have been a hoax and may have been written by journalists in an attempt to heighten interest in the story. The killer was called the Whitechapel Murderer as well as Leather Apron within the case files. Attacks ascribed to Jack the Ripper typically involved female prostitutes who lived and worked in the slums of the East End of London whose throats were cut prior to abdominal mutilations. The removal of organs from at least three of the victims led to proposals that their killer had some anatomical or surgical knowledge. Rumours that the murders were connected intensified in September and October 1888, the From Hell letter received by George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee included half of a preserved human kidney, purportedly taken from one of the victims. Extensive newspaper coverage bestowed widespread and enduring international notoriety on the Ripper, a police investigation into a series of eleven brutal killings in Whitechapel up to 1891 was unable to connect all the killings conclusively to the murders of 1888. The murders were never solved, and the legends surrounding them became a combination of historical research, folklore. The term ripperology was coined to describe the study and analysis of the Ripper cases, there are now over one hundred theories about the Rippers identity, and the murders have inspired many works of fiction. In the mid-19th century, Britain experienced an influx of Irish immigrants who swelled the populations of the major cities, from 1882, Jewish refugees from pogroms in Tsarist Russia and other areas of Eastern Europe emigrated into the same area. The parish of Whitechapel in Londons East End became increasingly overcrowded, work and housing conditions worsened, and a significant economic underclass developed. Robbery, violence, and alcohol dependency were commonplace, and the endemic poverty drove women to prostitution. In October 1888, Londons Metropolitan Police Service estimated that there were 62 brothels and 1,200 women working as prostitutes in Whitechapel, the economic problems were accompanied by a steady rise in social tensions. Between 1886 and 1889, frequent demonstrations led to intervention and public unrest. Anti-semitism, crime, nativism, racism, social disturbance, in 1888, such perceptions were strengthened when a series of vicious and grotesque murders attributed to Jack the Ripper received unprecedented coverage in the media. The large number of attacks against women in the East End during this time adds uncertainty to how many victims were killed by the same person. The first two cases in the Whitechapel murders file, those of Emma Elizabeth Smith and Martha Tabram, are not included in the canonical five, Smith was robbed and sexually assaulted in Osborn Street, Whitechapel, on 3 April 1888. A blunt object was inserted into her vagina, rupturing her peritoneum and she developed peritonitis and died the following day at London Hospital
9.
Serial killer
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Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers, while most set a threshold of three murders, others extend it to four or lessen it to two. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, for example, defines serial killing as a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone. The murders may be attempted or completed in a fashion. Serial killing is not the same as mass murdering, nor is it spree killing, however, there is ample evidence the term was used in Europe and the U. S. earlier. The German term and concept were coined by the influential Ernst Gennat, psychopathic behavior that is consistent with traits common to some serial killers include sensation seeking, a lack of remorse or guilt, impulsivity, the need for control, and predatory behavior. They were often abused—emotionally, physically and/or sexually—by a family member, a disproportionate number exhibit one, two, or all three of the Macdonald triad of predictors of future violent behavior, Many are fascinated with fire setting. They are involved in activity, especially in children who have not reached sexual maturity. More than 60 percent, or simply a large proportion, wet their beds beyond the age of 12 and they were frequently bullied or socially isolated as children or adolescents. For example, Henry Lee Lucas was ridiculed as a child, kenneth Bianchi was teased as a child because he urinated in his pants, suffered twitching, and as a teenager was ignored by his peers. Some were involved in petty crimes, such as fraud, theft, vandalism, often, they have trouble staying employed and tend to work in menial jobs. The FBI, however, states, Serial murderers often seem normal, have families and/or a steady job, other sources state they often come from unstable families. Studies have suggested that serial killers generally have an average or low-average IQ, although they are often described, a sample of 202 IQs of serial killers had a median IQ of 89. There are exceptions to these criteria, however, for example, Harold Shipman was a successful professional. He was considered a pillar of the community, he even won a professional award for a childrens asthma clinic and was interviewed by Granada Televisions World in Action. Dennis Nilsen was an ex-soldier turned civil servant and trade unionist who had no criminal record when arrested. Neither was known to have exhibited many of the tell-tale signs, vlado Taneski, a crime reporter, was a career journalist who was caught after a series of articles he wrote gave clues that he had murdered people. Russell Williams was a successful and respected career Royal Canadian Air Force Colonel who was convicted of murdering two women, along with fetish burglaries and rapes, Many serial killers have faced similar problems in their childhood development. Family, or lack thereof, is the most prominent part of a childs development because it is what the child can identify with on a regular basis
10.
Fiction
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Fiction is the classification for any story or similar work derived from imagination—in other words, not based strictly on history or fact. Fiction does not refer to a mode or genre, unless used in its narrowest sense to mean a literary narrative. Instead, the context of fiction is generally open to interpretation, characters and events within a fictional work may even be openly set in their own context entirely separate from the known universe, a fictional universe. Science fiction, for example, predicts or supposes technologies that are not realities at the time of the works creation, for example, Jules Vernes novel From the Earth to the Moon was published in 1865 and only in 1969 did astronaut Neil Armstrong first land on the moon. Historical fiction places imaginary characters into real historical events, in the early historical novel Waverley, Sir Walter Scotts fictional character Edward Waverley meets a figure from history, Bonnie Prince Charlie, and takes part in the Battle of Prestonpans. Some works of fiction are slightly or greatly re-imagined based on some originally true story, often, even when the author claims the fictional story is basically true, there may be artificial additions and subtractions from the true story to make it more interesting. One such example would be Tim OBriens The Things They Carried, creators of fantasy sometimes introduce entire imaginary creatures or beings such as dragons and fairies. In terms of the separation between fiction and non-fiction, the lines are now commonly understood as blurred, showing more overlap than mutual exclusion. Even fiction usually has elements of, or grounding in, truth, also, infinite fictional possibilities themselves signal the impossibility of fully knowing reality, provocatively demonstrating that there is no criterion to measure constructs of reality. The Internet has had a impact on the creation and distribution of fiction. Also, digital libraries such as Project Gutenberg make public domain texts more readily available, the combination of inexpensive home computers, the Internet and the creativity of its users has also led to new forms of fiction, such as interactive computer games or computer-generated comics. Countless forums for fan fiction can be online, where loyal followers of specific fictional realms create and distribute derivative stories. Types of literary fiction in prose, Short story, A work of at least 2,000 words, the boundary between a long short story and a novella is vague. Novella, A work of at least 17,500 words, joseph Conrads Heart of Darkness is an example of a novella. Novel, A work of 50,000 words or more, cartoonist Character Fiction writing Legend Mythology Non-fiction Pseudohistory Eco, Umberto 2009. On the ontology of fictional characters, A semiotic approach
11.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
12.
Police officer
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A police officer, also known as a policeman, policewoman, police agent, or a police employee is a warranted law employee of a police force. In the United States, the officer is typically the formal name of the lowest police rank. In many other countries, officer is a term not specifying a particular rank. In some nations the use of the officer is legally reserved for military personnel. Police officers may be sworn to an oath, and have the power to arrest people and detain them for a time, along with other duties. Although many police officers wear a uniform, some police officers are plain-clothed in order to dissimulate as ordinary citizens. The word police comes from the Greek politia meaning government, which came to mean its civil administration, Police officers are those empowered by government to enforce the laws it creates. In The Federalist Papers, James Madison wrote If men were angels and these words apply to those who serve government, including police. The more general term for the function is law enforcement officer or peace officer, a sheriff is typically the top police officer of a county, with that word coming from the person enforcing law over a shire. A person who has been deputized to serve the function of the sheriff is referred to as the deputy, a common nickname for a police officer is cop. The term copper is used in Britain to mean someone who captures. The common myth is that its a term referring to the officers buttons which are made of copper. The word Cop derives from a Gaelic word which has the equivalence of saying, protector, leader, the terms are almost nearly homophonic but have similar meanings. The term County Mountie is used specifically in reference to county police officers or county sheriffs deputies in the United States, as with Canadian Mounties, the term mountie comes from police who serve while mounted on horseback. Responsibilities of an officer are varied, and may differ greatly from within one political context to another. Typical duties relate to keeping the peace, law enforcement, protection of people and property, officers are expected to respond to a variety of situations that may arise while they are on duty. Rules and guidelines dictate how an officer should behave within the community, in some countries, rules and procedures dictate that a police officer is obliged to intervene in a criminal incident, even if they are off-duty. Police officers in all countries retain their lawful powers while off duty
13.
