1.
List of municipalities of the Netherlands
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There are 388 regular municipalities and 3 public bodies, also referred to as special municipalities, in the Netherlands. Municipalities are the administrative division in the Netherlands and are subdivisions of their respective provinces. Their duties are delegated to them by the government and they are ruled by a municipal council that is elected every four years. Municipal mergers have reduced the number of municipalities by two-thirds since the first official boundaries were created in the mid 19th century. Municipalities themselves are subdivided into districts and neighbourhoods for administrative. These municipalities come in a range of sizes, Westervoort is the smallest at 7.84 km2. Schiermonnikoog is both the least populous municipality and has the lowest population density with 938 inhabitants for a density of 21/km2, Amsterdam has the highest population with 810,909 residents, whereas The Hague is most densely populated with a density of 6, 131/km2. As a second level administrative division municipalities are the tier of public administration in the Netherlands after the central government. The Netherlands is a unitary state, which means that the central government is supreme. The different levels do, however, make work agreements, which give municipalities a certain degree of independence in their policy decisions. Municipalities are responsible for a variety of public services, which include land-use planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, waste management. After the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles in 2010 three special municipalities were formed and these municipalities function the same as regular municipalities and are grouped together as the Caribbean Netherlands and are not part of a province. The municipalities are governed by both a board of mayor and aldermen and a municipal council, the municipal council, which is titled island council in the special municipalities, is elected every four years. The number of members in the ranges from nine members for the smallest municipalities to forty-five members for the largest. It is the highest administrative body in the municipality and controls public policy, the mayor is appointed for six years at a time by the crown and the alderman are elected by the municipal council, typically after each municipal election. The mayor is responsible for order and is the first in command during emergencies. The exact portfolio for each person differs between each municipality, official municipal boundaries were first drawn up in 1832 in the Netherlands after a cadastre was formed. The Municipalities Act of 1851, written by prime minister Thorbecke, throughout the years, less populous municipalities have been merged
List of municipalities of the Netherlands
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Map of municipalities of the Netherlands after the mergers of 1 January 2015
2.
Lebuinus Church
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The Great Church or St. Lebuinus Church is the main church building of the Dutch city of Deventer, Overijssel. It is a Gothic hall church, built between 1450 and 1525, originally consecrated to the English missionary Lebuinus, it was one of the most distinguished churches of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht. In 1580 the temple was taken by the Calvinists, who eliminated the interior decoration. Nowadays the temple belongs to the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, website of the Grote Kerk www. pkn-deventer. nl
Lebuinus Church
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Lebuïnuskerk in Deventer
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
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Flag
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
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An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
5.
Overijssel
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Overijssel is a province of the Netherlands in the central-eastern part of the country. The provinces name translates to across the IJssel, from the perspective of the bishopric of Utrecht by which it was held until 1528, the capital city of Overijssel is Zwolle and the largest city is Enschede. The province has a population of 1,113,529 inhabitants, Overijssel comprises three regions, Kop van Overijssel in the northwest, Salland in the centre of the province, and Twente in the east. Besides the capital Zwolle, other cities are Almelo, Deventer, Enschede. To the southeast, the surface is mostly sandy, interspersed with small rivers such as the Regge and Dinkel. In the northwest, the geology is dominated by sediments from the Overijsselse Vecht, the northern parts were once covered by veen which separated the dryer and more arable south from Drenthe and which have been exploited as fuel to a large degree. Only small patches survive today (Engbertsdijksvenen near Tubbergen, Witteveen, the extreme northwest is dominated by a system of lakes formed by former peat-mining, the Weerribben, which is a valuable wetland. The highest point in Overijssel is the summit of the Tankenberg, the lowest point is in the Mastenbroek Polder near Kampen at 2 metres below sea level. However, winters tend to be less mild than the rest of the Netherlands, Overijssel was formerly known as Oversticht and also included most of the modern-day province of Drenthe. In 1336, it was part of Guelders, though it was ceded to the Bishopric of Utrecht in 1347. e. The other side of the river IJssel, the people joined with the other Dutch and rebelled against Charles heir Philip II. Overijssel became governed by the most powerful mayors and lords in the province, after a brief occupation by the forces of the Bishop of Münster, Overijssel received a new form of government which granted the stadtholders more power. Widespread resistance against the power throughout the provinces eventually led to the formation of the Batavian Republic in 1795. A centralist government arose and the Netherlands was organised into a series of départements, at first organised into its own département, it was merged with Drenthe in 1798 to form Ouden IJssel, which was renamed Overijssel in 1801. The French annexed the Batavian Republic in 1810, and Overijssel was organised into the new French département of Bouches-de-lYssel, after the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the kingdom of the Netherlands and the former province of Overijssel were recreated. Overijssel was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II from May 1940 until its liberation in April 1945. The Noordoostpolder, a territory which had been laid dry in 1942, was part of Overijssel from 1962 until 1986. The Kings Commissioner of Overijssel is Ank Bijleveld and she is the chairwoman of the States-Deputed and the States-Provincial of Overijssel
Overijssel
–
Map of Overijssel (2012)
Overijssel
Overijssel
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The
Enschede railway station.
