1.
Subarctic climate
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The subarctic climate is a climate characterised by long, usually very cold winters, and short, cool to mild summers. It is found on large landmasses, away from the effects of an ocean. These climates represent Köppen climate classification Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd and Dsd. This type of climate offers some of the most extreme seasonal temperature variations found on the planet, in winter, temperatures can drop to −40 °C and in summer, record low temperatures can be as cold as −60 °C. With 5–7 consecutive months where the temperature is below freezing. Summer warmth is insufficient to thaw more than a few surface feet, seasonal thaw penetrates from 2 to 14 ft, depending on latitude, aspect, and type of ground. Some northern areas with subarctic climates located near oceans, have milder winters and no permafrost, the frost-free season is very short, varying from about 45 to 100 days at most, and a freeze can occur during any month in many areas. Most subarctic climates have very little precipitation, typically no more than 380 mm over an entire year, a notable exception to this pattern is that subarctic climates occurring at high altitudes in otherwise temperate regions have extremely high precipitation due to orographic lift. Mount Washington, with temperatures typical of a climate, receives an average rain-equivalent of 101.91 inches of precipitation per year.5 metres that does not melt until June. Vegetation in regions with subarctic climates is generally of low diversity, as only hardy species can survive the long winters, trees are mostly limited to conifers, as few broadleaved trees are able to survive the very low temperatures in winter. This type of forest is known as taiga, a term which is sometimes applied to the climate found therein as well. Even though the diversity may be low, numbers are high, the process by which plants become acclimated to cold temperatures is called hardening. In some areas, ice has scoured rock surfaces bare, entirely stripping off the overburden, elsewhere rock basins have been formed and stream courses dammed, creating countless lakes. The Tatra Mountains in Poland, above 800m, the Eastern Anatolia, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Turkey. The Pyrenees, between 1,600 and 2,100 meters – Andorra, France and Spain, further north in Siberia, continentality increases so much that winters can be exceptionally severe, averaging below −38 °C, even though the hottest month still averages more than 10 °C. This creates Dfd, Dwd and Dsd climates, one example is parts of the Snowy Mountains in Australia, although theyre more alpine than true subarctic. In China and Mongolia, as one moves southwestwards or towards lower altitudes, temperatures increase, Boreal ecology Boreal forest Plants of continental subarctic climate Köppen climate classification Subantarctic
Subarctic climate
–
Dsc
2.
Offenbach am Main
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Offenbach am Main is a city in Hesse, Germany, located on the left bank of the river Main and part of the Frankfurt Rhein-Main urban area. Offenbach has a population of 126,934, in the 20th century the citys economy was dominated by the machine-building and leather industries, and it was also a major centre of the typography and design industries. Other important industries are the automobile and pharmaceutical industries, during the Second World War the city suffered heavily from bombing by the Allied Forces. More than half of the population have a non-German background, with Turks, former Yugoslavs, Arabs, Italians, Greeks. The inner town of Offenbach is quite large and has only a few suburbs, in the east the three incorporated, Bürgel, Bieber, and Rumpenheim. In the south are the newer suburbs Lauterborn and Rosenhöhe, Tempelsee, the office town Kaiserlei, the newest suburb is Mathildenviertel in the center near to the Main river. The first documented reference to a suburb of Offenbach appears in 770, in a document of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II dating to 977 exists the first mention of the place of Offenbach. During the Middle Ages Offenbach passed through many hands and it was destroyed by fire in 1564 and rebuilt in 1578. A year later it was given to the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, always very close to the city centre of Frankfurt, Offenbach was a popular location for business. The town has its own trade fair, and many companies have opened facilities here because there are fewer restrictions, the town was more cosmopolitan than Frankfurt, famous people such as Goethe and Mozart visited it several times. The Rumpenheim Palace and its park were a destination for monarchs in the 19th century. The city was ruled by Grand Dukes of Hesse and by Rhine until the monarchy was abolished in 1918. During the Second World War a third of the city was destroyed by Allied bombing, with the new district Lauterborn the city was expanded to the south in the 1960s. On the border with Frankfurt, the office district Kaiserlei was built, Offenbach is a so-called ´Sozialer Brennpunkt because of unemployment, poverty, gang related crime and migration. Offenbach am Main is twinned with, Offenbach has a large non-German population, in 2016, foreign nationals made up 37% of the population. The largest communities are, in order, from Turkey, Greece, Romania, Poland. Until the end of the 17th century, Offenbach remained a town with less than a thousand habitants. With the coming into power of the earl Johann Philipp in 1685, the city began to develop, in the 19th century the city became industrialized and the population increased even tenfold
Offenbach am Main
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Offenbach on the Main river
Offenbach am Main
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Flag
Offenbach am Main
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Offenbach in 1655
Offenbach am Main
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The main street Frankfurter Straße around 1900
3.
Weather
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Weather is the state of the atmosphere, to the degree that it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time. When used without qualification, weather is understood to mean the weather of Earth. Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another and these differences can occur due to the suns angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations, the Hadley Cell, the Ferrel Cell, the Polar Cell, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earths axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, on Earths surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earths orbit can affect the amount and distribution of energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences, higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earths surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The Earths weather system is a system, as a result. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture, studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiters Great Red Spot, is a storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies, a stars corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind, on Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons, almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, in other words, the farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due the spread of the sunlight over a greater surface. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the large scale atmospheric circulation cells and the jet stream, Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow
Weather
–
Thunderstorm near Garajau,
Madeira
Weather
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Cumulus mediocris cloud surrounded by
stratocumulus
Weather
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New Orleans, Louisiana, after being struck by Hurricane Katrina. Katrina was a
Category 3 hurricane when it struck although it had been a category 5 hurricane in the
Gulf of Mexico.
Weather
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Early morning sunshine over
Bratislava, Slovakia
4.
Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
Meteorology
–
Atmospheric sciences
Meteorology
–
Parhelion (sundog) at
Savoie
Meteorology
–
Twilight at
Baker Beach
Meteorology
–
A hemispherical cup anemometer
5.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
Germany
–
The
Nebra sky disk is dated to c. 1600 BC.
Germany
–
Flag
Germany
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Martin Luther (1483–1546) initiated the
Protestant Reformation.
Germany
–
Foundation of the
German Empire in
Versailles, 1871.
Bismarck is at the center in a white uniform.
6.
Atmospheric models
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Static atmospheric models describe how the ideal gas properties of an atmosphere change, primarily as a function of altitude. Typical usages are as a basis for pressure altimeter calibrations, aircraft performance calculations, aircraft and rocket design, ballistic tables, for example, the US Standard Atmosphere derives the values for air temperature, pressure, and mass density, as a function of altitude above sea level. Other static atmospheric models may have other outputs, or depend on inputs besides altitude, the gas is held in place by so-called hydrostatic forces. Mathematically this is, P A − A − g 0 =0 d P = − g 0 ρ d h Finally, depending on the model, some gas properties may be treated as constant with respect to altitude. If the density of a gas is persistent, then it isnt really behaving like a gas, instead it is impersonating like an incompressible fluid, or liquid, and this situation looks more like an ocean. Assuming density is constant, then a graph of pressure vs altitude will have a retained slope and this atmospheric model assumes both molecular weight and temperature are constant over a wide range of altitude. Such a model may be called isothermal, for this reason, this model may also be called barotropic. For the isothermal-barotropic model, density and pressure turn out to be functions of altitude. Using the values T=273 K and M=29 g/mol as characteristic of the Earths atmosphere, H = RT/Mg = / =7.99, or about 8 km, which coincidentally is approximate height of Mt. Everest. For an isothermal atmosphere, or about 63% of the mass of the atmosphere exists between the planets surface and one scale height. For the ocean example there was a transition in density at the top or surface of the ocean. However for atmospheres made of gas there is no equivalent sharp transition or edge, gas atmospheres simply get less and less dense until theyre so thin that theyre space. Of course the real atmosphere does not have a distribution with this exact shape. The temperature function is an approximation, values for pressure and density are then calculated based on this temperature function, and the constant temperature gradients help to make some of the maths easier. It can also simulate spatial and temporal perturbations in atmospheric parameters due to turbulence and it is available in computer code written in FORTRAN. The GRAM series also includes models for the planets Venus, Mars and Neptune. Gravitational acceleration, g, decreases with altitude since moving up means moving away from the planets center and this geopotential altitude h is then used instead of geometric altitude z in the hydrostatic equations
Atmospheric models
–
This article is about static atmospheric models. For weather prediction and climate models, see
atmospheric model.
7.
Supercomputer
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A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of computing performance compared to a general-purpose computer. Performance of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations per second instead of instructions per second. As of 2015, there are supercomputers which can perform up to quadrillions of FLOPS and it tops the rankings in the TOP500 supercomputer list. Sunway TaihuLights emergence is also notable for its use of indigenous chips, as of June 2016, China, for the first time, had more computers on the TOP500 list than the United States. However, U. S. built computers held ten of the top 20 positions, in November 2016 the U. S. has five of the top 10, throughout their history, they have been essential in the field of cryptanalysis. The use of multi-core processors combined with centralization is an emerging trend, the history of supercomputing goes back to the 1960s, with the Atlas at the University of Manchester and a series of computers at Control Data Corporation, designed by Seymour Cray. These used innovative designs and parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance, Cray left CDC in 1972 to form his own company, Cray Research. Four years after leaving CDC, Cray delivered the 80 MHz Cray 1 in 1976, the Cray-2 released in 1985 was an 8 processor liquid cooled computer and Fluorinert was pumped through it as it operated. It performed at 1.9 gigaflops and was the second fastest after M-13 supercomputer in Moscow. Fujitsus Numerical Wind Tunnel supercomputer used 166 vector processors to gain the top spot in 1994 with a speed of 1.7 gigaFLOPS per processor. The Hitachi SR2201 obtained a performance of 600 GFLOPS in 1996 by using 2048 processors connected via a fast three-dimensional crossbar network. The Intel Paragon could have 1000 to 4000 Intel i860 processors in various configurations, the Paragon was a MIMD machine which connected processors via a high speed two dimensional mesh, allowing processes to execute on separate nodes, communicating via the Message Passing Interface. Approaches to supercomputer architecture have taken dramatic turns since the earliest systems were introduced in the 1960s, early supercomputer architectures pioneered by Seymour Cray relied on compact innovative designs and local parallelism to achieve superior computational peak performance. However, in time the demand for increased computational power ushered in the age of massively parallel systems, supercomputers of the 21st century can use over 100,000 processors connected by fast connections. The Connection Machine CM-5 supercomputer is a parallel processing computer capable of many billions of arithmetic operations per second. Throughout the decades, the management of heat density has remained a key issue for most centralized supercomputers, the large amount of heat generated by a system may also have other effects, e. g. reducing the lifetime of other system components. There have been diverse approaches to management, from pumping Fluorinert through the system. Systems with a number of processors generally take one of two paths
Supercomputer
–
IBM 's
Blue Gene/P supercomputer at
Argonne National Laboratory runs over 250,000 processors using normal data center air conditioning, grouped in 72 racks/cabinets connected by a high-speed optical network
Supercomputer
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A
Cray-1 preserved at the
Deutsches Museum
Supercomputer
–
A
Blue Gene /L cabinet showing the stacked
blades, each holding many processors
Supercomputer
–
An
IBM HS20 blade
8.