Civilian
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In general, a civilian is a person who is not a member of the military or of a police or firefighting force, as defined by Merriam Websters Dictionary. From the perspective of the U. S, in military and law enforcement slang, the term Civies or Civvies are often used to refer civilian population or civilian clothing. Under the laws of war, a civilian is one not being a member of the services and does not take a direct part of hostilities in times of armed conflict. The term civilian is slightly different from a non-combatant under the laws of war, the privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one or an international one. The word civilian goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French civilien, Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term non-combatant now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities, there is no intermediate status, nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, the ICRC has expressed the opinion that If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered unlawful or unprivileged combatants or belligerents. They may be prosecuted under the law of the detaining state for such action. According to Article 50 of the 1977 Protocol I Additional to the Geneva Conventions,1, a civilian is any person who does not belong to one of the categories of persons referred to in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of this Protocol. In case of whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be considered to be a civilian. The civilian population comprises all persons who are civilians, the presence within the civilian population of individuals who do not come within the definition of civilians does not deprive the population of its civilian character. The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories, the categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A, and of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that, any one who is not a member of the forces is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict, civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population, chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematical, starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. The claim was repeated on Wikipedias Did You Know on 14 December 2010 and these claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars that are central to the claims. It has lost none of its political, legal and moral salience, although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts
14.
Private investigator
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A private investigator, a private detective, or inquiry agent, is a person who can be hired by individuals or groups to undertake investigatory law services. Private detectives/investigators often work for attorneys in civil and criminal cases, official law enforcement tried many times to shut it down. In 1842, police arrested him in suspicion of unlawful imprisonment, Vidocq later suspected that it had been a set-up. He was sentenced to five years and fined 3, 000-francs, Vidocq is credited with having introduced record-keeping, criminology, and ballistics to criminal investigation. He made the first plaster casts of shoe impressions and he created indelible ink and unalterable bond paper with his printing company. His form of anthropometrics is still used by French police. He is also credited for philanthropic pursuits – he claimed he never informed on anyone who had stolen for real need, after Vidocq, the industry was born. Much of what private investigators did in the days was to act as the police in matters for which their clients felt the police were not equipped or willing to do. A larger role for new private investigative industry was to assist companies in labor disputes. Some early private investigators provided armed guards to act as a private militia, in the United Kingdom, Charles Frederick Field set up an enquiry office upon his retirement from the Metropolitan Police in 1852. Field became a friend of Charles Dickens, and the latter wrote articles about him, in 1862, one of his employees, the Hungarian Ignatius Paul Pollaky, left him and set up a rival agency. In the United States, Allan Pinkerton established the Pinkerton National Detective Agency - a private detective agency - in 1850, Pinkerton became famous when he foiled a plot to assassinate then President-elect Abraham Lincoln in 1861. Pinkertons agents performed services which ranged from undercover investigations and detection of crimes, to plant protection and it is sometimes claimed, probably with exaggeration, that at the height of its existence, the Pinkerton National Detective Agency employed more agents than the United States Army. Allan Pinkerton hired Kate Warne in 1856 as a private detective, during the union unrest in the US in the late 19th century, companies sometimes hired operatives and armed guards from the Pinkertons. In the aftermath of the Homestead Riot of 1892, several states passed so-called anti-Pinkerton laws restricting the importation of private security guards during union strikes. Pinkerton agents were hired to track western outlaws Jesse James, the Reno brothers, and the Wild Bunch, including Butch Cassidy. The Pinkerton agencys logo, an eye embellished with the words We Never Sleep, many private detectives/investigators with specialized academic and practical experience also work with defense attorneys on capital punishment and other criminal defense cases. Many others are insurance investigators who investigate suspicious claims, before the advent of no-fault divorce, many private investigators were hired to search out evidence of adultery or other conduct within marriage to establish grounds for a divorce
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Criminal investigation
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Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts, used to identify, locate and prove the guilt of an accused criminal. A complete criminal investigation can include searching, interviews, interrogations, evidence collection and preservation, modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science. Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c.1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi, in the code it is suggested that both the accuser and accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era criminal investigations are most often done by government police forces, private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations. An early recorded professional criminal investigator was the English constable, around 1250 CE it was recorded that the constable was to. record. matters of fact, not matters of judgment and law
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Homicide
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Homicide refers to one human killing another. These different types of homicides are often treated differently in human societies, some are considered crimes. Criminal homicide takes many forms including accidental or purposeful murder, the crime committed in a criminal homicide is determined by the mental state of the committing person and the extent of the crime. Instead, the individual is placed under the category of “insane”, in some jurisdictions, a homicide that occurs during the commission of a crime may constitute murder, regardless of the actors intent to commit homicide. In the United States, this is known as the felony murder rule, criminal homicides also include voluntary and involuntary manslaughter. An example of voluntary manslaughter is hitting someone with an intent to kill them, the perpetrator does not receive the same legal action against them as a person convicted of murder. While most homicides by civilians are criminally prosecutable, a right of self-defense is widely recognized, including, in dire circumstances and it goes like this, They needed killing. In essence, it was a justification for murder in the old days in Texas that the victim had horrible or violent character, a Texas jury which accepts this controversial Texas defense is hypothetically free to acquit the defendant, even if that involves disregarding the judges instructions. Penalization of juries for employing jury nullification has been forbidden since 1670 under the precedent known as Bushels Case, homicides may also be non-criminal when conducted with the sanction of the state. The most obvious examples are capital punishment, in which the state punishes a criminal with death, homicides committed in action during war are usually not subject to criminal prosecution either. Sources included multiple agencies and field offices of the United Nations, the World Health Organization, the report estimated that in 2010, the total number of homicides globally was 468,000. More than a third occurred in Africa, 31% in the Americas, 27% in Asia, 5% in Europe and 1% in Oceania. Since 1995, the rate has been falling in Europe, North America, and Asia, but has risen to a near “crisis point” in Central America. Of all homicides worldwide, 82% of the victims were men, on a per-capita scaled level, the homicide rate in Africa and the Americas is more than double the global average, whereas in Asia, Europe and Oceania it is roughly half. UNODC, in its 2013 global report, estimated the number of homicides worldwide dropped to 437,000 in 2012. Americas accounted for 36% of all homicides globally, Africa 31%, Asia 28%, Europe 5% and Oceania 0. 3%. The worlds average homicide rate stood at 6.2 per 100,000 population in 2012 and they are the most violent regions globally, outside of regions experiencing wars and religious or sociopolitical terrorism. Asia exclusive of West Asia and Central Asia, Western Europe, Northern Europe, about 41% of the homicides worldwide occurred in 2012 with the use of guns, 24% with sharp objects such as knife, and 35% by other means such as poison
17.
Robbery
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Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take anything of value by force, threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. At common law, robbery is defined as taking the property of another, with the intent to deprive the person of that property. Precise definitions of the offence may vary between jurisdictions, under English law, most forms of theft are triable either way, whereas robbery is triable only on indictment. The word rob came via French from Late Latin words of Germanic origin, among the types of robbery are armed robbery involving use of a weapon and aggravated robbery involving use of a deadly weapon or something that appears to be a deadly weapon. Highway robbery or mugging takes place outside or in a place such as a sidewalk, street. Carjacking is the act of stealing a car from a victim by force, extortion is the threat to do something illegal, or the offer to not do something illegal, in the event that goods are not given, primarily using words instead of actions. Criminal slang for robbery includes blagging or stick-up, and steaming, in Canada, the Criminal Code makes robbery an indictable offence, subject to a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. If the accused uses a restricted or prohibited firearm to commit robbery, there is a minimum sentence of five years for the first offence. Robbery is an offence in the Republic of Ireland. Robbery is an offence in England and Wales. Aggravated theft Robbery is the offence of aggravated theft. Aggravated robbery There are no offences of aggravated robbery and this requires evidence to show a theft as set out in section 1 of the Theft Act 1968. In R v Robinson the defendant threatened the victim with a knife in order to recover money which he was actually owed and his conviction for robbery was quashed on the basis that Robinson had an honest, although unreasonable, belief in his legal right to the money. See also R v Skivington 1 QB166,2 WLR655,131 JP265,111 SJ72,1 All ER483,51 Cr App R167, CA. It was argued that the theft should be regarded as complete by this time, and R v Gomez, should apply, the threat or use of force must take place immediately before or at the time of the theft. Force used after the theft is complete will not turn the theft into a robbery, the words or immediately after that appeared in section 23 of the Larceny Act 1916 were deliberately omitted from section 8. The book Archbold said that the facts in R v Harman and it was held in R v Dawson and James that force is an ordinary English word and its meaning should be left to the jury. This approach was confirmed in R v Clouden and Corcoran v Anderton, stealing may involve a young child who is not aware that taking other persons property is not in order
18.