Overijssel
–
The
municipalities of Overijssel
6.
Municipal council (Netherlands)
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In the Netherlands the municipal council is the elected assembly of the municipality. Its main role is laying down the guidelines for the policy of the council of mayor and aldermen and exercising control over its execution by the council of mayor and aldermen. The municipal councils range in size from nine to 45 seats, depending on the municipalitys population, in many municipalities all major political parties contest in the election in addition to local parties. All citizens and foreigners who live in the Netherlands for at least four years in a municipality have the right to vote, ministers and state secretaries in the national government are barred from standing in elections as well as mayors and civil servants employed by the municipality. After the elections the parties in the elect the aldermen. The municipal council is supported by its own civil service headed by the raadsgriffier, members of the council are not paid as full-time politicians, instead, most of them have day job. As in most legislatures, the members of municipal council work in political groups and policy area related committees. The mayor chairs the meetings of the council, some municipalities allow parties to have dual councillors, politicians who are not elected into the city council but are allowed to speak in committees
Municipal council (Netherlands)
–
Members of the city council of
Spijkenisse.
7.
Burgemeester
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In the Netherlands and Belgium, the mayor is an appointed government position, whose main responsibility is chairing the executive and legislative councils of a municipality. The title is translated in English as burgomaster. In the Netherlands, mayors chair both the council of mayor and aldermen and the municipal council and they are members of the council of mayor and aldermen and have their own portfolios, always including safety and public order. They also have a role for the municipal government, both to its civilians and to other authorities on the local, regional and national level. A large majority of mayors are members of a political party and this can be the majority party in the municipal council, but there are many exceptions on this. However, the mayors are expected to exercise their office in a non-partisan way, the mayor is appointed by the national government for a renewable six-year term. In the past, mayors for important cities were chosen after negotiations between the national parties. This appointment procedure has been criticised because it was seen by some as undemocratic, especially the party D66 had a direct election of the mayor as one of the main objectives in its platform. In the early 2000s, proposals for change were discussed in the national parliament, however, opponents of the status quo were divided between two alternatives, direct election of the mayor by the people or appointment by the municipal council. A constitutional change to direct election gained a majority in both chambers but failed to pass the vote in the Senate in March 2005. In the meantime, although the law remained the same, the practice changed, nowadays, when a vacancy occurs, a special committee of the municipal council interviews candidates, which are pre-selected by the provincial governor. After advice by the committee, the council express its preferences to the Minister of the Interior, who almost always follows this recommendation
Burgemeester
–
Session of the council of the community
Oude IJsselstreek, eastern Netherlands: mayor
Steven de Vreeze (right) as chairman of the council.
8.