Weather forecasting
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Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, hence, forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error, there are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life, forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture, and therefore to traders within commodity markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days, on an everyday basis, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by rain, snow and wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events. In 2014, the US spent $5.1 billion on weather forecasting, for millennia people have tried to forecast the weather. In 650 BC, the Babylonians predicted the weather from cloud patterns as well as astrology, in about 340 BC, Aristotle described weather patterns in Meteorologica. Later, Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs, chinese weather prediction lore extends at least as far back as 300 BC, which was also around the same time ancient Indian astronomers developed weather-prediction methods. You know how to interpret the appearance of the sky, ancient weather forecasting methods usually relied on observed patterns of events, also termed pattern recognition. For example, it might be observed if the sunset was particularly red. This experience accumulated over the generations to produce weather lore, however, not all of these predictions prove reliable, and many of them have since been found not to stand up to rigorous statistical testing. It was not until the invention of the telegraph in 1835 that the modern age of weather forecasting began. Before that, the fastest that distant weather reports could travel was around 100 miles per day, the two men credited with the birth of forecasting as a science were officer of the Royal Navy Francis Beaufort and his protégé Robert FitzRoy. Beaufort developed the Wind Force Scale and Weather Notation coding, which he was to use in his journals for the remainder of his life. He also promoted the development of reliable tide tables around British shores, Robert FitzRoy was appointed in 1854 as chief of a new department within the Board of Trade to deal with the collection of weather data at sea as a service to mariners. This was the forerunner of the modern Meteorological Office, all ship captains were tasked with collating data on the weather and computing it, with the use of tested instruments that were loaned for this purpose. Fifteen land stations were established to use the new telegraph to transmit to him daily reports of weather at set times leading to the first gale warning service and his warning service for shipping was initiated in February 1861, with the use of telegraph communications
Weather forecasting
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The Royal Charter sank in an 1859 storm, stimulating the establishment of modern weather forecasting.
Weather forecasting
–
Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic ocean.
Weather forecasting
–
Weather map of Europe, 10 December 1887.
Weather forecasting
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George Cowling (above) presented the first in-vision forecast on 11 January 1954 for the BBC.
9.
World Meteorological Organization
–
The World Meteorological Organization is an intergovernmental organization with a membership of 191 Member States and Territories. It originated from the International Meteorological Organization, which was founded in 1873 and its current Secretary-General is Petteri Taalas and the President of the World Meteorological Congresss, its supreme body, is David Grimes. The Organization is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the World Meteorological Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations. WMO has a membership of 191 Member States and Territories as of February 2014, the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization was signed 11 October 1947 and established upon ratification on 23 March 1950. WMO became the agency of the United Nations in 1951 for meteorology, operational hydrology. It originated from the International Meteorological Organization, which was founded in 1873, the WMO hierarchy, The World Meteorological Congress, the supreme body of the Organization, determines policy. Each member state and territory is represented by a Permanent Representative with WMO when Congress meets every four years, Congress elects the President and Vice-Presidents of the Organization and members of the Executive Council, and appoints the Secretary-General. The Executive Council implements Congress decisions, the Executive Council normally hold a session at least once a year. Six Regional Associations are responsible for the coordination of meteorological, hydrological and they meet once every four years, and elect a president and vice-president. The president of regional association is an ex officio member of the Executive Council. Eight Technical Commissions are responsible for studying meteorological and hydrological operational systems, applications and they establish methodology and procedures and make recommendations to Executive Council and the World Meteorological Congress. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the World Meteorological Congress for a term with a maximum tenure of 8 years. The Secretary-General appoints all staff, including the Deputy Secretary-General and the Assistant Secretary-General, the Secretariat currently has around 300 staff. Weather, climate and the water cycle shape almost every aspect of our lives and these powerful natural forces do not recognize national borders, thus global and regional cooperation is essential. Even the accuracy of a weather forecast relies on observations from far beyond national borders. These warnings help to save lives and to protect property. They contribute to economic planning and decision-making, and help minimize the harm that weather, climate, the first step in producing weather forecasts is to gather non-stop observations of the environment from around the world. WMO develops the standards for designing these and other observing instruments and for ensuring that the collected data are quality controlled
World Meteorological Organization
–
WMO seat in
Geneva shared with the
GICHD, the
GCSP and the
Group on Earth Observations
World Meteorological Organization
–
World Meteorological Organization
10.
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
–
It operates one of the largest supercomputer complexes in Europe and the worlds largest archive of numerical weather prediction data. The Centre is considering an offer from the Italian Government to move ECMWFs data centre to Bologna, the new site, a former tobacco factory, would be redesigned by the architecture firm gmp. four states that joined since 2010, Iceland, Slovenia, Serbia and Croatia. It also has agreements with other states, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Montenegro, Morocco. The Centre employs about 280 staff, mostly appointed from across the member states, ECMWF aims to provide accurate medium-range global weather forecasts out to 15 days and seasonal forecasts out to 12 months. It uses numerical weather prediction methods to prepare forecasts and their initial conditions, numerical weather prediction requires input of meteorological data, collected by satellites and earth observation systems such as automatic and manned stations, aircraft, ships and weather balloons. Assimilation of this data is used to produce a state of a computer model of the atmosphere. Over the past three decades ECMWFs wide-ranging programme of research has played a role in developing such assimilation. This improves the accuracy and reliability of weather forecasting by about a day per decade, ECMWFs monthly and seasonal forecasts provide early predictions of events such as heat waves, cold spells and droughts, as well as their impacts on sectors such as agriculture, energy and health. Since ECMWF runs a model, there are also predictions of coastal waves. Forecasts of severe weather events allow appropriate mitigating action to be taken and contingency plans to be put into place by the authorities, the increased time gained by issuing accurate warnings can save lives, for instance by evacuating people from a storm surge area. Authorities and businesses can plan to maintain services around threats such as winds, floods or snow. In October 2012 the ECMWF model suggested seven days in advance that Hurricane Sandy was likely to make landfall on the East Coast of the United States and it also predicted the intensity and track of the November 2012 noreaster, which impacted the east coast a week after Sandy. ECMWFs Extreme Forecast Index was developed as a tool to identify where the EPS forecast distribution differs substantially from that of the model climate, ECMWF continuously endeavours to improve the use of satellite observations for NWP. ECMWF makes significant contributions to research on climate variability, pioneering an approach known as reanalysis. ECMWFs operational forecasts are produced from its Integrated Forecast System which is run every twelve hours and it includes both in a deterministic forecast mode and as an ensemble. The deterministic forecast is a model run that is relatively high in both resolution but also in computational expense. The ensemble is relatively low in resolution and so in computational expense, but it is run 51 times in parallel, from slightly different initial conditions to give a spread of likelihood over the range of the forecast. Medium-Range Weather Prediction – the European Approach, official Website ERA-15 reanalysis ERA-40 reanalysis ECMWF on TOP500. org
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
–
European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts
11.
Numerical weather prediction
–
Numerical weather prediction uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions. Though first attempted in the 1920s, it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results. Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world. Even with the power of supercomputers, the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days. Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts, post-processing techniques such as model output statistics have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions. A more fundamental problem lies in the nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere. It is impossible to solve these equations exactly, and small errors grow with time, present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model. This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models and it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulations that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself. The ENIAC was used to create the first weather forecasts via computer in 1950, in 1954, Carl-Gustav Rossbys group at the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute used the same model to produce the first operational forecast. Operational numerical weather prediction in the United States began in 1955 under the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit, in 1956, Norman Phillips developed a mathematical model which could realistically depict monthly and seasonal patterns in the troposphere, this became the first successful climate model. Following Phillips work, several groups working to create general circulation models. The first general circulation model that combined both oceanic and atmospheric processes was developed in the late 1960s at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory. As computers have more powerful, the size of the initial data sets has increased. These newer models include more physical processes in the simplifications of the equations of motion in numerical simulations of the atmosphere, in 1966, West Germany and the United States began producing operational forecasts based on primitive-equation models, followed by the United Kingdom in 1972 and Australia in 1977. The development of limited area models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclones as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s, by the early 1980s models began to include the interactions of soil and vegetation with the atmosphere, which led to more realistic forecasts. The output of forecast models based on atmospheric dynamics is unable to resolve some details of the weather near the Earths surface. As such, a relationship between the output of a numerical weather model and the ensuing conditions at the ground was developed in the 1970s and 1980s. The process of entering data into the model to generate initial conditions is called initialization
Numerical weather prediction
–
Weather reconnaissance aircraft, such as this
WP-3D Orion, provide data that is then used in numerical weather forecasts.
Numerical weather prediction
–
Weather models use systems of
differential equations based on the laws of
physics,
fluid motion, and
chemistry, and use a coordinate system which divides the planet into a 3D grid.
Winds,
heat transfer,
solar radiation,
relative humidity, and surface
hydrology are calculated within each grid cell, and the interactions with neighboring cells are used to calculate atmospheric properties in the future.