Burglary
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Burglary is an unlawful entry into a building or other location for the purposes of committing an offence. Usually that offence is theft, but most jurisdictions include others within the ambit of burglary, to engage in the act of burglary is to burgle or to burglarize. Breaking can be actual, such as by forcing open a door, or constructive. Breaking does not require that anything be broken in terms of damage occurring. Entering can involve either physical entry by a person, or the insertion of an instrument to remove property, insertion of a tool to gain entry may not constitute entering by itself. Note that there must be a breaking and an entering for common law burglary, breaking without entry or entry without breaking is not sufficient for common law burglary. Although rarely listed as an element, the law required that entry occur as a consequence of the breaking. For example, if a wrongdoer partially opens a window with a pry bar—but then notices an open door, the use of the pry bar would not constitute an entry even if a portion of the prybar entered the residence. Under the instrumentality rule the use of an instrument to effect a breaking would not constitute an entry, however, if any part of the perpetrators body entered the residence in an attempt to gain entry, the instrumentality rule did not apply. The use of the word “therein” adds nothing and certainly does not limit the scope of burglary to those wrongdoers who break, the situs of the felony does not matter, and burglary occurs if the wrongdoer intended to commit a felony at the time he broke and entered. The common law elements of burglary often vary between jurisdictions, the etymology originates from Anglo-Saxon or Old English, one of the Germanic languages. According to one textbook, The word burglar comes from the two German words burg, meaning house, and laron, meaning thief, the British verb burgle is a late back-formation. In Canada, breaking and entering is prohibited by section 348 of the Criminal Code and is a hybrid offence, breaking and entering is defined as trespassing with intent to commit an indictable offence. The crime is commonly referred to in Canada as break and enter, there is no crime of burglary as such in Finland. However, if theft is committed during unlawful entering, then a person is guilty of theft or aggravated depending on the circumstances of the felony. In Sweden, burglary does not exist as an offence in itself, instead, if a person simply breaks into any premise, they are technically guilty of either unlawful intrusion or breach of domiciliary peace, depending on the premise in question. Breach of domiciliary peace is only when a person unlawfully intrudes or remains where another has his living quarters. The only punishments available for any of these offences are fines, in such cases, the maximum punishment is two years imprisonment
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Motor vehicle theft
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Motor vehicle theft or, grand theft auto, is the criminal act of stealing or attempting to steal a car. Nationwide in the US in 2012, there were an estimated 721,053 motor vehicle thefts, property losses due to motor vehicle theft in 2012 were estimated at $4.3 billion. In London the police say that 50% of the annual 20,000 car thefts are now from high tech OBD key cloning kits, Theft with access to keys, Known in some places as Taken Without Owners Consent. The unauthorized use of a vehicle in which the owner has allowed the driver to have possession of or easy access to the keys. Often, this is the adolescent or grown child or employee of the owner who, at other times. This may be treated differently, depending on the laws. Alternatively, some cars offered for sale are stolen during a test drive, a test drive may also provide a potential thief with insight into where the vehicle keys are stored, so that the thief may return later to steal the vehicle. Carjacking, Refers to the taking of a vehicle by force or threat of force from its owner or operator, in most places, this is the most serious form of theft, since assault also occurs. Some less common carjackings result in the operator being forced to drive the assailant in accordance with the assailants demands, many vehicles stolen via fraud are resold quickly thereafter. Using this approach, the thief can quietly evade detection and continue stealing vehicles in different jurisdictions, Car rental and Car dealership companies are also defrauded by car thieves into renting, selling, financing, or leasing them cars with fake identification, checks, and credit cards. This is a practice in areas near borders which tracking devices do nothing because jurisdiction cannot be applied into a foreign country to recover a lost vehicle. Slide hammer puller to break into the locks and the cylinder lock. A common one is called the Slim Jim, many keyless ignition/lock cars have weak or no cryptographic protection of the unlock signal. In particular, the security systems in older vehicles may not be up to the standard as current vehicles. Scrap metal and spare part prices may also influence thieves to prefer older vehicles, in Bangkok, Thailand, the most frequently stolen vehicles are Toyota cars, Toyota Hilux and Isuzu D-Max pickups. In Malaysia, Proton models are the most frequently stolen vehicles, with Proton Wira being the highest, followed by the Proton Waja, there are various methods of prevention to reduce the likelihood of a vehicle getting stolen. These include physical barriers, which make the effort of stealing the more difficult. Some of these include, Devices used to lock a part of the necessary in its operation, such as the wheel
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Organized crime
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Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist groups, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, such as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called protection, gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization or gang can also be referred to as a mafia, mob, or crime syndicate, European sociologists define the mafia as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the supply of extra-legal protection and quasi law enforcement. There is a tendency to distinguish organized crime from other forms of crime, such as crime, financial crimes, political crimes, war crime, state crimes. This distinction is not always apparent and academics continue to debate the matter, for example, in failed states that can no longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, organised crime, governance and war sometimes complement each other. The term Oligarchy has been used to describe democratic countries whose political, social and economic institutions come under the control of a few families, in the United States, the Organized Crime Control Act defines organized crime as he unlawful activities of a highly organized, disciplined association. Criminal activity as a process is referred to as racketeering. In the UK, police estimate that organized crime involves up to 38,000 people operating in 6,000 various groups, bureaucratic/corporate organized crime groups are defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures. An estimate on youth street gangs nationwide provided by Hannigan, et al. marked an increase of 35% between 2002 and 2010, the term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with “youth gang, ” referring to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria. Some reasons youth join gangs include to feel accepted, attain status, a sense of unity brings together many of the youth gangs that lack the family aspect at home. Zones of transition are deteriorating neighborhoods with shifting populations, in such areas, conflict between groups, fighting, turf wars, and theft promote solidarity and cohesion. Participation in gang-related events during adolescence perpetuate a pattern of maltreatment on their own children years later, klein like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers’ interventions. More interventions actually lead to greater participation and solidarity and bonds between members. Downes and Rock on Parker’s analysis, strain theory applies, labeling theory, control theory and these may also be defined by age or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity. These groups also form their own identity or public representation which are recognizable by the community at large. Some studied street gangs involved in drug dealing - finding that their structure, members saw themselves as organized criminals, gangs were formal-rational organizations, Strong organizational structures, well defined roles and rules that guided members’ behavior. Also a specified and regular means of income, padilla agreed with the two above. However some have found these to be rather than well-defined and lacking persistent focus, there was relatively low cohesion, few shared goals
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Missing person