ChristianUnion
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The Christian Union, abbreviated to CU, is a Christian democratic political party in the Netherlands. The party self-describes itself as social Christian, founded in 2000 as a merger of the Reformed Political Alliance and Reformatory Political Federation, the Christian Union has five seats in the House of Representatives and four in the Senate. After doubling its seats in the 2006 elections it became the smallest member of the fourth Balkenende cabinet, in some elections, it forms an alliance with the Calvinist Reformed Political Party, which, unlike the CU, is a testimonial party. The party seeks for government to uphold Christian morality, but supports freedom of religion under the doctrine of sphere sovereignty, the party is moderately Eurosceptic, it sits with the European Conservatives and Reformists group in the European Parliament. It is a member of the European Christian Political Movement, the Netherlands has a long tradition of small orthodox or conservative Protestant parties in parliament. The SGP did survive the war years, but the HGS was unable to obtain seats in the 1946 elections, in the 1981 election, the Reformatory Political Federation entered parliament. It had split from the ARP six years earlier over the formation of the Christian Democratic Appeal, the RPF explicitly stated in its manifesto of principles that it sought to unite all reformed parties in the Netherlands. However, the GPV and SGP were somewhat less receptive, the SGP had rejected cooperation with these parties because they had female members, the SGP consistently rejected female suffrage until 2006. The RPF, GPV and SGP were testimonial parties, which chose to voice their concerns about government policy, in 1984 however the three parties cooperated in the European elections and presented a common list in order to enter the European Parliament. In the 1989 general election they formed an alliance in order to enhance their chances of obtaining seats. In 1995 informal talks were opened between the three parties, the GPV had opened itself to non-liberated members, but the SGP not to women. The discussions with the SGP were broken off and the GPV, from 1998 the two parliamentary parties cooperated with each other, held common meetings and appointed common spokespersons. In 1999 a group called Transformatie was set up by people from both parties in reaction to the slow cooperation process, they tried to intensify the debate about cooperation. In the same year the cooperation talks were formalized and intensified, the Christian Union was founded in January 2000 as an alliance between the RPF and GPV. In 2000 their youth organizations, GPJC and RPFJ, fused completely, in 2001 they formed a common parliamentary party in both the House of Representatives and Senate. In 2002 the alliance entered the elections for the first time, the party got four seats - one seat less than the 1998 election when they campaigned separately. It had polled better, with some polling stations predicting seven or eight seats. The partys leader Kars Veling stepped down and he had been good at keeping the peace internally in a party still somewhat divided along the old GPV and RPF blood lines, but had not appealed well enough to the population at large
ChristianUnion
–
Kingdom of the Netherlands
9.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
Demonym
–
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary has not adopted the term "demonyn" for these adjectives and nouns
10.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
Daylight saving time
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Ancient
water clock that lets hour lengths vary with season.
Daylight saving time
–
G. V. Hudson invented modern DST, proposing it first in 1895.
Daylight saving time
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Retailers generally favor DST.
United Cigar Stores hailed a 1918 DST bill.
Daylight saving time
–
William Willett independently proposed DST in 1907 and advocated it tirelessly.
11.
Central European Summer Time
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It corresponds to UTC + two hours. Other names which have been applied to Central European Summer Time are Middle European Summer Time, Central European Daylight Saving Time, and Bravo Time. Since 1996 European Summer Time has been observed between 1,00 UTC on the last Sunday of March and 1,00 on the last Sunday of October, the following countries and territories use Central European Summer Time. In addition, Libya used CEST during the years 1951–1959, 1982–1989, 1996–1997, European Summer Time Other countries and territories in UTC+2 time zone Other names of UTC+2 time zone
Central European Summer Time
–
light blue
12.
Municipality
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It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
Municipality
–
The
Ponce City Hall, in the city of
Ponce, is the seat of the government for both the city and the surrounding
barrios making up the municipality.
13.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
City
–
1908 map of
Piraeus, the port of
Athens, showing the grid plan of the city
City
–
Ancient
Ur of
Sumer in present-day Tell el-Mukayyar in
Iraq, one of the world's earliest cities
City
–
Mohenjo-daro, a
World Heritage site that was part of the
Indus Valley Civilization
City
–
A map dating 1669 showing the location of
Multan, Pakistan
14.