Numerical weather prediction
–
Field of
cumulus clouds, which are parameterized since they are too small to be explicitly included within numerical weather prediction
Numerical weather prediction
–
Top:
Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF) simulation of
Hurricane Rita (2005) tracks. Bottom: The spread of NHC multi-model ensemble forecast.
12.
German reunification
–
The end of the unification process is officially referred to as German unity, celebrated on 3 October. Following German reunification, Berlin was once designated as the capital of united Germany. The East German regime started to falter in May 1989, when the removal of Hungarys border fence with Austria opened a hole in the Iron Curtain and it caused an exodus of thousands of East Germans fleeing to West Germany and Austria via Hungary. The united Germany is the continuation of the Federal Republic. For political and diplomatic reasons, West German politicians carefully avoided the term reunification during the run-up to what Germans frequently refer to as die Wende, after 1990, the term die Wende became more common. The term generally refers to the events led up to the actual reunification, in its usual context. When referring to the events surrounding unification, however, it carries the connotation of the time. However, anti-communist activists from Eastern Germany rejected the term Wende as it was introduced by SEDs Secretary General Egon Krenz, the capital city of Berlin was divided into four occupied sectors of control, under the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom and France. Germans lived under such imposed divisions throughout the ensuing Cold War, into the 1980s, the Soviet Union experienced a period of economic and political stagnation, and they correspondingly decreased intervention in Eastern Bloc politics. In 1987, US President Ronald Reagan gave a speech at Brandenburg Gate challenging Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down this wall that had separated Berlin. The wall had stood as an icon for the political and economic division between East and West, a division that Churchill had referred to as the Iron Curtain. In early 1989, under a new era of Soviet policies of glasnost, perestroika and taken to more progressive levels by Gorbachev. Further inspired by images of brave defiance, a wave of revolutions swept throughout the Eastern Bloc that year. In May 1989, Hungary removed their border fence and thousands of East Germans escaped to the West, however, events rapidly came to a head in early 1990. First, in March, the Party of Democratic Socialism—the former Socialist Unity Party of Germany—was heavily defeated in East Germanys first free elections. A grand coalition was formed under Lothar de Maizière, leader of the East German wing of Kohls Christian Democratic Union, on a platform of speedy reunification, second, East Germanys economy and infrastructure underwent a swift and near-total collapse. While East Germany had long been reckoned as having the most robust economy in the Soviet bloc, the East German mark had been practically worthless outside East Germany for some time before the events of 1989–90 further magnified the problem. Discussions immediately began for a merger of the German economies
German reunification
–
Berlin Wall at the
Brandenburg Gate, 10 November 1989
German reunification
–
Map showing the division of
East and
West Germany until 1990, with
West Berlin in yellow.
German reunification
–
Brandenburg Gate in
Berlin, national symbol of today's
Germany and its reunification in 1990.
German reunification
–
Police officers of the East German
Volkspolizei wait for the official opening of the
Brandenburg Gate on 22 December 1989.
13.
East Germany
–
East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
East Germany
–
GDR leaders: President
Wilhelm Pieck and Prime Minister
Otto Grotewohl, 1949
East Germany
–
Flag (1959–1990)
East Germany
–
SED First Secretary,
Walter Ulbricht, 1950
East Germany
–
Head of State:
Erich Honecker (1971–89)
14.
History of numerical weather prediction
–
Though first attempted manually in the 1920s, it was not until the advent of the computer and computer simulation that computation time was reduced to less than the forecast period itself. The development of global forecasting models led to the first climate models, the development of limited area models facilitated advances in forecasting the tracks of tropical cyclone as well as air quality in the 1970s and 1980s. The MOS apply statistical techniques to post-process the output of models with the most recent surface observations. This technique can correct for model resolution as well as model biases, the use of model ensemble forecasts since the 1990s helps to define the forecast uncertainty and extend weather forecasting farther into the future than otherwise possible. Until the end of the 19th century, weather prediction was entirely subjective and based on empirical rules, in 1904, Vilhelm Bjerknes derived a two-step procedure for model-based weather forecasting. First, a step is used to process data to generate initial conditions. He also identified seven variables that defined the state of the atmosphere at a point, pressure, temperature, density, humidity. With the exception of the law of thermodynamics, these equations form the basis of the primitive equations used in present-day weather models. In 1922, Lewis Fry Richardson published the first attempt at forecasting the weather numerically and his forecast calculated that the change in surface pressure would be 145 millibars, an unrealistic value incorrect by two orders of magnitude. The large error was caused by an imbalance in the pressure and this simplification greatly reduced demands on computer time and memory, so the computations could be performed on the relatively primitive computers of the day. When news of the first weather forecast by ENIAC was received by Richardson in 1950, in September 1954, Carl-Gustav Rossby assembled an international group of meteorologists in Stockholm and produced the first operational forecast based on the barotropic equation. Operational numerical weather prediction in the United States began in 1955 under the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit, a joint project by the U. S. Air Force, Navy, the JNWPU model was originally a three-layer barotropic model, also developed by Charney. It only modeled the atmosphere in the Northern Hemisphere, in 1956, the JNWPU switched to a two-layer thermotropic model developed by Thompson and Gates. However, due to the low skill showed by the thermotropic model, the Japanese Meteorological Agency became the third organization to initiate operational numerical weather prediction in 1959. The first real-time forecasts made by Australias Bureau of Meteorology in 1969 for portions of the Southern Hemisphere were also based on the single-layer barotropic model, later models used more complete equations for atmospheric dynamics and thermodynamics. In 1959, Karl-Heinz Hinkelmann produced the first reasonable primitive equation forecast,37 years after Richardsons failed attempt, Hinkelmann did so by removing small oscillations from the numerical model during initialization. In 1966, West Germany and the United States began producing operational forecasts based on models, followed by the United Kingdom in 1972. Later additions to primitive equation models allowed additional insight into different weather phenomena, three years later, the first global forecast model was introduced
History of numerical weather prediction
–
Top: WRF model simulation of Hurricane Rita tracks. Bottom: The spread of NHC multi-model ensemble forecast.
History of numerical weather prediction
–
The ENIAC main control panel at the
Moore School of Electrical Engineering
15.
Hexagon
–
In geometry, a hexagon is a six sided polygon or 6-gon. The total of the angles of any hexagon is 720°. A regular hexagon has Schläfli symbol and can also be constructed as an equilateral triangle, t. A regular hexagon is defined as a hexagon that is both equilateral and equiangular and it is bicentric, meaning that it is both cyclic and tangential. The common length of the sides equals the radius of the circumscribed circle, all internal angles are 120 degrees. A regular hexagon has 6 rotational symmetries and 6 reflection symmetries, the longest diagonals of a regular hexagon, connecting diametrically opposite vertices, are twice the length of one side. Like squares and equilateral triangles, regular hexagons fit together without any gaps to tile the plane, the cells of a beehive honeycomb are hexagonal for this reason and because the shape makes efficient use of space and building materials. The Voronoi diagram of a triangular lattice is the honeycomb tessellation of hexagons. It is not usually considered a triambus, although it is equilateral, the maximal diameter, D is twice the maximal radius or circumradius, R, which equals the side length, t. The minimal diameter or the diameter of the circle, d, is twice the minimal radius or inradius. If a regular hexagon has successive vertices A, B, C, D, E, F, the regular hexagon has Dih6 symmetry, order 12. There are 3 dihedral subgroups, Dih3, Dih2, and Dih1, and 4 cyclic subgroups, Z6, Z3, Z2 and these symmetries express 9 distinct symmetries of a regular hexagon. John Conway labels these by a letter and group order, r12 is full symmetry, and a1 is no symmetry. These two forms are duals of each other and have half the order of the regular hexagon. The i4 forms are regular hexagons flattened or stretched along one symmetry direction and it can be seen as an elongated rhombus, while d2 and p2 can be seen as horizontally and vertically elongated kites. G2 hexagons, with sides parallel are also called hexagonal parallelogons. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms, only the g6 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges. Hexagons of symmetry g2, i4, and r12, as parallelogons can tessellate the Euclidean plane by translation, other hexagon shapes can tile the plane with different orientations
Hexagon
–
Giants causeway closeup
Hexagon
–
The ideal crystalline structure of
graphene is a hexagonal grid.
Hexagon
–
Assembled
E-ELT mirror segments
Hexagon
–
A beehive
honeycomb
16.
Icosahedron
–
In geometry, an icosahedron is a polyhedron with 20 faces. The name comes from Greek εἴκοσι, meaning twenty, and ἕδρα, the plural can be either icosahedra or icosahedrons. There are many kinds of icosahedra, with some being more symmetrical than others, the best known is the Platonic, convex regular icosahedron. There are two objects, one convex and one concave, that can both be called regular icosahedra, each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. The term regular icosahedron generally refers to the variety, while the nonconvex form is called a great icosahedron. Its dual polyhedron is the dodecahedron having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex. The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra, like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges and its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron, having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex. Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron and it is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure. In their book The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra, Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron, of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them, other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are referred to as such. A regular icosahedron can be distorted or marked up as a lower symmetry, and is called a snub octahedron, snub tetratetrahedron, snub tetrahedron. This can be seen as a truncated octahedron. If all the triangles are equilateral, the symmetry can also be distinguished by colouring the 8 and 12 triangle sets differently, pyritohedral symmetry has the symbol, with order 24. Tetrahedral symmetry has the symbol, +, with order 12 and these lower symmetries allow geometric distortions from 20 equilateral triangular faces, instead having 8 equilateral triangles and 12 congruent isosceles triangles. These symmetries offer Coxeter diagrams, and respectively, each representing the lower symmetry to the regular icosahedron, the coordinates of the 12 vertices can be defined by the vectors defined by all the possible cyclic permutations and sign-flips of coordinates of the form. These coordinates represent the truncated octahedron with alternated vertices deleted and this construction is called a snub tetrahedron in its regular icosahedron form, generated by the same operations carried out starting with the vector, where ϕ is the golden ratio
Icosahedron
–
Convex
regular icosahedron
17.