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A missing person is a person who has disappeared and whose status as alive or dead cannot be confirmed as his or her location and fate are not known. The situation, uncertainties, and lack of closure or a funeral resulting when a person goes missing may be extremely painful with long-lasting effects on family and friends. A person may go missing due to accident, crime, death in a location where they cannot be found, or many other reasons, in some countries, missing persons photographs are posted on bulletin boards, milk cartons, postcards, and websites, to publicize their description. A child may go missing for several different reasons, when trying to understand how to find and protect missing children, it is important to analyse the causes and effects of a childs disappearance. While criminal abductions are often the most commonly publicised cases of missing children, many categories of missing children end up in the hands of traffickers forced into sexual or commercial exploitation and abuse. Some individuals choose to disappear alone, reasons for non-identification may include, To escape domestic abuse by a parent/guardian/sibling/spouse. Leaving home to live somewhere else under a new identity, Abduction by a non-custodial parent or other relative. Seizure by government officials without due process of law, suicide in a remote location or under an assumed name. Death by natural causes or accident far from home without identification, disappearance to take advantage of better employment or living conditions elsewhere. Sold into slavery, serfdom, sexual servitude, or other unfree labour, to avoid discovery of a crime or apprehension by law-enforcement authorities. Joining a cult or other organization that requires no contact to the outside world. To avoid war or persecution during a genocide, to escape famine or natural disaster. Death by floods, flash floods, debris flows, hurricanes, death in the water, with no body recovered. Runaways, Minors who run away from home, from the institution where they have been placed, Abduction by a third person, Abduction of minors by anyone other than the parents or the persons with parental authority. In most common law jurisdictions a person can be declared dead in absentia after seven years. This time frame may be reduced in cases, such as deaths in major battles or mass disasters such as the September 11,2001 attacks. The Wall Street Journal reported in 2012 that, It is estimated that some 8 million children go missing around the world each year. The BBC News reported that of the children who go missing worldwide, while usually the child is found quickly the ordeal can sometimes last months, royal Canadian Mounted Police missing child statistics for a ten-year period show a total of 60,582 missing children in 2007
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Juvenile delinquency
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Juvenile delinquency, also known as juvenile offending, is participation in illegal behavior by minors. Most legal systems prescribe specific procedures for dealing with juveniles, such as detention centers. A juvenile delinquent in the United States is a person who is typically below 18 years of age, depending on the type and severity of the offense committed, it is possible for people under 18 to be charged and treated as adults. Juvenile crimes can range from status offenses, to property crimes, however, juvenile offending can be considered normative adolescent behavior. This is because most teens tend to offend by committing non-violent crimes, only once or a few times, repeated and/or violent offending is likely to lead to later and more violent offenses. When this happens, the offender often displayed antisocial behavior even before reaching adolescence, according to the developmental research of Moffitt, there are two different types of offenders that emerge in adolescence. Juvenile delinquency occurrences by males are largely disproportionate to the rate of occurrences by females and this great gap between the crimes reinforce the connotations of traditional masculinity to be the center of violence, aggression, and competition. This is largely based on the notion that as males, it is their duty to take what they feel they deserve through these means to define themselves and play the role of provider and independent figure. Because aggression is not a characteristic, it has caused more commotion when females perform crimes that are often attributed to males. The acts of delinquency begin with the expectations of their perceived roles through the direction of adults of both genders. Sandra Lee Bartky expresses these claims thoroughly in her work Foucault, Femininity, and the Modernization of Patriarchal Power by examining close observation of diction, action, and decorum. Boys learn to take as much space as possible when sitting, dress appropriately to stand out, thus, delinquent behavior is expressed as an outlet especially to those of lower socioeconomic backgrounds that cannot gain precedence through conventional means. Gender role for females is to become more unnoticeable, a follower that does not need to stand out, because of their condition to be more docile and dependent, the instinctive need to gain precedence is not as highly valued. Even respect comes in the form of different terms, as it is through how appropriately she conducts herself that seems innocent and this is also influenced by fellow peers such as mothers and other female figures apart from the authoritative male figure. In this instance, there is no need to urge to commit delinquency as the female is expected to rely on the male for his role as provider. It is through the act of needing to become dependent that enforces the feminine characteristics to seem as an alternative to delinquency, in fact, it has been largely stated that while masculinity induces such violent behavior, femininity is seen as the antithesis to delinquency. The answers were predominantly that males were to provide through aggressive terms, while females should be the more docile, the bipolarity assumption suggests that masculinity and femininity are opposites, and the assumption of unidimensionality implies that gender differences form a single scale. Interestingly, the impact of feminism has because the formation of a new trend as female delinquency has gone up
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Fraud
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In law, fraud is deliberate deception to secure unfair or unlawful gain, or to deprive a victim of a legal right. Fraud itself can be a wrong, a criminal wrong or it may cause no loss of money, property or legal right. The purpose of fraud may be monetary gain or other benefits, a hoax is a distinct concept that involves deliberate deception without the intention of gain or of materially damaging or depriving a victim. In common law jurisdictions, as a wrong, fraud is a tort. Proving fraud in a court of law is said to be difficult. In cases of a fraudulently induced contract, fraud may serve as a defense in an action for breach of contract or specific performance of contract. Fraud may serve as a basis for a court to invoke its equitable jurisdiction, in common law jurisdictions, as a criminal offence, fraud takes many different forms, some general and some specific to particular categories of victims or misconduct. The elements of fraud as a crime similarly vary, section 380 of the Criminal Code provides the general definition for fraud in Canada,380. In addition to the penalties outlined above, the court can issue a prohibition order under s.380.2. It can also make an order under s.380.3. The Canadian courts have held that the offence consists of two elements, A prohibited act of deceit, falsehood or other fraudulent means. The Supreme Court of Canada has held that deprivation is satisfied on proof of detriment, prejudice or risk of prejudice, it is not essential that there be actual loss. Deprivation of confidential information, in the nature of a secret or copyrighted material that has commercial value, has also been held to fall within the scope of the offence. The BBC World Service reported in 2012 that the value lost through fraud in the UK was £66 billion a year. According to a review by the UK anti-fraud charity Fraud Advisory Panel business fraud accounted for £144bn, the FAP has been particularly critical of the support available from the police to victims of fraud in the UK outside of London. In July 2016 it was reported that fraudulent activity levels in the UK increased in the 10 years to 2016 from £52 billion to £193bn. This figure would be an estimate, since as the former commissioner of the City of London Police, Adrian Leppard, has said. Donald Toon, director of the NCAs economic crime command, stated in July 2016, Fraud affects one in ten people in the UK
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Narcotic
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The term narcotic originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with sleep-inducing properties. In the United States, it has become associated with opiates and opioids, commonly morphine and heroin. The primary three are morphine, codeine, and thebaine, legally speaking, the term narcotic is imprecisely defined and typically has negative connotations. When used in a context in the U. S. a narcotic drug is simply one that is totally prohibited, or one that is used in violation of governmental regulation. In the medical community, the term is more precisely defined, statutory classification of a drug as a narcotic often increases the penalties for violation of drug control statutes. The adoption of this Convention is regarded as a milestone in the history of drug law. The Convention also established the International Narcotics Control Board, merging the Permanent Central Board, the 1961 Convention seeks to control more than 116 drugs that it classifies as narcotic. These include, plant-based products such as opium and its derivatives morphine, codeine and heroin, synthetic narcotics such as methadone and pethidine, and cannabis, coca and cocaine. The Convention divides drugs into four groups, or schedules, in order to enforce a greater or lesser degree of control for the various substances, opium smoking and eating, coca leaf chewing, cannabis resin smoking and the non-medical use of cannabis are prohibited. In medicine, an agent that induces stupor, coma. In the context of drug control, “narcotic drug” means any drug defined as such under the 1961 Convention. In doing so, they approach the term from the law enforcement point of view, the best example is the definition of narcotics in the United Nations Conventions. Narcotics are substances and preparations that induce drowsiness, sleep, stupor, insensibility, etc. thus, the legal definition of a narcotic is whether or not it is listed on the Schedules of the Convention. If it is on some of the Schedules, it is narcotic, the term usually refers to opiates or opioids, which are called narcotic analgesics. In common parlance and legal usage, it is often used imprecisely to mean illicit drugs, for example, narcotics control legislation in Canada, USA, and certain other countries includes cocaine and cannabis as well as opioids. Because of this variation in usage, the term is best replaced by one with a specific meaning. Such term does not include the isoquinoline alkaloids of opium, poppy straw and concentrate of poppy straw. Coca leaves, except coca leaves and extracts of leaves from which cocaine, ecgonine
25.