Salland
–
Salland is a historical dominion in the west and north of the present Dutch province of Overijssel. Nowadays Salland is usually used to indicate a region corresponding to the part of the former dominion more or less to the west of Twente, Salland is first mentioned during the early Middle Ages. The region is most likely named after the river IJssel, anciently known as Isala, the region may be the original residence of the Salian Franks. Salalant at this time was a made up of the area between Wijhe, Mastenbroek, and Dalfsen, in other words, the region circling Zwolle. In 795, Salalant belonged to a count Wracharius and remained in his family until the 11th century, in 814, mention is made of a Salahom, located where the IJssel empties into to the Sallzee, and of its acquisition by the Lorsch Abbey. Salalant gradually grew to the south as far as the rivers Meppelerdiep and Reest, in 1046 Deventer and its vicinity belonged to the county of Hamaland but was incorporated along with the area between Dalfsen and Gramsbergen into Salland in 1246. In 1336, the bishop pledged over almost all of Overijssel - including Salland - to the count of Guelders, ten years later, the new bishop, Jan van Arkel, was able to retrieve the pledged territories. He also reformed administration by breaking Oversticht into the three sheriffdoms of Twente, Vollenhove, and Salland, geologically, most of Sallands landscape consists of a lowland covered with river sediment. To the east, large moors have been drained to provide pastures and these moors, together with the hilly Holterberg region, were the natural border with Twente. On the Holterberg, stretches of the originally vast heathland have been preserved, in the northwest, reclaimed boglands used for peat digging have resulted in low-lying areas vulnerable to flooding, pre-1932. Salland is an area dominated by a number of rivers and streams. Three of Overijssels major cities, Deventer, Kampen and the capital, Zwolle, lie within Salland. Other places of import include Ommen and Hardenberg, which are quite often described as being in the Vechtstreek or Vechtdal, named after the river, rather than in Salland. The Salland tourism board describes Salland as the land in between the river IJssel and the hills, and agrees thus on a much smaller Salland than the historical dominion of that name, specifically, this regards Holten and Den Ham. Salland Natuurlijk Gastvrij, pages of the Salland Board of Tourism
Salland
–
Salland in 1757 (the area with yellow borders;
Hardenberg in the north-east is shown as a separate region)
15.
IJssel
–
The River IJssel, sometimes called Gelderse IJssel to avoid confusion with the Hollandse IJssel, is the branch of the Rhine in the Dutch provinces of Gelderland and Overijssel. The Romans knew the river as Isala, the IJssel flows from Westervoort, east of the city of Arnhem, until it discharges into the IJsselmeer. The River IJssel is one of the three major distributary branches into which the Rhine divides shortly after crossing the German-Dutch border, the name includes the digraph ij, which behaves like a single letter in Dutch orthography - this explains why both letters appear capitalized. The name IJssel, is thought to derive from a Proto-Indo-European root *eis- to move quickly, in the Middle Ages, the Zuiderzee had not yet formed, and in its place there was an inland lake known as Vlies, and the IJssel flowed through the surrounding lakelands. It is hypothesised that the tidal inlets near Medemblik and the IJ once were branches of river IJssel. The river was a line of defence and in April 1945 had to be stormed by assault troops of the Allied armies liberating the Netherlands from the occupying forces of Nazi Germany. Canadian histories refer to the river in English as Ijssel, the IJssel was the lower part of the small river Oude IJssel, that rises in Germany and is now a 70 km long tributary of the IJssel. The current Oude IJssel is the second-largest contributor to the flow of the river until today, the source of the Oude IJssel is near Borken in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. First it flows south-west until it reaches the Rhine near Wesel. After passing through Isselburg it crosses the border with the Netherlands, the river, called Oude IJssel from here, then flows through Doetinchem and joins the IJssel at Doesburg. The average discharge of the IJssel can change significantly, the average discharge has been stated as 300 cubic meters per second. This can be as low as 140 and as high as 1800, depending on the Nederrijn locks west of Arnhem, the naturally occurring phenomenon of sedimental island-forming in the outside of bends has been regulated to the point of non-occurrence since the late nineteenth century. Various tributaries can sometimes add a volume of water to the total flow of the IJssel, such as the Berkel. The IJssel river is the branch of the Rhine delta that takes up tributary rivers rather than giving rise to distributaries. Only in the last few miles of the run, near the city of Kampen, distributaries form. Some of the branches have been dammed up to lower the risk of flooding, several of the delta branches are, however, still connected without interruption. Most of the damming-up was done prior to 1932, when the Zuiderzee was turned into the freshwater IJsselmeer lake, the modern-day names of the delta branches are, west to east, Keteldiep, Kattendiep, Noorddiep, Ganzendiep and Goot. Of these, the Keteldiep and Kattendiep channels are the main navigational arteries, another branch, De Garste, had already completely silted up by the middle of the nineteenth century
IJssel
–
Sunset on the IJssel at Deventer
IJssel
–
The IJssel at
Deventer in 1567
IJssel
–
IJssel near Velp
IJssel
–
IJssel near Doesburg
16.