Radioteletype
–
Radioteletype is a telecommunications system consisting originally of two or more electromechanical teleprinters in different locations connected by radio rather than a wired link. These machines were later superseded by personal computers running software to emulate teleprinters, Radioteletype evolved from earlier landline teleprinter operations that began in the mid-1800s. The US Navy Department successfully tested printing telegraphy between an airplane and ground station in 1922. Later that year, the Radio Corporation of America successfully tested printing telegraphy via their Chatham, Massachusetts, commercial RTTY systems were in active service between San Francisco and Honolulu as early as April 1932 and between San Francisco and New York City by 1934. The US military used radioteletype in the 1930s and expanded this usage during World War II, from the 1980s, teleprinters were replaced by computers running teleprinter emulation software. In some applications, notably military and government, radioteletype is known by the acronym RATT, landline teleprinter operations began in 1849 when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City. Émile Baudot designed a system using a five unit code in 1874 that is still in use today, teleprinter system design was gradually improved until, at the beginning of World War II, it represented the principal distribution method used by the news services. Radioteletype evolved from earlier landline teleprinter operations. The US Department of the Navy successfully tested printing telegraphy between an airplane and ground station in August 1922. Later that year, the Radio Corporation of America successfully tested printing telegraphy via their Chatham, an early implementation of the Radioteletype was the Watsongraph, named after Detroit inventor Glenn Watson in March 1931. Commercial RTTY systems were in service between San Francisco and Honolulu as early as April 1932 and between San Francisco and New York City by 1934. The US Military used radioteletype in the 1930s and expanded this usage during World War II, the Navy called radioteletype RATT and the Army Signal Corps called radioteletype SCRT, an abbreviation of Single-Channel Radio Teletype. The military used frequency shift keying technology and this proved very reliable even over long distances. From the 1980s, teleprinters were replaced by computers running teleprinter emulation software, a radioteletype station consists of three distinct parts, the Teletype or teleprinter, the modem and the radio. The Teletype or teleprinter is an electromechanical or electronic device, electromechanical teleprinters were heavy, complex and noisy, and have been replaced with electronic units. The teleprinter includes a keyboard, which is the means of entering text. An alternative input device is a tape reader and, more recently. Alternative output devices are tape perforators and computer storage media, the line output of a teleprinter can be at either digital logic levels or line levels
Radioteletype
–
Tuning indicator on cathode ray tube
Radioteletype
–
Radioteletype tuning indicator
Radioteletype
–
Punched tape of the type used with teleprinters
Radioteletype
–
Electronic RTTY terminal, ca. 1980
18.
Governments
–
A government is the system by which a state or community is controlled. In the case of this broad definition, government normally consists of legislators, administrators. Government is the means by which state policy is enforced, as well as the mechanism for determining the policy of the state. Forms of government, or forms of governance, refers to the set of political systems. Governments control the economy, social freedoms, and political systems and this usage is analogous to what is called an administration in American English. Finally, government is sometimes used in English as a synonym for governance. In addition to the political meanings, in grammar and theoretical linguistics
Governments
–
presidential republics
19.
Hamburg
–
Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
Hamburg
–
1st row: View of the
Binnenalster; 2nd row:
Große Freiheit,
Speicherstadt,
River Elbe; 3rd row: Alsterfleet; 4th row:
Port of Hamburg, Dockland office building
Hamburg
–
Hamburg, seen from the
International Space Station
Hamburg
–
Hamburg in 1150
Hamburg
–
Seal of 1241 (Replica)
20.
Potsdam
–
Potsdam is the capital and largest city of the German federal state of Brandenburg. It directly borders the German capital Berlin and is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region and it is situated on the River Havel,24 kilometres southwest of Berlins city centre. Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser, around the city there are a series of interconnected lakes and cultural landmarks, in particular the parks and palaces of Sanssouci, the largest World Heritage Site in Germany. The Potsdam Conference in 1945 was held at the palace Cecilienhof, the Filmstudio Babelsberg is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century, today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam, and more than 30 research institutes in the city. The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period, today, the city is three-quarters green space, with just a quarter as urban area. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, the highest point is the 114-metre high Kleiner Ravensberg. Potsdam is divided into seven city districts and nine new Ortsteile. The appearances of the city districts are quite different, the districts in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. Potsdam has an Oceanic climate, with cool, snowy winters, the average winter high temperature is 3.5 °C, with a low of −1.7 °C. Snow is common in the winter, summers are mild, with a high of 23.6 °C and a low of 12.7 °C. The name Potsdam originally seems to have been Poztupimi, a common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning beneath the oaks, i. e. the corrupted pod dubmi/dubimi. The area around Potsdam shows occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of Magna Germania as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and it was first mentioned in a document in 993 AD as Poztupimi, when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town and it gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a market town of 2,000 inhabitants. Potsdam lost nearly half of its due to the Thirty Years War. After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration and its religious freedom attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia
Potsdam
–
View of the rebuilt
Potsdam City Palace and
St. Nicholas' Church at night
Potsdam
–
Sanssouci
Potsdam
–
Templiner See south of Potsdam
Potsdam
–
Development of Population since 1875 within the Current Boundaries (Blue Line: Population; Dotted Line: Comparison to Population Development of Brandenburg state; Grey Background: Time of Nazi rule; Red Background: Time of Communist rule)
21.
Leipzig
–
Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig
22.
Essen
–
Essen is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Its population of approximately 589,000 makes it the ninth-largest city in Germany and it is the central city of the northern part of the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area and seat to several of the regions authorities. Founded around 845, Essen remained a town within the sphere of influence of an important ecclesiastical principality until the onset of industrialization. The city then — especially through the Krupp family iron works — became one of Germanys most important coal and steel centers. Essen, until the 1970s, attracted workers from all over the country, following the region-wide decline of heavy industries in the last decades of the 20th century, the city has seen the development of a strong tertiary sector of the economy. Although it is the most indebted city in Germany, Essen continues to pursue its redevelopment plans, notable accomplishments in recent years include the title of European Capital of Culture on behalf of the whole Ruhr area in 2010 and the selection as the European Green Capital for 2017. In 1958, Essen was chosen to serve as the seat to a Roman Catholic diocese, in early 2003, the universities of Essen and the nearby city of Duisburg were merged into the University of Duisburg-Essen with campuses in both cities and a university hospital in Essen. Essen is located in the centre of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe, comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3 million inhabitants. The city limits of Essen itself are 87 km long and border ten cities, five independent and five kreisangehörig, the city extends over 21 km from north to south and 17 km from west to east, mainly north of the River Ruhr. The Ruhr forms the Lake Baldeney reservoir in the boroughs of Fischlaken, Kupferdreh, the lake, a popular recreational area, dates from 1931 to 1933, when some thousands of unemployed coal miners dredged it with primitive tools. Generally, large areas south of the River Ruhr are quite green and are quoted as examples of rural structures in the otherwise relatively densely populated central Ruhr area. According to the Federal Statistical Office of Germany, Essen with 9. 2% of its covered by recreational green is the greenest city in North Rhine-Westphalia. The city has been shortlisted for the title of European Green Capital two consecutive times, for 2016 and 2017, winning for 2017, the city was singled out for its exemplary practices in protecting and enhancing nature and biodiversity and efforts to reduce water consumption. Essen participates in a variety of networks and initiatives to reduce gas emissions. The lowest point can be found in the borough of Karnap at 26.5 m. The average elevation is 116 m, Essen comprises fifty boroughs which in turn are grouped into nine suburban districts often named after the most important boroughs. Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were annexed from 1901 to 1975
Essen
–
Skyline of Essen
Essen
–
Despite its industrial history, Essen is generally regarded as one of Germany's greenest cities. The picture shows the borough of
Kettwig, annexed in 1975.
Essen
–
Essen Minster
Essen
–
Alte Kirche (Old Church, built 1887), Altenessen
23.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart is the capital and largest city of the German state of Baden-Württemberg. It is located on the Neckar river in a fertile valley known as the Stuttgart Cauldron an hour from the Swabian Jura. Stuttgarts urban area has a population of 623,738, making it the sixth largest city in Germany. 2.7 million people live in the administrative region and another 5.3 million people in its metropolitan area. Since the 6th millennium BC, the Stuttgart area has been an important agricultural area and has been host to a number of cultures seeking to utilize the rich soil of the Neckar valley. The Roman Empire conquered the area in 83 AD and built a massive Castrum near Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgarts roots were truly laid in the 10th century with its founding by Liudolf, Duke of Swabia as a stud farm for his warhorses. Overshadowed by nearby Cannstatt, the town grew steadily and was granted a charter in 1320, the fortunes of Stuttgart turned with those of the House of Württemberg, and they made it the capital of their County, Duchy, and Kingdom from the 15th Century to 1918. Stuttgart prospered despite setbacks in the forms of the Thirty Years War and devastating air raids by the Allies on the city, however, by 1952, the city had bounced back and became the major economic, industrial, tourism and publishing center it is today. Stuttgart is also an important transport junction, and possesses the sixth largest airport in Germany. Such companies as Porsche, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler AG, Dinkelacker, Stuttgart is unusual in the scheme of German cities. It is spread across a variety of hills, valleys and parks and this is often a source of surprise to visitors who associate the city with its reputation as the Cradle of the Automobile. The citys tourism slogan is Stuttgart offers more, under current plans to improve transport links to the international infrastructure, the city unveiled a new logo and slogan in March 2008 describing itself as Das neue Herz Europas. For business, it describes itself as Where business meets the future, in July 2010, Stuttgart unveiled a new city logo, designed to entice more business people to stay in the city and enjoy breaks in the area. Stuttgart is a city of mostly immigrants, according to Dorling Kindersley Publishings Eyewitness Travel Guide to Germany, In the city of Stuttgart, every third inhabitant is a foreigner. 40% of Stuttgarts residents, and 64% of the population below the age of five are of immigrant background, the reason for this being that the city was founded in 950 AD by Duke Liudolf of Swabia to breed warhorses. Originally, the most important location in the Neckar river valley as the rim of the Stuttgart basin at what is today Bad Cannstatt. As with many military installations, a settlement sprang up nearby, when they did, the town was left in the capable hands of a local brickworks that produced sophisticated architectural ceramics and pottery. When the Romans were driven back past the Rhine and Danube rivers in the 3rd Century by the Alamanni, in 700, Duke Gotfrid mentions a Chan Stada in a document regarding property
Stuttgart
–
Clockwise from top left:
Staatstheater,
Cannstatter Volksfest in Bad Cannstatt, fountain at
Schlossplatz, Fruchtkasten façade and the statue of
Friedrich Schiller at
Schillerplatz,
New Palace, and
Old Castle at Schillerplatz.