Vice
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Vice is a practice, behaviour, or habit generally considered immoral, sinful, criminal, rude, taboo, depraved, or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a character trait, a defect. Vices are usually associated with a transgression in a character or temperament rather than their morality. Synonyms for vice include fault, sin, depravity, iniquity, wickedness, the opposite of vice is virtue. The modern English term that best captures its original meaning is the word vicious, in this sense, the word vice comes from the Latin word vitium, meaning failing or defect. Depending on the country or jurisdiction, vice crimes may or may not be treated as a category in the criminal codes. In the United Kingdom, the term vice is used in law and law enforcement to refer to criminal offences related to prostitution. In the United States, the term is used to refer to crimes related to drugs, alcohol. A vice squad, also called a unit or a morality squad, is a police division. Vice squads do not concentrate on crimes like fraud and murder, in the Sarvastivadin tradition of Buddhism, there are 108 defilements, or vices, which are prohibited. These are subdivided into 10 bonds and 98 proclivities, Vices recognized as spiritual by Christians include blasphemy, apostasy, despair, hatred, and indifference. Christian theologians have reasoned that the most destructive vice equates to a type of pride or the complete idolatry of the self. It is argued that through this vice, which is essentially competitive, in Christian theology, it originally led to the Fall of Man, and, as a purely diabolical spiritual vice, it outweighs anything else often condemned by the Church. The Roman Catholic Church distinguishes between vice, which is a habit of sin, and the sin itself, which is a morally wrong act. Note that in Roman Catholicism, the word sin also refers to the state that befalls one upon committing a morally wrong act, in this section, the word always means the sinful act. It is the sin, and not the vice, that one of Gods sanctifying grace. Thomas Aquinas taught that absolutely speaking, the sin surpasses the vice in wickedness, on the other hand, even after a persons sins have been forgiven, the underlying habit may remain. In the Latin lists of the Seven Deadly Sins, pride is referred to as superbia, envy or jealousy, resentment of others for their possessions
26.
Cybercrime
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Cybercrime, or computer related crime, is crime that involves a computer and a network. The computer may have used in the commission of a crime. Debarati Halder and K. Cybercrime may threaten a person or a nations security, there are also problems of privacy when confidential information is intercepted or disclosed, lawfully or otherwise. Debarati Halder and K. Internationally, both governmental and non-state actors engage in cybercrimes, including espionage, financial theft, and other cross-border crimes, activity crossing international borders and involving the interests of at least one nation state is sometimes referred to as cyberwarfare. Approximately $1.5 billion was lost in 2012 to online credit and debit card fraud in the US, in 2016, a study by Juniper Research estimated that the costs of cybercrime could be as high as 2.1 trillion by 2019. Computer crime encompasses a range of activities. Computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss, in this context, the fraud will result in obtaining a benefit by, Altering in an unauthorized way. A variety of scams, many based on phishing and social engineering, target consumers. Government officials and information technology security specialists have documented a significant increase in Internet problems, cyberterrorism in general can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or computer resources. As such, a propaganda piece in the Internet that there will be bomb attacks during the holidays can be considered cyberterrorism. Cyberextortion occurs when a website, e-mail server, or computer system is subjected to or threatened with repeated denial of service or other attacks by malicious hackers and these hackers demand money in return for promising to stop the attacks and to offer protection. More than 20 cases are reported each month to the FBI, perpetrators typically use a distributed denial-of-service attack. An example of cyberextortion was the attack on Sony Pictures of 2014, the U. S. Department of Defense notes that the cyberspace has emerged as a national-level concern through several recent events of geo-strategic significance. Among those are included, the attack on Estonias infrastructure in 2007, in August 2008, Russia again allegedly conducted cyberattacks, this time in a coordinated and synchronized kinetic and non-kinetic campaign against the country of Georgia. Fearing that such attacks may become the norm in future warfare among nation-states and these crimes are committed by a selected group of criminals. Unlike crimes using the computer as a tool, these require the technical knowledge of the perpetrators. As such, as technology evolves, so too does the nature of the crime and these crimes are relatively new, having been in existence for only as long as computers have—which explains how unprepared society and the world in general is towards combating these crimes. These crimes generally involve less technical expertise, the damage dealt is largely psychological and intangible, making legal action against the variants more difficult
27.
Surveillance
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Surveillance is the monitoring of the behavior, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing, or protecting them. The word surveillance comes from a French phrase for watching over, Surveillance is used by governments for intelligence gathering, the prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by organizations to plan and commit crimes such as robbery and kidnapping, by businesses to gather intelligence. Surveillance is often a violation of privacy, and is opposed by civil liberties groups. Liberal democracies have laws which restrict domestic government and private use of surveillance, authoritarian government seldom have any domestic restrictions, and international espionage is common among all types of countries. The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data, there is far too much data on the Internet for human investigators to manually search through all of it. Computers can be a target because of the personal data stored on them. If someone is able to install software, such as the FBIs Magic Lantern and CIPAV, on a computer system, such software could be installed physically or remotely. The NSA runs a database known as Pinwale, which stores and indexes large numbers of emails of both American citizens and foreigners. Additionally, the NSA runs a program known as PRISM, which is a mining system that gives the United States government direct access to information from technology companies. Through accessing this information, the government is able to obtain search history, emails, stored information, live chats, file transfers and this program generated huge controversies in regards to surveillance and privacy, especially from U. S. citizens. The official and unofficial tapping of lines is widespread. Between 2003 and 2005, the FBI sent out more than 140,000 National Security Letters ordering phone companies to hand information about their customers calling. About half of these letters requested information on U. S. citizens, human agents are not required to monitor most calls. The StingRay tracker is an example of one of these used to monitor cell phone usage in the United States. Once the phone is connected to the device, there is no way for the user to know that they are being tracked. The operator of the stingray is able to extract information such as location, phone calls, and text messages, a lot of controversy surrounds the StingRay because of its powerful capabilities and the secrecy that surrounds it. Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data
28.
Arson
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Arson is a crime of intentionally, deliberately and maliciously setting fire to buildings, wildland areas, abandoned homes, vehicles or other property with the intent to cause damage. It may be distinguished from other such as spontaneous combustion, accidental fires. Arson often involves fires deliberately set to the property of another or to own property in order to collect insurance compensation. A person who commits this crime is called an arsonist, more often than not, arsonists use accelerants to ignite, propel and directionalize fires. It is not required that the defendant acted intentionally or willfully for the purpose of burning a dwelling, burning – at common law charring to any part of dwelling was sufficient to satisfy this element. No significant amount of damage to the dwelling was required, any injury or damage to the structure caused by exposure to heat or flame is sufficient. Of the dwelling – dwelling refers to a place of residence, the destruction of an unoccupied building was not considered arson, since arson protected habitation, the burning of an unoccupied house did not constitute arson. Dwelling includes structures and outbuildings within the curtilage, dwellings were not limited to houses. A barn could be the subject of arson if it was occupied as a dwelling, moreover, for purposes of common law arson, possession or occupancy rather than title determines whose dwelling the structure is. Thus a tenant who sets fire to his house would not be guilty of common law arson. In many states, arson is divided into degrees, depending sometimes on the value of the property but more commonly on its use, first-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to an occupied domain or building such as a school. Second-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building such as an empty barn. Third-degree arson – The act in which the arsonist sets fire to a building or an abandoned area of space such as a field. Many statutes vary the degree of the according to the criminal intent of the accused. In the United States, the common law elements of arson are often varied in different jurisdictions, for example, the element of dwelling is no longer required in most states, and arson occurs by the burning of any real property without consent or with unlawful intent. Arson is prosecuted with attention to degree of severity in the alleged offense, first degree arson generally occurs when persons are harmed or killed in the course of the fire, while second degree arson occurs when significant destruction of property occurs. While usually a felony, arson may also be prosecuted as a misdemeanor, criminal mischief, burglary also occurs, if the arson involved a breaking and entering. A person may be sentenced to death if arson occurred as a method of homicide, as was the case in California of Raymond Lee Oyler, in New York, arson is charged in five degrees
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History of criminal justice