Bureaucracy
–
Bureaucracy means both a body of non-elective government officials and an administrative policy-making group. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials, today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution. The public administration in many countries is an example of a bureaucracy, since being coined, the word bureaucracy has developed negative connotations. Bureaucracies have been criticized as being inefficient, convoluted, or too inflexible to individuals, the dehumanizing effects of excessive bureaucracy became a major theme in the work of German-language writer Franz Kafka and are central to his novels The Trial and The Castle. The elimination of bureaucracy is a key concept in modern managerial theory and has been an issue in some political campaigns. Others have noted the necessity of bureaucracies in modern life, the term bureaucracy is French in origin and combines the French word bureau – desk or office – with the Greek word κράτος kratos – rule or political power. It was coined in the century by the French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay and was a satirical pejorative from the outset. Gournay never wrote the term down but was quoted at length in a letter from a contemporary. Here, too, the sense was pejorative, with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed. By the mid-19th century, the word was being used in a neutral sense. In this sense bureaucracy was seen as a form of management. In the1920s, the definition was expanded by the German sociologist Max Weber to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules, although the term bureaucracy was not coined until the mid 18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems are much older. Ancient Egypt also had a class of scribes that administered the civil service bureaucracy. The Roman Empire was administered by a hierarchy of regional proconsuls, the reforms of Diocletian doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion in Roman bureaucracy. After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a complicated administrative hierarchy. In Ancient China, the Han dynasty established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius, who emphasized the importance of ritual in family, relationships, with each subsequent Dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. During the Song dynasty, the bureaucracy became meritocratic, following the Song reforms, competitive exams were held to determine who could hold which positions. The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, a modern form of bureaucracy evolved in the expanding Department of Excise in the United Kingdom, during the 18th century
Bureaucracy
–
Students competed in
imperial examinations to receive a position in the bureaucracy of
ancient China.
Bureaucracy
–
The 18th century
Department of Excise developed a sophisticated bureaucracy. Pictured, the
Custom House, London.
17.