Stuttgart
–
Panorama of Stuttgart looking southeast. From the
Neckar valley on the left the city rises to the city center, backdropped by high woods to the south (
television tower). Stuttgart South and Stuttgart West are to the right.
Stuttgart
–
Stuttgart at night, looking northwest
Stuttgart
–
Schlossplatz
24.
Munich
–
Munich is the capital and largest city of the German state of Bavaria, on the banks of River Isar north of the Bavarian Alps. Munich is the third largest city in Germany, after Berlin and Hamburg, the Munich Metropolitan Region is home to 5.8 million people. According to the Globalization and World Rankings Research Institute Munich is considered an alpha-world city, the name of the city is derived from the Old/Middle High German term Munichen, meaning by the monks. It derives from the monks of the Benedictine order who ran a monastery at the place that was later to become the Old Town of Munich, Munich was first mentioned in 1158. From 1255 the city was seat of the Bavarian Dukes, black and gold—the colours of the Holy Roman Empire—have been the citys official colours since the time of Ludwig the Bavarian, when it was an imperial residence. Following a final reunification of the Wittelsbachian Duchy of Bavaria, previously divided and sub-divided for more than 200 years, like wide parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the area recovered slowly economically. In 1918, during the German Revolution, the house of Wittelsbach, which governed Bavaria since 1180, was forced to abdicate in Munich. In the 1920s, Munich became home to political factions, among them the NSDAP. During World War II, Munich was heavily bombed and more than 50% of the entire city, the postwar period was characterised by American occupation until 1949 and a strong increase of population and economic power during the years of the Wirtschaftswunder after 1949. The city is home to corporations like BMW, Siemens, MAN, Linde, Allianz and MunichRE as well as many small. Munich is home to national and international authorities, major universities, major museums. Its numerous architectural attractions, international events, exhibitions and conferences. Munich is one of the most prosperous and fastest growing cities in Germany and it is a top-ranked destination for migration and expatriate location, despite being the municipality with the highest density of population in Germany. Munich nowadays hosts more than 530,000 people of foreign background, the year 1158 is assumed to be the foundation date, which is the earliest date the city is mentioned in a document. The document was signed in Augsburg, by that time the Guelph Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, had built a bridge over the river Isar next to a settlement of Benedictine monks—this was on the Old Salt Route and a toll bridge. In 1175, Munich was officially granted city status and received fortification, in 1180, with the trial of Henry the Lion, Otto I Wittelsbach became Duke of Bavaria and Munich was handed over to the Bishop of Freising. In 1240, Munich was transferred to Otto II Wittelsbach and in 1255, Duke Louis IV, a native of Munich, was elected German king in 1314 and crowned as Holy Roman Emperor in 1328. He strengthened the position by granting it the salt monopoly
Munich
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From left to right: The
Munich Frauenkirche, the
Nymphenburg Palace, the
BMW Headquarters, the
New Town Hall, the
Munich Hofgarten and the
Allianz Arena.
Munich
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Munich city
coat of arms
Munich
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Banners with the colours of Munich (left) and Bavaria (right) with the
Frauenkirche in the background
Munich
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Bombing damage to the Altstadt. Note the roofless and pockmarked Altes Rathaus looking up the Tal. The roofless Heilig-Geist-Kirche is on the right of the photo. Its spire, without the copper top, is behind the church. The Talbruck gate tower is missing completely.
25.
Weather station
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The measurements taken include temperature, atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed, wind direction, and precipitation amounts. Wind measurements are taken with as few other obstructions as possible, while temperature and humidity measurements are kept free from direct solar radiation, manual observations are taken at least once daily, while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken by ships and buoys, which slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface temperature, wave height. Drifting weather buoys outnumber their moored versions by a significant amount, the instrumentation may be specialized to allow for periodic recording otherwise significant manual labour is required for record keeping. Automatic transmission of data, in a such as METAR, is also desirable as many weather stations data is required for weather forecasting. A personal weather station is a set of measuring instruments operated by a private individual, club, association. The quality, number of instruments, and placement of personal weather stations can vary widely, making the determination of which stations collect accurate, meaningful, personal weather stations also typically involve a digital console that provides readouts of the data being collected. These consoles may interface to a computer where data can be displayed, stored. Personal weather stations may be operated solely for the enjoyment and education of the owner, however some owners share their results with others and they do this by either by manually compiling data and distributing it, distributing data over the internet internet, or sharing data via amateur radio. The Citizen Weather Observer Program is a service which facilitates the sharing of information from weather stations. This data is submitted through use of software, a personal computer, each weather station submitting data to CWOP will also have an individual Web page that depicts the data submitted by that station. The Weather Underground Internet site is popular destination for the submittal. As with CWOP, each station submitting data to The Weather Underground has a unique Web page displaying their submitted data, the UK Met Offices Weather Observations Website also allows such data to be shared and displayed. A weather ship was a ship stationed in the ocean as a platform for surface and it was also meant to aid in search and rescue operations and to support transatlantic flights. The establishment of weather ships proved to be so useful during World War II that the International Civil Aviation Organization established a network of 13 weather ships in 1948. Of the 12 left in operation in 1996, nine were located in the northern Atlantic ocean while three were located in the northern Pacific ocean, the agreement of the weather ships ended in 1990. Weather ship observations proved to be helpful in wind and wave studies, the last weather ship was MS Polarfront, known as weather station M at 66°N, 02°E, run by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute. MS Polarfront was removed from service January 1,2010, since the 1960s this role has been largely superseded by satellites, long range aircraft and weather buoys
Weather station
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Weather station at
Mildura Airport,
Victoria, Australia.
Weather station
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The
NOAA weather station at
Wake Island harbor measures and transmits data on
wind speed,
atmospheric pressure,
air temperature and
tides.
Weather station
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Roof-mounted weather station instruments
Weather station
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The weather ship
M/S Polarfront at sea.
26.
Berliner Morgenpost
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Berliner Morgenpost is a German newspaper, based and mainly read in Berlin, where it is the second most read daily newspaper. Founded in 1898 by Leopold Ullstein, the paper was taken over by Axel Springer AG in 1959 and it was sold to Funke Mediengruppe in 2013. The paper had a circulation of 145,556 issues in 2009 and it was awarded the European Newspaper of the Year in the category of regional newspaper by the European Newspapers Congress in 2012
Berliner Morgenpost
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The 29 January 2011 front page of Berliner Morgenpost
27.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
28.
China Meteorological Administration
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The China Meteorological Administration, headquartered in Beijing, is the national weather service for the Peoples Republic of China. The agency was established in December 1949 as the Central Military Commission Meteorological Bureau. It replaced the Central Weather Bureau formed in 1941, in 1994, the CMA was transformed from a subordinate governmental body into one of the public service agencies under the State Council. Meteorological bureaus are established in 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities, excluding meteorological services at Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. org
China Meteorological Administration
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Beijing Meteorological Bureau, the capital weather forecasting office
China Meteorological Administration
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Emblem of the People's Republic of China
29.
Central Weather Bureau
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The Central Weather Bureau is the government meteorological research and forecasting institution of the Republic of China. In addition to meteorology, the Central Weather Bureau also makes observations, reports on sea conditions. The Central Weather Bureau is headquartered in Taipei City and is administered under the Ministry of Transportation, while Taiwan was under Japanese rule, the government set up five weather monitoring stations on the island, located in Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Hengchun, and Penghu. On December 19,1897, the Governor-General moved the headquarters to the present location occupied by the successor agency of the Japanese Taipei Observatory. When the position of Chief Executive was abolished in 1947 the institution became an agency of the Taiwan Provincial Government, the Central Weather Bureau itself was established in 1941 in Chongqing under the Executive Yuan of the Republic of China. In 1947 it was reassigned to the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, after the Kuomintang defeat in the Chinese Civil War and their subsequent flight to Taiwan in 1949, the Central Weather Bureau relocated from Mainland China to Taiwan. In 1971 the Central Weather Bureau switched from being a part of the Taiwan Provincial Government to the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, the Central Weather Bureau has a number of responsibilities, represented by the various departments. The Weather Forecast Center is the department responsible for monitoring weather conditions and making short. It also issues severe weather advisories for conditions including heavy rain, cold snaps, typhoons and storms, in the case of typhoons, the department closely monitors all tropical storms which might impact the island and issues warnings and predicted typhoon path and severity based on the collected data. Taiwan is in an active region on the Pacific Ring of Fire. The center has 150 seismological monitoring stations through Taiwan, Penghu, Jinmen, the Marine Meteorology Center was established in 1993 to monitor sea conditions and make predictions about weather at sea for shipping, fisheries, tourism and other interested parties. Variables including wave height, tides, sea level variations, sea surface temperature, the Bureau also includes the following departments, The Meteorological Satellite Center, which receives and analyses weather satellite data for observation and prediction purposes. The Astronomical Observatory, which not only observes astronomical phenomena such as sunspots and eclipses, the CWB building is accessible within walking distance South from NTU Hospital Station of the Taipei Metro. Ministry of Transportation and Communications Climate of Taiwan Former Tainan Weather Observatory
Central Weather Bureau
Central Weather Bureau
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Central Weather Bureau
Central Weather Bureau
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Tzay-Chyn Shin, the incumbent Director-General of the Central Weather Bureau
30.