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Primates often have notions of fairness and sharing, with violations punished by exclusion or banishment from social groups. In human history, prior to agriculture, more nomadic cultures had systems of punishment for behavior or resistance, law enforcement in Ancient China was carried out by prefects. The notion of a prefect in China has existed for thousands of years, the prefecture system developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period. In Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority, in Ancient China, under the rule of Dang Lin Wang, a new judicial system emerged. This new system had prefects appointed by local magistrates, who in turn were appointed by the head of state, the prefects oversaw the civil administration of their prefecture, or jurisdiction. Prefects usually reported to the magistrate, just as modern police report to judges. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement of the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. Eventually the concept of the system would spread to other cultures such as Korea. Law enforcement in Ancient China was also progressive, allowing for female prefects. Some examples of ancient Chinese prefects include, Chong Fu - prefect of the Ying District in the East Han Dynasty, an example of a female prefect would be Lady Qu of Wuding. For the most part, crime was viewed as a matter in Ancient Greece. Even with offenses as serious as murder, justice was the prerogative of the victims family, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police in Ancient Greece. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, the Roman Empire had a reasonably effective law enforcement system until the decline of the empire, though there was never an actual police force in the city of Rome. When under the reign of Augustus the capital had grown to almost one million inhabitants, he created 14 wards, if necessary, they might have called on the Praetorian Guard for assistance. Beginning in the 5th century, policing became a function of clan chiefs, during the Middle Ages, crime and punishment were dealt with through blood feuds between the parties. Payment to the victim, known as wergild, was another common punishment, for those who could not afford to buy their way out of punishment, harsh penalties included various forms of corporal punishment. These included mutilation, whipping, branding, and flogging, as well as execution, västgötalagen specifies exactly how much to pay, if anything, depending on who was slain. The primary form of state-administered punishment during ancient times and the Middle Ages was banishment or exile, though a prison, Le Stinche, existed as early as the 14th century in Florence, incarceration was not widely used until the 19th century
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Bow Street Runners
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The Bow Street Runners have been called Londons first professional police force. The force, originally numbering six men, was founded in 1749 by the magistrate Henry Fielding, Bow Street runners was the publics nickname for the officers, although the officers never referred to themselves as runners, considering the term to be derogatory. The Bow Street group was disbanded in 1839, the Bow Street Runners are considered the first British police force. Before the force was founded, the law enforcing system was much in the hands of private citizens. Due to high rates of corruption and mistaken or malicious arrests, judge Henry Fielding decided to regulate and legalise their activity, similar to the unofficial thief-takers, they represented a formalisation and regularisation of existing policing methods. What made them different was their formal attachment to the Bow Street magistrates office, Henry Fieldings work was carried on by his brother, Justice John Fielding, who succeeded him as magistrate in the Bow Street office. Contrary to several sources, the Bow Street Runners were not nicknamed Robin Redbreasts. The horse patrol, organised in 1805 by Sir John Fieldings successor at Bow Street, Richard Ford, up to the early 18th century, Britain did not have an official policing system backed by the State. The enforcement of the law then was mostly up to the private citizens, everyone was entitled and obliged to join the pursuit. As a result, the set a reward to encourage citizens to arrest. The first of such rewards was established in 1692 of the amount of £40 for the conviction of a highwayman and in the years it was extended to burglars, coiners. Some of them very famous at the time, figures such as Jonathan Wild. It was with these premises that the duke of Newcastle turned to Henry Fielding for help, taking up the legacy of his predecessor, Sir Thomas de Veil, Fielding turned Bow Street in a court-like setting in which to conduct examinations. However, his method was not limited to his magisterial activity in Bow Street. In fact, since 1749–50 Henry Fielding had begun organizing a group of men with the task of apprehending offenders and taking them to Bow Street for examination and commitment to trial. This activity, however, was similar to the thief-takers enterprise and, as such. Another step towards the legitimization of the activity of the Bow Street Runners concerned the lawfulness of an arrest made by an ordinary citizen and it is also true that many of the original Runners were also serving constables, so they were financially supported by the state. Nevertheless, the problem persisted and, in 1753, Fieldings initiative came close to failing when his men had stopped their activity for some time
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Metropolitan Police Service
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As of March 2016, the Met employed 48,661 full-time personnel. This included 32,125 sworn police officers,9,521 police staff and this number excludes the 3,271 Special Constables, who work part-time and who have the same powers and uniform as their regular colleagues. This makes the Metropolitan Police the largest police force in the United Kingdom by a significant margin, the post of Commissioner was first held jointly by Sir Charles Rowan and Sir Richard Mayne. The post is occupied by the now-outgoing Sir Bernard Hogan-Howe. The Commissioners deputy, the Deputy Commissioner, is currently Craig Mackey, a number of informal names and abbreviations exists for the Metropolitan Police Service, the most common being the Met. In colloquial London, it is referred to as the Old Bill. The Met is also referred to by the metonym Scotland Yard after the location of its headquarters in a road called Great Scotland Yard in Whitehall. The Mets current headquarters is New Scotland Yard, in Victoria, the Metropolitan Police Service, whose officers became affectionately known as bobbies, was founded in 1829 by Robert Peel under the Metropolitan Police Act 1829. In 1839, the Marine Police Force, which had formed in 1798, was amalgamated into the Metropolitan Police. In 1837, it also incorporated with the Bow Street Horse Patrol that had organised in 1805. Since January 2012, the Mayor of London is responsible for the governance of the Metropolitan Police through the Mayors Office for Policing, the mayor is able to appoint someone to act on his behalf, the current office-holder is Deputy Mayor for Policing and Crime, Sophie Linden. The work of MOPAC is scrutinised by the Police and Crime Committee of the London Assembly, the area policed by the Metropolitan Police Service is known as the Metropolitan Police District. In terms of policing, the Met is divided into a number of Borough Operational Command Units. The City of London is a police area and is the responsibility of the separate City of London Police. The British Transport Police are responsible for policing of the network in the United Kingdom. Within London, they are responsible for the policing of the London Underground, Tramlink, The Emirates Air Line. There is also a park police force, the Kew Constabulary, responsible for the Royal Botanic Gardens. Officers also have limited powers in Scotland and Northern Ireland, within the MPD, the Met will take over the investigation of any serious crime from the British Transport Police and Ministry of Defence Police, if it is deemed appropriate
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Bounty hunter
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A bounty hunter is a person who captures fugitives and criminals for a monetary reward. The term bounty hunting is now not often used or liked by many in the due to its historical context. While bounty hunters may be skiptracers as well, bounty hunting is a civil matter, when undertaking arrest warrants, agents may wear bullet-resistant vests, badges and other clothing branded with BAIL ENFORCEMENT AGENT, or similar titles. Many agents also use two-way radios to communicate each other. Many agents arm themselves with firearms, or, sometimes, with lethal weapons, such as tasers, batons. In the United States, the National Association of Fugitive Recovery Agents is the association representing this industry. If the fugitive eludes bail, the bondsman, not the bounty hunter, is responsible for 100% of the bail amount. This is a way of ensuring clients arrive at trial, as of 2003, bounty hunters claimed to catch 31,500 bail jumpers per year, about 90% of people who jump bail. Bounty hunters have varying levels of authority in their duties with regard to their targets depending on which states they operate in, barring restrictions applicable state by state, a bounty hunter may enter the fugitives private property without a warrant in order to execute a re-arrest. A bounty hunter cannot, however, enter the property of other than the fugitive without a warrant or the owners permission. In some states, bounty hunters do not undergo any formal training, in other states, however, they are held to varying standards of training and license. This may have been accurate at the time the decision was reached, as of 2012 Nebraska and Maine in addition to the aforementioned Illinois, Kentucky, Oregon and Wisconsin prohibited surety bail bonds. Another three states, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, as well as the District of Columbia heavily restrict bounty hunting, some of the more advanced schools offer specialized training in the area of tactical firearms to prepare BEAs for conducting dangerous recovery operations. Illinois abolished commercial bail, so it has no bail bondsmen, Kentucky prohibits bounty hunting in any form. Only a peace officer may make an arrest on a warrant that is issued in NCIC and this is because the state does not have a system of bail bondsmen. Earlier in state history, it was allowed, louisiana requires bounty hunters to wear clothing identifying them as one. As of 2012 Maine prohibited surety bail bonds, as of 2012 Nebraska prohibited commercial bail bonds. A Nevada bounty hunter is referred to as an enforcement agent or bail enforcement solicitor
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Iowa
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Iowa is a U. S. state in the Midwestern United States, bordered by the Mississippi River on the east and the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west. Surrounding states include Wisconsin and Illinois to the east, Missouri to the south, Nebraska and South Dakota to the west, in colonial times, Iowa was a part of French Louisiana and Spanish Louisiana, its state flag is patterned after the flag of France. After the Louisiana Purchase, people laid the foundation for an economy in the heart of the Corn Belt. Iowa is the 26th most extensive in area and the 30th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital and largest city by population is Des Moines, Iowa has been listed as one of the safest states in which to live. Its nickname is the Hawkeye State, Iowa derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many Native American tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa is bordered by the Mississippi River on the east, the Missouri River and the Big Sioux River on the west, Iowa is the only state whose east and west borders are formed entirely by rivers. Iowa has 99 counties, but 100 county seats because Lee County has two, the state capital, Des Moines, is in Polk County. Iowas bedrock geology generally increases in age from west to east, in northwest Iowa, Cretaceous bedrock can be 74 million years old, in eastern Iowa Cambrian bedrock dates to c.500 million years ago. Iowa is generally not flat, most of the consists of rolling hills. Iowa can be divided into eight landforms based on glaciation, soils, topography, Loess hills lie along the western border of the state, some of which are several hundred feet thick. Northeast Iowa along the Mississippi River is part of the Driftless Zone, consisting of steep hills, several natural lakes exist, most notably Spirit Lake, West Okoboji Lake, and East Okoboji Lake in northwest Iowa. To the east lies Clear Lake, man-made lakes include Lake Odessa, Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, Coralville Lake, Lake MacBride, and Rathbun Lake. The states northwest area has remnants of the once common wetlands. Iowas natural vegetation is tallgrass prairie and savanna in areas, with dense forest and wetlands in flood plains and protected river valleys. Most of Iowa is used for agriculture, crops cover 60% of the state, grasslands cover 30%, as of 2005 Iowa ranked 49th of U. S. states in public land holdings. Endangered or threatened plants include western prairie fringed orchid, eastern prairie fringed orchid, Meads milkweed, prairie bush clover, the explosion in the number of high-density livestock facilities in Iowa has led to increased rural water contamination and a decline in air quality. Iowa has a continental climate throughout the state