Kingdom of England
–
In the early 11th century the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united by Æthelstan, became part of the North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, a personal union between England, Denmark and Norway. The completion of the conquest of Wales by Edward I in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown, from the accession of James I in 1603, the Stuart dynasty ruled England in personal union with Scotland and Ireland. Under the Stuarts, the kingdom plunged into war, which culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament and this concept became legally established as part of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its state the United Kingdom. On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the Acts of Union 1707, the Anglo-Saxons referred to themselves as the Engle or the Angelcynn, originally names of the Angles. They called their land Engla land, meaning land of the English, by Æthelweard Latinized Anglia, from an original Anglia vetus, the name Engla land became England by haplology during the Middle English period. The Latin name was Anglia or Anglorum terra, the Old French, by the 14th century, England was also used in reference to the entire island of Great Britain. The standard title for all monarchs from Æthelstan until the time of King John was Rex Anglorum, Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first king to call himself King of England. In the Norman period Rex Anglorum remained standard, with use of Rex Anglie. The Empress Matilda styled herself Domina Anglorum, from the time of King John onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of Rex or Regina Anglie. In 1604 James VI and I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, the English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707. The kingdom of England emerged from the unification of the early medieval Anglo-Saxon kingdoms known as the Heptarchy, East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, Kent, Essex, Sussex. The Viking invasions of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general, the English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by King Æthelstan in 927 CE. During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as Bretwalda, the decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful. It absorbed the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825, the kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, in 886, Alfred the Great retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that all of the English people not subject to the Danes submitted themselves to King Alfred, asser added that Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly
Kingdom of England
–
The dominions of
Cnut the Great (1014–1035)
Kingdom of England
–
Flag
Kingdom of England
–
King John signs
Magna Carta at
Runnymede in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from Cassell's History of England, 1902.
Kingdom of England
–
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the
Battle of Agincourt.
18.
Missionary
–
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
Missionary
–
Village of Christianized Tapuyos Indians,
Brazil c. 1820
Missionary
–
English missionary
John Williams, active in the
South Pacific
Missionary
–
Jesuits who were martyred by the
Araucanian Indians in Elicura in 1612
Missionary
–
The first recorded baptism in
Alta California.
19.
Lebuinus
–
Lebuinus, Apostle of the Frisians and patron of Deventer. Lebuinus was a monk in Wilfrids monastery at Ripon, inspired by the example of Saint Boniface, Saint Willibrord and other great English missionaries, he resolved to devote his life to the conversion of the Germans. He preached the Gospel among the tribes of the district, and his venerable personality and deep learning quickly won many to Christianity, even among the nobles, and it soon became necessary to build at Deventer on the east bank of the river a larger church. However, Lebuinuss great success aroused hostility among the pagans, ascribing his conversions to witchcraft, they formed an alliance with the anti-Christian Saxons, burned the church at Deventer and dispersed the converts. After escaping with difficulty, Lebuinus determined to voice the claims of Christianity at the assembly of the Saxons at Marclo near the Weser. His life may have been a source of inspiration in the creation of the cultus on Saint Livinus of Ghent, on his return to Friesland, Lebuinus rebuilt the church at Deventer, where he was also buried. Saint Ludger rebuilt the church a few later, and found the saints remains. Lebuinus is commemorated by the Church on 12 November, mostly in the Netherlands, the Lebuïnuskerk, Deventer was consecrated in his name. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Kennedy. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Hunt. Lives of St Lebuinus, Vita antiqua, earliest Life ed. A. Hofmeister, ed. Patrologia Latina 132, pp. 877–94, MGH Scriptores 2, pp. 360–4, in abbreviated form. 15th-century Life ed. M. Coens, Vie de S. Lebuin, in, Analecta bollandiana, radbod, Ecloga et Sermo, in Surius, VI,839 Altfrid, Vita Liutgeri in MGH Scriptores, II,360 sqq. Levison, W. England and the Continent in the 8th Century, Lebuin 1 at Prosopography of Anglo-Saxon England
Lebuinus
–
Fresco of Saint Lebuinus
20.