Hong Kong Observatory
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The Hong Kong Observatory is a weather forecast agency of the government of Hong Kong. The Observatory forecasts the weather and issues warnings on weather-related hazards, the Observatory was established in 1883 as the Hong Kong Observatory by Sir George Bowen, the 9th Governor of Hong Kong, with Dr William Doberck as its first director. Early operations included meteorological and magnetic observations, a service based on astronomical observations. The Observatory was renamed the Royal Observatory, Hong Kong after obtaining a Royal Charter in 1912, the Observatory reverted to its original name in 1997 after the transfer of Hong Kongs sovereignty from the UK to China. The Hong Kong Observatory was built in Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon in 1883, Observatory Road in Tsim Sha Tsui is so named based on this landmark. However, due to urbanisation, it is now surrounded by skyscrapers. As a result of greenhouse gas emissions, the reflection of sunlight from buildings. This was demonstrated by the increase in average temperatures recorded by the Observatory between 1980 and 2005. This building, built in 1883, is a rectangular two-storey plastered brick structure, it is characterised by arched windows and it now houses the office of the directorate and to serve as a centre of administration of the Observatory. The building is a monument of Hong Kong since 1984. It is next to the 1883 Building, the Centenary Building, in 1981 the logo was changed to the old coat of arms, and in 1997, with the transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong, the current logo was introduced to replace the colonial symbols. Activities organised for the Friends of the Observatory include regular science lectures, newsletters were also published for members once every four months. The Observatory regularly organises visits for the school students. This outreach programme was extended to school students, the elderly. Talks are also organised in school during the winter time. A roving exhibition for the public was also mounted in shopping malls in 2003, to promote understanding of the services provided by the Observatory and their benefits to the community, over 50 press releases were issued and 7 media briefings were held in 2003. From time to time, the Observatory also works closely with schools for a series of events, including with the Geography Society of PLK Vicwood KT Chong Sixth Form College between 2008 and 2009
Hong Kong Observatory
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The 1883 building
Hong Kong Observatory
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The Hong Kong Observatory Centenary Building
Hong Kong Observatory
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Hong Kong Observatory Grounds
Hong Kong Observatory
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Signs of Hong Kong Observatory in different years.
31.
India Meteorological Department
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The India Meteorological Department, also referred to as the Met Department, is an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India. It is the agency responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting. IMD is headquartered in New Delhi and operates hundreds of stations across India. IMD is also one of the six Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the World Meteorological Organization, the first meteorological observatories were established in India by the British East India Company. These included the Calcutta Observatory in 1785, the Madras Observatory in 1796, several other observatories were established in India during the first half of the 19th century by various provincial governments. He also coined the term cyclone, meaning the coil of a snake, in 1842, he published his landmark thesis, Laws of the Storms. As a result, the India Meteorology Department was established in 1875, henry Francis Blanford was appointed the first Meteorological Reporter of the IMD. In May 1889, Sir John Eliot was appointed the first Director General of Observatories in the erstwhile capital, the IMD headquarters were later shifted to Shimla in 1905, then to Pune in 1928 and finally to New Delhi in 1944. IMD became a member of the World Meteorological Organization after independence on 27 April 1949, the agency has gained in prominence due to the significance of the monsoon rains on Indian agriculture. It plays a role in preparing the annual monsoon forecast. IMD is headed by the Director General of Meteorology, dr. K. J. Ramesh is Director General of Meteorology since August 12016. IMD has 6 Regional Meteorological Centers, each under a Deputy Director General and these are located in Chennai, Guwahati, Kolkata, Mumbai, Nagpur and New Delhi. There are also Meteorological Centres in every state capital, IMD operates a network of hundreds of surface and glacial observatories, Upper Air stations, ozone and radiation observatories and meteorological radar stations. Additional data is received from Indias constellation of satellites, such as Kalpana-1, Megha-Tropiques and instruments on board the IRS series, data and observations are also reported into the IMD network from meteorological instruments on board Indian merchant marine and Indian Navy ships. IMD was the first organisation in India to deploy a message switching computer for supporting its global data exchange, IMD collaborates with other agencies such as the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting and the National Institute of Ocean Technology. IMD also operates seismic monitoring centres at key locations for earthquake monitoring, IMD undertakes observations, communications, forecasting and weather services. In collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation, the IMD also uses the IRS series, IMD was the first weather bureau of a developing country to develop and maintain its own satellite system. IMD is one of the 6 worldwide Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the Tropical Cyclone Programme of the World Weather Watch of the World Meteorological Organization and it is regional nodal agency for forecasting, naming and disseminating warnings about tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean north of the Equator
India Meteorological Department
–
IMD, headquarters at New Delhi.
32.
Japan Meteorological Agency
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The Japan Meteorological Agency, frequently abbreviated to JMA, is an agency of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. Its headquarters is located in Chiyoda, Tokyo, JMA is responsible for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts for the general public, as well as providing aviation and marine weather. JMA other responsibilities include issuing warnings for volcanic eruptions, and the issuance of earthquake warnings of the Earthquake Early Warning system. JMA is also designated one of the Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers of the World Meteorological Organization, august 26,1872 – The first weather station in Japan set up in Hakodate, Hokkaido. It is the precursor of the present Hakodate Weather Station, June 1875 – The original Tokyo Meteorological Observatory was formed within the Survey Division of Geography Bureau of Home Ministry. January 1,1887 – The Tokyo Meteorological Observatory was renamed as the Central Meteorological Observatory, april 1895 – The Ministry of Education replaced the preceding ministry as an administrator of the Observatory. January 1,1923 – The main office moved to Motoe-machi, Kōjimachi-ku, November 1943 – The Ministry of Transport and Communications took over the CMOs operation. May 1945 – It became part of the Ministry of Transport, july 1,1956 – The Central Meteorological Observatory became an agency of the Ministry of Transport, and has been renamed to the Japan Meteorological Agency. March 1964 – The headquarters office was relocated to the present building in Ōtemachi, january 6,2001 – The JMA becomes an agency of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism with the Japanese government reformation. 2013 – It has been announced that it would be scheduled to move the headquarters into Toranomon, the JMA is responsible not only for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts in Japan, but also for observation and warning of earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons and volcanic eruptions. The agency has six administrative offices, four Marine Observatories, five auxiliary facilities. These are also used to gather data, supplemented by weather satellites such as Himawari, in 1968, the World Meteorological Organization designated the JMA as a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre for Asia. In June 1988, the WMO also assigned the JMA as a RSMC for the Northwestern Pacific under its Tropical Cyclone programme, each DMO and LMO issues weather forecasts and warnings or advisories to the general public live in its own area. Weather data used to these forecasts are acquired from the Surface Observation, the Radar Observation, the Upper-air Observation, the Marine Observatories are seated in Hakodate, Maizuru, Kobe and Nagasaki. These stations observe ocean waves, tide levels, sea surface temperature, along with this establishment, JMA placed the Air Traffic Meteorology Center inside the ATMC. Additionally, Aviation Weather Stations deal with the similar tasks as these, in the Northwestern Pacific area, the typhoon season ordinarily comes almost from May to November. The JMA forecasts and warns or advises on tropical cyclones to the public in Japan, the JMA has its own 624 observation stations across the country that set up at intervals of 20 km approximately in order to measure seismic intensity of earthquakes precisely. The agency also utilize about 2,900 more seismographs owned by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention, the Earthquake Early Warning system began to work fully for the general public on October 1,2007
Japan Meteorological Agency
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JMA logo
Japan Meteorological Agency
–
JMA headquarters building in
Tokyo
33.
Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau
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The Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau also known as Macau Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau is a department of the Macao Government. The services provides forecasts weather and issues warnings on weather-related hazards and it also provides and geophysical services to meet the needs of the public and the shipping, aviation, industrial and engineering sectors. Macao Meteorologic and Geophysic Services was established in 1952 as a government agency after taking over the role from the Portuguese Navy, Meteorological data had been recorded in Macau since 1861 with online data back to 1901. It was renamed the Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau following the handover in 1999, Hong Kong rainstorm warning signals Hong Kong tropical cyclone warning signals China Meteorological Administration Hong Kong Observatory Central Weather Bureau
Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau
–
Headquarter of the Macao Meteorological and Geophysical Bureau
34.
Malaysian Meteorological Department
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The Malaysian Meteorological Department is an agency of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. Its headquarters is located in Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia nearest to Taman Jaya LRT station, 1820- Meteorological observations started in Singapore. 1883- Observations of air pressure, temperature and rainfall by the Department of Health began in Penang,1906 - 1926- Meteorological Stations were established in the Federal Malay States hospitals to take routine observations. 1921- Weather observations were carried out at Gunung Tahan for two years for studying the possibility of building a sanatorium, 1924- The Museum Department took over the observation function. 1927- Meteorological Branch in Peninsular Malaya was transferred to and created as a unit in the Survey Department, 1930- The development of the Meteorological Branch of the Survey Department into a fully organized modern meteorological service unit. 1931- The Pan Malayan Meteorological Headquarters was established in Singapore, 1938- The post of Director, Malayan Meteorological Service was created. 1 September 1946- Malayan Meteorological Service was established with its office in Singapore. 1958- Department of Meteorological Office was established in Simpang Airport, 1958- Malaysia deposited its instrument of accession to the WMO convention on 19 May 1958 and acceded to the convention. 9 August 1963- Head office moved to Kuala Lumpur,9 August 1965- Malaysian Meteorological Service was established and placed under the Ministry of Transport with the separation of meteorological services in Malaysia and Singapore. 1967- Research and Training Division was set up,1 April 1968- Malaysian Meteorological Services headquarters building at Petaling Jaya was completed. 1968- Satellite Meteorology Division and Electronic Data Processing Division were established,1 July 1969- Took over the Sabah and Sarawak Meteorological Service from the Department of Civil Aviation. 1975- Establishment of Meteorological Instrument Unit, Environmental Studies Division, Marine Meteorology Division, 1984- Malaysian Meteorological Service was transferred to the Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment currently known as Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. 1985- Butterworth Regional Meteorological Office was handed over to Malaysia Meteorological Services Department,15 August 1997- Central Forecast Office was established in Petaling Jaya Headquarter Office. 1 July 1998- KLIA Regional Meteorological Office was officially operated in International Airport of KLIA,18 December 2003- Malaysian Meteorological Services Department has won Anugerah Kualiti Perdana Menteri. November 2004- Gong Kedak Meteorological Office was established,28 September 2006- Malaysian Meteorological Services Department was changed to Malaysian Meteorological Department. 23 March 2009- New logo of Malaysian Meteorological Department was launched, maintain a technically advanced observation station network to support monitoring of weather conditions and seismic activities in the country. Issue timely meteorological information and forecasts for civil and military aviation, marine activities, provide early warnings on the occurrences of adverse weather phenomena and dangerous sea conditions in the Malaysian region to the public and relevant agencies involved in disaster mitigation. Provide immediate information on events that affect the country to the public, media
Malaysian Meteorological Department
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Weather radar at
Miri, Sarawak
35.