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Banditti of the Prairie
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Though bands of roving criminals were common in many parts of Illinois, the counties of Lee, DeKalb, Ogle, and Winnebago were especially affected by them. As the crimes continued, local citizens formed bands of vigilantes known as Regulators, a clash between the Banditti and the Regulators in Ogle County near Oregon, Illinois, resulted in the outlaws demise and decreased Banditti activity and violent crime within the county. Banditti and Regulator activity continued well after the lynching took place in 1841. Crimes continued, committed by both sides, across northern/central Illinois, the Banditti were involved in other notable events as well, including the 1845 torture-murder of merchant Colonel George Davenport, the namesake of Davenport, Iowa. A Tale of the Mississippi Valley, published in Chicago in 1850, the outlaw gangs also continued to be active in Lee and Winnebago counties following the events in Oregon. The Prairie Bandits were active across northern Illinois, especially in Lee, Ogle, Winnebago, the Banditti posed a far greater threat, for a much longer period, than the exaggerated paranoia of the two month Native American conflict. Former Illinois Governor Thomas Ford wrote in History of Illinois, In Lee County, Illinois, the group had enough allies that they were scattered throughout the county. The connections the Banditti had around the county made illegal activities such as counterfeiting and dealing in and it was reported that, at one time, every township officer in Lee County was a member of the Banditti. Acts of theft were carried on in defiance of authority, citizens were threatened when they tried to seek redress from the thieves. In the end, the Prairie Bandits activity in Ogle and Lee County became more than area residents were willing to withstand, in Ogle County the crimes that occurred in March 1841 resulted in a kangaroo court which culminated with the lynching of two Banditti near Oregon, Illinois. In nearby Lee County, a Vigilance Committee was formed by men from throughout Lee County, beginning with the events on March 21,1841, violence and retribution escalated in the area around the Ogle County seat of Oregon. Illinois, still frontier in 1841, was settled by large numbers of migrants after the Black Hawk War, the settlers were followed to the area by a criminal element. The Banditti of the Prairie were part of the problem that plagued much of northern Illinois. As such, the citizens of Ogle County organized and eventually took the law into their own hands. On March 21,1841, six members of the Banditti were arrested on charges of counterfeiting and they were held at the Ogle County Jail in the city of Oregon. That night a fire out in the newly completed courthouse. The fire, set by the Banditti, was meant as a diversion to facilitate the escape of the gang members. The diversion failed, though the courthouse burned to the ground, the court records concerning the case had been safely concealed in the home of the court clerk
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England and Wales
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The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
36.
Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984
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Part VI of PACE required the Home Secretary to issue Codes of Practice governing police powers. The aim of PACE is to establish a balance between the powers of the police in England and Wales and the rights and freedoms of the public, equivalent provision is made for Northern Ireland by the Police and Criminal Evidence Order 1989. The equivalent in Scots Law is the Criminal Procedure Act 1995, specific legislation as to more wide ranging conduct of a criminal investigation is contained within the Criminal Procedures and Investigation Act 1996. PACE was significantly modified by the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 and this replaced nearly all existing powers of arrest, including the category of arrestable offences, with a new general power of arrest for all offences. Any person with a duty of investigating criminal offences or charging offenders is also required to follow the provisions of the PACE codes of practice as far as practical and relevant. Despite its safeguards, PACE was extremely controversial on its introduction, PACE and its subsequent enactments limits that. Various other government agencies including TV Licensing, the Royal Mail, BT Group, one intent of PACE and its successors is to prevent the abuse of this right, or remove it entirely, to balance the privacy of the individual against the needs of the State. The 1981 Brixton riots, and the subsequent Scarman report were key factors in the passage of the Act, the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 was brought in following recommendations set out by the Royal Commission on Criminal Procedure. The purpose of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 was to police powers under one code of practice. The Home Office and the Cabinet Office announced a joint review of PACE and its codes of practice in May 2002, following a further review in 2010, PACE Codes A, B and D were re-issued to take effect on 7 March 2011. PACE Code A, deals with the exercise by police officers of statutory powers to search a person or a vehicle without first making an arrest and it also deals with the need for a police officer to make a record of such a stop or encounter. On 1 January 2009, Code A was amended to remove lengthy stop and account recording procedures, requiring police to record a subjects ethnicity. PACE Code B, deals with powers to search premises and to seize and retain property found on premises. PACE Code C, sets out the requirements for the detention, treatment and it replaced the Judges Rules in England and Wales. PACE Code D, concerns the main methods used by the police to people in connection with the investigation of offences. PACE Code E, deals with the recording of interviews with suspects in the police station. PACE Code F, deals with the recording with sound of interviews with suspects. On 1 January 2006 an additional code came into force, PACE Code G, on 24 July 2006 a further code came into force, PACE Code H, deals with the detention of terrorism suspects
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Forensic identification
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People can be identified by their fingerprints. Friction ridge identification is also governed by four premises or statements of facts, Friction ridges are persistent throughout life except for permanent scarring, disease, or decomposition after death. Friction ridge paths and the details in small areas of friction ridges are unique, overall, friction ridge patterns vary within limits which allow for classification. Since forensic identification has been first introduced to the courts in 1980 and those who specialize in forensic identification continue to make headway with new discoveries and technological advances to make convictions more accurate. Body identification is a subfield of forensics concerned with identifying someone from their remains, feet also have friction ridges like fingerprints do. Friction ridges have been accepted as a form of identification with fingerprints. Feet have creases which remain over time due to the depth it reaches in the layer of the skin. These creases are valuable when individualizing the owner, the concept of no two fingerprints are alike is also applied to foot creases. Foot creases can grow as early as 13 weeks after conception when the volar pads begin to grow and when the pads regress, when foot crease identification is used in a criminal case, it should be used in conjunction with morphology and friction ridges to ensure precise identification. There is record of foot crease identification used in a case to solve a murder. In order to compare morphological feature, the prints of feet must be clear enough to distinguish between individuals. The two basic conceptual foundations of forensic identification is that everyone is individualized and unique, the belief was passed down through generations being generally accepted, but it was never scientifically proven. There was a study done intending to show that no two fingerprints were the same, but the results were inconclusive. Many modern forensic and evidentiary scholars collectively agree that individualization to one object, such as a fingerprint, bite mark, handwriting, in court cases, forensic scientists can fall victim to observer bias when not sufficiently blinded to the case or results of other pertinent tests. This has happened in cases like United States v. Green, also, the proficiency tests that forensic analysts must do are often not as demanding to be considered admissible in court. There are many different applications for wildlife forensics and below are some of the procedures and processes used to distinguish species. Additionally, the mitochondrial DNA has multiple copies per cell, which is another reason its frequently used, when nuclear DNA is used, certain segments of the strands are amplified in order to compare those to segments of mitochondrial DNA. This comparison is used to figure out related genes and species proximity since distant relatives of animals are closer in proximity in the gene tree
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Forensic science
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Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. In addition to their role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically be forensic, certain sections have developed over time to encompass the majority of forensically related cases, the word forensic comes from the Latin term forensis, meaning of or before the forum. The history of the term originates from Roman times, during which a charge meant presenting the case before a group of public individuals in the forum. Both the person accused of the crime and the accuser would give speeches based on their sides of the story, the case would be decided in favor of the individual with the best argument and delivery. This origin is the source of the two usages of the word forensic – as a form of legal evidence and as a category of public presentation. In modern use, the term forensics in the place of science can be considered correct. However, the term is now so closely associated with the field that many dictionaries include the meaning that equates the word forensics with forensic science. The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping punishment, Criminal investigations and trials heavily relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However, ancient sources do contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow concepts in science that were developed centuries later. The first written account of using medicine and entomology to solve criminal cases is attributed to the book of Xi Yuan Lu, written in China by Song Ci in 1248, during the Song Dynasty. In one of the accounts, the case of a person murdered with a sickle was solved by an investigator who instructed everyone to bring his sickle to one location, flies, attracted by the smell of blood, eventually gathered on a single sickle. In light of this, the murderer confessed, methods from around the world involved saliva and examination of the mouth and tongue to determine innocence or guilt, as a precursor to the Polygraph test. In ancient India, some suspects were made to fill their mouths with dried rice, similarly, in Ancient China, those accused of a crime would have rice powder placed in their mouths. In ancient middle-eastern cultures, the accused were made to lick hot metal rods briefly, in 16th-century Europe, medical practitioners in army and university settings began to gather information on the cause and manner of death. Ambroise Paré, a French army surgeon, systematically studied the effects of violent death on internal organs, two Italian surgeons, Fortunato Fidelis and Paolo Zacchia, laid the foundation of modern pathology by studying changes that occurred in the structure of the body as the result of disease. In the late 18th century, writings on these began to appear. Two examples of English forensic science in individual legal proceedings demonstrate the use of logic
39.