Irminsul
–
An Irminsul was a sacral pillar-like object attested as playing an important role in the Germanic paganism of the Saxon people. The oldest chronicle describing an Irminsul refers to it as a tree trunk erected in the open air, the purpose of the Irminsuls and the implications thereof have been the subject of considerable scholarly discourse and speculation for hundreds of years. A Germanic god Irmin, inferred from the name Irminsul and the tribal name Irminones, is presumed to have been the national god or demi-god of the Saxons. It has been suggested that Irmin was more probably an aspect or epithet of some other deity – most likely Wodan and this was the favored view of early 20th century Nordicist writers, but it is not generally considered likely in modern times. The Old Norse form of Irmin is Jörmunr, which just like Yggr was one of the names of Odin, Yggdrasil was the yew or ash tree from which Odin sacrificed himself, and which connected the nine worlds. Jakob Grimm connects the name Irmin with Old Norse terms like iörmungrund or iörmungandr, according to the Royal Frankish Annals, during the Saxon wars, Charlemagne is repeatedly described as ordering the destruction of the chief seat of their religion, an Irminsul. The Irminsul is described as not being far from Heresburg, Germany, the Benedictine monk Rudolf of Fulda provides a description of an Irminsul in chapter 3 of his Latin work De miraculis sancti Alexandri. Rudolfs description states that the Irminsul was a wooden pillar erected and worshipped beneath the open sky. Under Louis the Pious in the 9th century, a column was dug up at Obermarsberg in Westphalia, Germany and relocated to the Hildesheim cathedral in Hildesheim. The column was then used as a candelabrum until at least the late 19th century. In the 13th century, the destruction of the Irminsul by Charlemagne was recorded as having still been commemorated at Hildesheim on the Saturday after Laetare Sunday. The commemoration was reportedly done by planting two poles six feet high, each surmounted by an object one foot in height shaped like a pyramid or a cone on the cathedral square. The youth then used sticks and stones in an attempt to knock over the object and this custom is described as existing elsewhere in Germany, particularly in Halberstadt where it was enacted on the day of Laetare Sunday by the Canons themselves. Awareness of the significance of the concept seems to have persisted well into Christian times and he climbed upon an Irminsul / the peasants all bowed before him A number of theories surround the subject of the Irminsul. In Tacitus Germania, the author mentions rumors of what he describes as Pillars of Hercules in land inhabited by the Frisii that had yet to be explored. Tacitus adds that these pillars exist either because Hercules actually did go there or because the Romans have agreed to ascribe all marvels anywhere to Hercules credit. Tacitus states that while Drusus Germanicus was daring in his campaigns against the Germanic tribes, he was unable to reach this region, connections have been proposed between these Pillars of Hercules and later accounts of the Irminsuls. Hercules was probably identified with Thor by the Romans due to the practice of interpretatio romana
Irminsul
–
"The destruction of Irminsul by Charlemagne" (1882) by
Heinrich Leutemann.
Irminsul
–
A late 16th century interpretation of an Irminsul bearing the cult image of a god of war and commerce, from
Sebastian Münster 's
Cosmographia
Irminsul
–
On the
Externsteine Descent from the Cross relief, the bent structure in the right centre is popularly identified as Irminsul. Though this may be correct, it is not supported by any contemporary sources.
21.
Paderborn
–
Paderborn is a city in eastern North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, capital of the Paderborn district. The name of the city derives from the river Pader and born, the river Pader originates in more than 200 springs near Paderborn Cathedral, where St. Liborius is buried. Paderborn was founded as a bishopric by Charlemagne in 795, although its history began in 777 when Charlemagne built a castle near the Pader springs. In 799 Pope Leo III fled his enemies in Rome and reached Paderborn, where he met Charlemagne and it was during this time that it was decided that Charlemagne would be crowned emperor. Charlemagne reinstated Leo in Rome in 800 and was crowned as Holy Roman Emperor by Leo in return, in 836, St. Liborius became the patron saint of Paderborn after his bones were moved there from Le Mans by Bishop Badurad. St. Liborius is commemorated in Paderborn every year in July with the Liborifest, the bishop of Paderborn, Meinwerk, became a Prince of the Empire in 1100. The bishop had several buildings built, and the area became a place for the emperors to stay. The city was taken by Prussia in 1802, then by the French vassal state Kingdom of Westphalia from 1807 to 1813, native Friedrich Sertürner, a pharmacists apprentice in Paderborn, was the first to isolate morphine from opium in 1804. In 1930, the See of Paderborn was promoted to archdiocese, during World War II, Paderborn was bombed by Allied aircraft in 1944 and 1945, resulting in 85% destruction, including many of the historic buildings. After the city was reconstructed in the 1940s and 1950s, Paderborn