PAGASA
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Created on December 8,1972 by reorganizing the Weather Bureau, PAGASA now serves as one of the Scientific and Technological Services Institutes of the Department of Science and Technology. Jaime Nonell, another Jesuit scholastic, wrote a treatise on these observations. The treatise attracted the attention of businessmen in Manila and a request was made to the Jesuit director, juan Vidal, SJ, for regular observations for the purpose of warning the public against approaching typhoons. The businessmen financed the procurement and acquisition of an instrument called the Universal Meteorograph which would aid in the day. In 1866, Federico Faura, SJ, became the director of the Observatorio in recognition of scientific abilities, during this time, the Observatorio was engaged in the systematic observation of Philippine weather. On July 7,1879, after comparison with another Jesuit friar in the West Indies. This was followed by a prediction in November of the year that a tropical cyclone will pass by Manila. The Observatorio began conducting seismological and terrestrial observations in 1880. In 1885, the Observatorio started time service and a system of weather warnings for merchant shipping. In 1886, the Faura Aneroid Barometer was released, in 1887, a section devoted to the study of terrestrial magnetism was set up and six years later, the first maps of terrestrial magnetism in the Philippines was published. In 1890, the service was officially established, and in 1899. This reputation reached foreign shores and other observatories began requesting for the monthly Boletin del Observatorio de Manila, the growing demands for the services of the led Observatorio led to the issuance of a Royal Decree on April 21,1894. This effectively recognized the Observatorio as an institution under the Jesuit order. This led to the establishment of a network of stations in various points of Luzon. Under the Treaty of Paris, on December 10,1898, after a period of great political turbulence that climaxed in the outbreak of Philippine-American War in 1899, an Insular Government was established. On May 22,1901, the Philippine Commission enacted Act No,131, reorganizing the Observatorio Meteorológico de Manila into the Weather Bureau under the Department of Interior. With the establishment of the Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources on January 1,1917, with the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the DANR was reorganized into the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The first weather map in Far East became an important tool in tropical cyclone forecasting thereon, the Japanese occupation period marked limited activity in the Central Office
PAGASA
–
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration
36.
Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia
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The Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia is the national meteorological service in Russia, part of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring. It was founded in 1921 as the Meteorological Service of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, in 1929 it joined the Hydrometeorological Centre of the USSR. From 1992 it is called Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia, in January 2007, by decision of the Government of Russia, this status has been saved. The main tasks of Russian Hydrometeorological Center are, Obtaining new knowledge about the processes of weather in the system atmosphere-ocean-land, operational support of the country, state and economic structures of hydro-meteorological information, including warnings of adverse weather and dangerous phenomena. Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring
Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia
–
Hydrometeorological Centre of Russia
37.
Pakistan Meteorological Department
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The Pakistan Meteorological Department, is an autonomous and independent institution tasked with providing forecasts, public warnings, and purposes of protection, safety, and general information. Headquartered in Islamabad, it has offices and research facilities in all over the four provinces of the country, as of current, Dr. Ghulam Rasul is the current Director-General of the Pakistan Meteorological Department. In 1875, the British government established the Indian Meteorological Department in India, sir Charles Normand later became the IMDs chief scientist and director. Under the guidance of Dr. Kedareswar Banerjee and Dr. Charles Normand, after the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Pakistan Meteorological Department was created in the newly born country. Since its establishment, the PMD has become one of the leading scientific institution in guiding the government in environmental. In 1948, the PMD started providing basic weather forecast to countrys print media, in 1965, the first televised weather forecast was broadcast by the state-controlled news channel, the PTV. However, in the 1960s, the PMD split with services to the Pakistan Navy being provided by its own forecasting department, nations most notable scientists and scholars have been affiliated with the PMD since its established. The PMD has also been assisting and leading the geomagnetic studies section of the Geomagnetic monitoring programme of the SRC, due to its resourcefulness and capable scientific staff, the PMD has become a reliable government agency for providing accurate data and forecast in the country. Since 1974, the Meteorological department has introduced a seismic detection system to scientific data acquire on the nuclear explosion, the Pakistan Meteorological Department is headed by the Director General. Centres in, - Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Quetta, Pakistan Meteorological Department was established in 1947 with only 15 meteorological observatories operating in the whole country. At the time of its establishment, the PMD inherited 15 meteorological observatories from the British Met Office who managed its observational operations in the South Asia, the PMDs facilities and stations have also played vital role in research work and its scientists have made valuable contribution. The PMDs has successfully established and expanded its system of meteorological observatories in all over the country, as of current, there are numbers of meteorological, airborne, and astronomical observatories that are established in rural and urbanized areas of the country as listed below. 47 observatories in Punjab, including Islamabad, reports from weather stations vary considerably and it is because there are different types of weather in different regions. There is list of stations below, Karachi, Sindh— The Met office in Karachi International Terminal working in close coordination with the Civil Aviation Authority. Additional, weather station situated in PAF Base Masroor, Lahore, Punjab— A weather station and met office in the Allama Iqbal International Terminal, and the airborne Observatory located in Lahore, Shahi Qilla, Misri Shah, Upper Mall and Lahore Shahdara. Rawalpindi, Punjab— A weather station in Benazir International Airport, usually used to report the weather of the city, a met office and observatory in Dhamial Army Airbase. A complete manned weather station is also in Shamasabad, and in Bokra on the border of the cities in the west
Pakistan Meteorological Department
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Meteorological Department Lahore is visible in this image
Pakistan Meteorological Department
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A
cold wave entering in Pakistan, 2007.
Pakistan Meteorological Department
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A astronomical observatory working in
Nanga Parbat range, 2013.
Pakistan Meteorological Department
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A cyclone system entering in Pakistan, 2007.
38.
Korea Meteorological Administration
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The Korea Meteorological Administration is the National Meteorological service of the Republic of Korea. The service started in 1904 joining the WMO in 1956, numerical Weather Prediction is performed using the Unified Model software suite. The office was established in August,1949, a year before the beginning of the Korean War, the organization was initially under the Ministry of Education. The official name for the office became Meteorological Administration in 1990, in 1998 the Administration was controlled by the Ministry of Science and Technology. The radars will be installed across the country as a means of providing for complete weather radar coverage over the entire country, the headquarters is in Daebang-dong, Dongjak District, Seoul. Co-working organs include mainly 5 categories, regional office of KMA, weather stations, observatories, KMA homepage KMA on www. top500. org The National Institute of Meteorological Research
Korea Meteorological Administration
–
Korea Meteorological Administration - Gwanak Radar Observatory
39.
Meteorological Service Singapore
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Meteorological Service Singapore is a division of the National Environment Agency, Singapore. MSSs mission is to observe and understand the weather and climate affecting Singapore and to services in support of national needs. It collects and maintain reliable long-term national weather records, provides reliable weather and it also conducts research to advance understanding and prediction of the weather and climate of Singapore and the region. It does risk and impact assessment of environmental hazards. The following timeline represents major developments of MSS,1927, A Meteorological Branch was formally established within the Malayan Survey Department 1869, Start of Singapore’s rainfall records. The key departments within MSS are, Centre for Climate Research Singapore, CCRS does tropical climate and weather research focusing on the Southeast Asia region. MSD provides support for equipment, computer systems and key installations in order to meet MSSs operational and technical requirements. RRD analyses risks and assesses their impact from the angle as well as those pertaining to environmental /natural hazards. WSD provides weather forecasts, warnings, monitoring and assessment and it provides such information to critical sectors like the civil aviation, military, maritime, private/public agencies and the general public
Meteorological Service Singapore
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Meterological Service Singapore Logo
40.
Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service
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Meteorological and hydrological service of Croatia is public entity for meteorology, hydrology and air quality in Croatia. DHMZ was founded 1947 and since then it is located on Grič3 in Upper Town, before Croatia gained independence in 1991, it meteorological and hydrological service has been a part of the meteorological and hydrological service in the former Yugoslavia. After independence of Croatia, DHMZ operates as state service, since 1992, Croatia has been member of the World Meteorological Organization, United Nations authoritative voice on Weather, Climate and Water. The DHMZ manages the meteorological and hydrological infrastructure, air quality monitoring infrastructure, as well as the archives of meteorological, hydrological. The DHMZ is a reliable and reputable international partner, particularly in southeastern,160 godina meteoroloških motrenja i njihova primjena u Hrvatskoj
Croatian Meteorological and Hydrological Service
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Meteorological and Hydrological Service
41.
Estonian Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
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The Estonian Weather Service is the Estonian national meteorological service. Estonian Weather Service is a department part of the Estonian Environment Agency, Estonian Weather Service is a member of the World Meteorological Organization and European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites. Before 1 June 2013, the department was an agency on its own known as the Estonian Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. Estonian Weather Services webpage offers you 4day forecast, week forecast, page also has a radar, model forecast and warnings
Estonian Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
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Estonian Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
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Finnish Meteorological Institute
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The Finnish Meteorological Institute is the government agency responsible for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts in Finland. It is a part of the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Institute is an impartial research and service organisation with expertise covering a wide range of atmospheric science activities other than gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts. The headquarters of the Institute is in Kumpula Campus, Helsinki, FMI provides weather forecasts for aviation, traffic, shipping and media as well as private citizens via internet and mobile devices. It also has air quality services, for sea areas, it provides information about ice cover, sea level changes and waves. In 2013 FMI made openly available data sets such as weather, sea and climate data, time series. The open data is targeted to benefit application developers who want to develop new services, applications, in 2009, researchers from VTT published a study assessing the benefits generated by the services offered by the Finnish Meteorological Institute. They concluded in sum in range of 260-290 million euros, while the budget of the institute was around 50 –60 million Euros. This leads to estimate for annual benefit-cost ratio for the services to be at least 5,1, Finnish Meteorological Institute makes observations of the atmosphere, sea and space at over 400 stations around Finland. Its weather radar network consists of 10 C-band Doppler radars, the research areas of FMI include meteorology, air quality, climate change, earth observation, marine and arctic research. Every year FMIs researchers publish about 300 peer-reviewed articles, the Finnish Meteorological Institute has investigated air quality processes and air pollution prevention techniques since the early 1970s. Their staff members have comprehensive competence within the areas of meteorology, physics, chemistry, biology, integrated work is done in cooperation with many other European research institutes and universities. The air quality activities conducted by the Institute include, Research, testing and development of air quality measuring methods, development of air pollutant emission inventories. Development of air pollution dispersion models Performing chemical analyses of air quality, study and development of air pollution prevention techniques. The suite of local-scale dispersion models available at the Institute includes, An urban area, dispersion models for larger scales are also available. The Finnish Meteorological Institute is one of the few places in Finland where space research takes place and they worked with Spain and the United States to contribute to the Rover Environmental Monitoring Station on Mars Science Laboratory. The electric solar wind sail, invented 2006 by FMi scientist Pekka Janhunen and it was tested in ESTCube-1 satellite. The number of staff of the Finnish Meteorological Institute is about 540. Permanent staff members account for about 2/3 of the Institutes personnel, the Institute operates in on a round-the-clock basis and about 30 percent of the full-time staff work in shifts
Finnish Meteorological Institute
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Dynamicum, the new building of the Finnish Meteorological Institute and the Finnish Institute of Marine Research in
Helsinki.