Felony
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The term felony, in some common law countries, means a serious crime. The word originates from English common law, where felonies were originally crimes that involved confiscation of a persons land. Many common law countries have now abolished the distinction and replaced it with other distinctions. A felony is generally considered a crime of high seriousness, while a misdemeanor is not, a person who has committed a felony is a felon, and upon conviction of a felony in a court of law is known as a convicted felon or a convict. In the United States, where the distinction is still widely applied. If punishable by one year or less, it is classified as a misdemeanor. Note that the prison sentence handed out has no effect on this. For example, if a person is sentenced to six months, individual states may differ in this definition, using other categories as seriousness or context. Similar to felonies in some civil law countries are delicts, whereas in others crimes and delicts, larceny or theft above a certain statutorily established value or quantity of goods Vandalism on federal property. Some offenses, though similar in nature, may be felonies or misdemeanors depending on the circumstances, for example, the illegal manufacture, distribution or possession of controlled substances may be a felony, although possession of small amounts may be only a misdemeanor. Additionally, driving while intoxicated in some states may be a misdemeanor if a first offense, in the course of the 20th century, however, American jurisdictions eliminated the distinction among the first three categories. Gonzales v. Duenas-Alvarez,549 U. S.183, a felony may be punishable with imprisonment for two or more years or death in the case of the most serious felonies, such as murder. Indeed, at law when the British and American legal systems divorced in 1776. Standards for measurement of an offenses seriousness include attempts to quantitatively estimate, in some states, all or most felonies are placed into one of various classes according to their seriousness and their potential punishment upon conviction. The number of classifications and the corresponding crimes vary by state and are determined by the legislature, usually, the legislature also determines the maximum punishment allowable for each felony class, doing so avoids the necessity of defining specific sentences for every possible crime. For example, Virginia classifies most felonies by number, ranging from Class 6 through Class 2 up to Class 1, some felonies remain outside the classification system. New York State classifies felonies by letter, with some divided into sub-classes by Roman numeral, classes range from Class E through Classes D, C, B. Massachusetts classifies felony as an offense that carries any prison time, ohio classifies felonies by degree ranging from first, second, third, fourth, to fifth degree
40.
Misdemeanor
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A misdemeanor or misdemeanour is any lesser criminal act in some common law legal systems. Misdemeanors are generally punished less severely than felonies, but theoretically more so than administrative infractions, many misdemeanors are punished with monetary fines. In the United States, the government generally considers a crime punishable with incarceration for one year or less to be a misdemeanor. All other crimes are considered felonies, many states also employ this distinction. A misdemeanor is considered a crime of low seriousness, and a one of high seriousness. A principle of the rationale for the degree of punishment meted out is that the punishment should fit the crime, one standard for measurement is the degree to which a crime affects others or society. Measurements of the degree of seriousness of a crime have been developed, the distinction between felonies and misdemeanors has been abolished by several common law jurisdictions. The Republic of Ireland, a member of the Commonwealth. In the United States of America, the first time a person commits certain crimes, such as assault, it is a misdemeanor. In some jurisdictions, those who are convicted of a misdemeanor are known as misdemeanants, jurisdictions such as Massachusetts are a notable exception where the maximum punishment of some misdemeanors is up to 2.5 years. People who are convicted of misdemeanors are punished with probation, community service, short jail term, or part-time imprisonment. Misdemeanors usually do not result in the loss of civil rights, such effects are known as the collateral consequences of criminal charges. This is more common when the misdemeanor is related to the privilege in question, the definition of a high crime is left to the judgment of Congress. In Singapore, misdemeanors generally are sentenced to months of jail sentence, depending on the jurisdiction, several classes of misdemeanors may exist, the forms of punishment can vary widely between those classes. For example, the federal and state governments in the United States divide misdemeanors into several classes, with certain classes punishable by jail time and others carrying only a fine. In New York law, a Class A Misdemeanor carries a sentence of one year of imprisonment. In the United States, when a statute does not specify the class, legislators usually enact such laws when they wish to impose penalties that fall outside the framework specified by each class. First-time cannabis possession is a misdemeanor in Virginia punishable by up to 30 days in jail rather than the normal fines
41.
Answering machine
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Unlike operator messaging the caller does not talk to a human. As land lines become less important, due to the shift to cell phone technology, and as unified communications matures, most 20th century answering machines used magnetic recording which Valdemar Poulsen invented in 1898. The creation of the first practical automatic answering device for telephones, many claim it was William Muller in 1935, but it could have been created already in 1931 by William Schergens whose device used phonographic cylinders. Ludwig Blattner promoted a telephone answering machine in 1929 based on his Blattnerphone magnetic recording technology, in 1935 inventor Benjamin Thornton developed a machine to record voice messages from the caller. The device reportedly also was able to track of the time the recordings were made. Although many sources maintain that he invented it in 1935, Thornton had actually filed a patent in 1930 for this machine, a commercial answering machine, the Tel-Magnet, offered in the United States in 1949, played outgoing messages and recorded incoming messages on a magnetic wire. It was priced at $200 but was not a commercial success, the Electronic Secretary used the then state-of-the-art technology of a 45 rpm record player for announcements and a wire recorder for message capture and playback. Electronic Secretary Industries was purchased in 1957 by General Telephone and Electronics, another commercially successful answering machine was the Ansafone created by inventor Dr. Kazuo Hashimoto, who was employed by a company called Phonetel. This company began selling the first answering machines in the US in 1960, Answering machines became more widely used after the restructuring of AT&T in 1984, which was when the machines became affordable and sales reached one million units per year in the US. James P Mitchell displayed a prototype of a digital outgoing message with a taped incoming system at an Iowa State University VEISHEA engineering openhouse in April 1982. This system won a award from the Engineering department. In 1983, Kazuo Hashimoto received a patent for an answering machine architecture with US Patent 4,616,110. The first digital answering machine brought to the market was AT&Ts 1337, mr. Hashimoto sued AT&T but quickly dropped the suit because the AT&T architecture was significantly different from his patent. This is useful if the owner is screening calls and does not wish to speak with all callers, in some cases the terminal equipment answering a call just sends a slightly modified ringback tone to the caller, while processing the protocol. Similarly, the equipment can end a call by going on-hook deliberately, because of some specific signalling. Most modern answering machines have a system for greeting, the owner may record a message that will be played back to the caller, or an automatic message will be played if the owner does not record one. This holds especially for the TADs with digitally stored greeting messages or for earlier machines with an endless loop tape, separate from a second cassette. There have been answer-only devices with no recording capabilities, where the message had to inform callers of a state of current unattainability