Finnish Meteorological Institute
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C-Band Doppler weather radar at
Korpo,
Väståboland,
Finland. Design, planning, maintenance and operation by Finnish Meteorological Institute.
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Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service
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The Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania oversees the environment and natural resources in Lithuania. In 1996, the Department was reorganized into Ministry of Environmental Protection, in 1998, after the merger with Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, it was renamed to Ministry of Environment. Thus it became responsible for construction, territorial planning, and housing, the Ministry also runs the Tadas Ivanauskas Zoological Museum
Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service
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Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania
Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service
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Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
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The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute is the Dutch national weather forecasting service, which has its headquarters in De Bilt, in the province of Utrecht, Netherlands. The primary tasks of KNMI are weather forecasting, monitoring of climate changes, KNMI is also the national research and information centre for climate, climate change and seismology. Seismological research as well as monitoring of seismic activity, kNMIs applied research also encompasses the development and operational use of atmospheric dispersion models. At such times, KNMI activates a special calamity service, for this purpose, a group of seven meteorologists is constantly on call day or night. KNMIs role in supplying information during emergencies is included in municipal and provincial disaster management plans, civil services, fire departments and the police can be provided with weather and other relevant information directly by the meteorologist on duty, through dedicated telephone connections. It has been designed to calculate the dispersion of air pollution on European scales, the model was originally tested by using measurements of the dispersion of radioactivity caused by the accident in the nuclear power plant of Chernobyl in 1986. A few years later, in 1994, a dedicated dispersion experiment called ETEX was carried out, CALM - CALM is a CALamity Model designed for the calculation of air pollution dispersion on small spatial scales, within the Netherlands. The algorithms and parameters contained in the CALM model are identical to that of the PUFF model. However, the input can only be supplied manually in CALM. The user provides both observed and predicted values for wind velocity at the 10 meter height level, the atmospheric stability classification and the mixing height. After the model calculations have been performed, a map is created and displayed with the trajectories of the pollution plume and an indication of how
Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute
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KNMI headquarters in
De Bilt
45.
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
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The Norwegian Meteorological Institute, also known as MET Norway, is Norways national institute which provides weather forecasts. Its three main offices are located in Oslo, Bergen and Tromsø, MET Norway has around 500 employees and some 650 part-time observers around the country. The institute was founded in 1866 with the help of Norwegian astronomer and he is credited with founding meteorological research in Norway. The institute represents Norway in international organizations like the World Meteorological Organization, the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts, the Institute is also partner to a number of international research and monitoring projects including EMEP, MyOcean, MyWave and the North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System. Marine forecasts of sea state parameters are issued both commercially to oil companies and more generally for the public, the institute also provides data for the free online service yr. no, launched in 2007, which provides weather forecasts for some 7 million places in the world. The institute is responsible for maintaining, quality checking, archiving and updating the network consisting of automated weather stations, radiosondes. The marine observations of wave height and other oceanographic parameters gathered by petroleum platforms in Norwegian waters are also archived by the institute, the institute produces operational weather forecasts using different numerical weather prediction models including the Unified Model and HIRLAM. The forecasts are subject to modifications introduced by human forecasters before being issued, the institute also runs a suite of operational ocean models ranging in resolution from 20 km to less than 1 km. The model suite currently comprises both the Princeton Ocean Model as well as the more recent Regional Ocean Modeling System, Henrik Mohn Aksel Steen Hans Theodor Hesselberg Ragnar Fjørtoft Kaare Langlo Arne Grammeltvedt Anton Eliassen yr. no Official website Information about yr. no
Norwegian Meteorological Institute
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Norwegian Meteorological Institute in Oslo
46.
Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia
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The Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia is the national meteorological and hydrological service of Serbia. On the initiative of Professor Vladimir Jakshic in 1848 was founded the first private network of stations in Serbia. In 1857 was recorded that the network had 27 meteorological stations whose observers were volunteers of different professions, however, Jaksić in 1863 accepted a job at the Ministry of Finance where he founded a Department of Statistics. From that moment the number of stations is rapidly decreasing. The only weather station who survived was in the Jaksic′s house yard in Belgrade, from these weather station Jakšic exercised observation from 1848 until his death. Meanwhile, Milan Nedeljkovic are returned 1884 from study education in Paris to Serbia, Nedeljkovic become a professor of meteorology and astronomy. In 1887 he was founded observatory at the Grand School, key moment where Minister of Education, Dr Vladan Djordjevic passed on September 27,1888 the Regulation on the establishment of unified state network of meteorological stations in the whole country. At the invitation of the organizers, representatives of the FHMI signed on 22 September 1947 in Washington, FHMI was one of the 45 world meteorological services, which were founders of WMO. After the FHMI was abolished in April 2003, the RHSS was entrusted as its legal successor with all its responsibilities, official web-site of the Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia
Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia
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Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia
47.
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
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The Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute is a Government agency in Sweden and operates under the Ministry of the Environment. SMHI has expertise within the areas of meteorology, hydrology and oceanography, established in 1945, SMHIs head office is located in Norrköping. Prior to 1975 it was located in Stockholm but after a decision taken in the Riksdag in 1971 it was relocated to Norrköping in 1975, SMHI also has offices in Gothenburg, Malmö, Sundsvall and Upplands Väsby. To the Swedish public SMHI is mostly known for the forecasts in the public-service radio provided by Sveriges Radio. Many of the major media companies in Sweden also buy weather forecasts from SMHI. The research staff includes some 100 scientists at the Research Unit, environmental research spans all six research units. There is also a project for providing contributions to the HIRLAM project, the main goal of the research division is to support the Institute and the society with research and development. The scientists participate in national and international research projects. The air quality research unit of SMHI has 10 scientists, all of whom have expertise in air quality, atmospheric pollution transport and this an integrated, web-based system for collection of meteorological and environmental data, handling of emission databases, dispersion models, etc. Typical users are national environmental institutes, large to small city authorities, industries, environmental organizations, consultancy firms, the most important modules of Airviro are EDB, emission databases, including dynamic emissions from shipping obtained from AIS data
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
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SMHI campus in Norrköping
48.
Met Office
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The Met Office is the United Kingdoms national weather service. It is an agency and trading fund of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy led by CEO, Rob Varley and chief scientist. The Met Office makes meteorological predictions across all timescales from weather forecasts to climate change, the Met Office was established in 1854 as a small department within the Board of Trade under Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy as a service to mariners. The loss of the vessel, the Royal Charter, and 459 lives off the coast of Anglesey in a violent storm in October 1859 led to the first gale warning service. FitzRoy established a network of 15 coastal stations from which visual gale warnings could be provided for ships at sea, the new electric telegraph enabled rapid dissemination of warnings and also led to the development of an observational network which could then be used to provide synoptic analysis. The Met Office started in 1861 to provide forecasts to newspapers. Publication of forecasts ceased in May 1866 after FitzRoy’s death but recommenced in April 1879, in 1936 the Met Office split with services to the Royal Navy being provided by its own forecasting services. It became an agency of the Ministry of Defence in April 1990. It has a worldwide presence – including a centre in Aberdeen. Royal Navy weather forecasts are provided by naval officers, not Met Office personnel. The Shipping Forecast is produced by the Met Office and broadcast on BBC Radio 4, the Met Office issues Severe Weather Warnings for the United Kingdom through the National Severe Weather Warning Service. These warn of events that may affect transport infrastructure and endanger peoples lives. In March 2008, the system was improved and a new stage of warning was introduced, on 10 November, the first named storm was Abigail. The principal weather products for UK customers are 36-hour forecasts from the operational 1, the Met Offices Global Model forecast has consistently been in the top 3 for global weather forecast performance in independent verification to WMO standards. Products for other regions of the globe are sold to customers abroad, if necessary, forecasters may make adjustments to the computer forecasts. Data is stored in the Met Offices own PP-format, formed in 2009, the Flood Forecasting Centre is a joint venture between the Environment Agency and the Met Office to provide flood risk guidance for England and Wales. The Centre is jointly staffed from both parent organisations and is based in the Operations Centre at the Met Office headquarters in Exeter, in Scotland this role is performed by the Scottish Flood Forecasting Service, a joint venture between the Scottish Environment Protection Agency and the Met Office. The Met Office makes seasonal forecasts and distributes them to customers and users globally, Met Office research has broken new ground in seasonal forecasting for the extratropics and has demonstrated its abilities in its seasonal predictions of the North Atlantic Oscillation
Met Office
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Former Met Office building in Bracknell, Berkshire before relocation to Exeter, since demolished
Met Office
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Logo of the Met Office (at 2009)
Met Office
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The 2003 headquarters building on the edge of Exeter
Met Office
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FAAM BAe146-300 takes off at
RIAT,
RAF Fairford, England
49.
National Weather Service
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System
National Weather Service
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NWS IMET taking observations in the field.
National Weather Service
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National Weather Service
National Weather Service
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Meteorologists preparing a forecast, early 20th century.
National Weather Service
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An Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS).