became an industrial seat in Westphalia. The British Army has retained a significant presence in the area, Paderborn is situated at the spring of the Pader river, approximately 30 kilometres east of Lippstadt and approximately 50 kilometres south of Bielefeld on the Pader river. The hills of the Eggegebirge are located east of the city, the city of Paderborn consists of the following Stadtteile, Paderborn has a population of over 144,000, of which approximately 10% are students at the local university. Additionally, about 10,000 members or relatives of members of the British armed forces live within Westfalen Garrison, 60% of the population are Catholics, 20% Lutherans and 20% other. Paderborn is the headquarters of the former Nixdorf Computer AG, which was acquired by Siemens in the early 1990s, the company is now known as Wincor Nixdorf which is still located in Paderborn, but Siemens retains a considerable presence in the city. Paderborn has the largest computer museum in the world, the de, from 2001 to 2005 it hosted the RoboCup German Open. The town supports the Nordwestdeutsche Philharmonie for regular symphony concerts in the Paderhalle, the city is known today for its exhibitions in three museums, the Kaiserpfalz, The Diocesian Museum and the Art Museum - Städtische Galerie. The local baseball team, the Paderborn Untouchables, has won many German championships, and the local American Football team, in 2006 the Paderborn Baskets, the home basketball team of the city achieved the Bundesliga. The Paderborn Baskets played in the playoffs of the 2008-09 German basketball league, SC Paderborn 07 is a German football club based in Paderborn
Paderborn
–
Paderborn town hall
Paderborn
Paderborn
–
Saint George 's church, Paderborn
Paderborn
–
Pader River, Stadt Mitte.
22.
Bronze Age
–
The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition, although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing, according to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the earliest viable writing systems. The overall period is characterized by use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques, tin must be mined and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of use of metals. The dating of the foil has been disputed, the Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics, the usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people, ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC, the Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it took over the other city-states. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, by that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia, in the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it
Bronze Age
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert,
Israel.
Bronze Age
–
Diffusion of metallurgy in
Europe and
Asia Minor. The darkest areas are the oldest.
Bronze Age
–
A
Shang Dynasty two-handled bronze gefuding gui (1600–1046 BC).
Bronze Age
–
Spring and Autumn Period pu bronze vessel with interlaced
dragon design (722–481 BC)
23.
St Nicholas Church, Deventer
–
The Mountain Church or Saint Nicholas Church is a former place of worship in Deventer, Overijssel. This Romanesque basilica was built around 1209 and consecrated to Saint Nicholas, centuries later it received some Late Gothic alterations. In 1580 the Dutch Reformed Church took the temple and renamed it the Mountain Church, in 1967 the church was disestablished and its property transferred to the Municipality of Deventer. The building is used as a center and concert hall. From 1991 until 2005, the church was used for exhibitions by Museum de Fundatie. The Mountain Church was built between 1198 and 1209, near where the Deventer harbour section was at the time and it was founded in the golden age of the Hanseatic city. Its completion was dedicated to Saint Nicholas, the patron Saint of sailors, the church has a lot of features in common with churches from around the Baltic Sea. In the fifteenth century the Mountain Church underwent several renovations, which gave it a more late Gothic appearance, the two characteristic tower spires are built in that period. The lower part is still original, in 1580 went over to the protestant church and all catholic features were removed from the interior, which was very common to do. The wall paintings were covered with white chalk, there is a legend that describes how the building of the church came to be. Two sisters from Deventer, Martha and Beatrix, were impressed by a knight who had come to Deventer. Both of them fancied the knight, Beatrix eventually married the knight, leaving Martha behind in solitude. Martha ordered the church to be built in peace with her loneliness and this should explain the difference in height between the two towers. The tower on the west is the biggest one, in remembrance of the love of my sister and me, I want a church to be built from my money on the mountain. Two towers will be built upon it, one a little bigger than the other, so that will eternally remain the memory of our love and after our demise at any rate there be two towers that will not abandon one and another. Another legend of the west tower is that it was taken under siege in the seventeenth century, a big stone ball, which appears to be a stone cannonball, can still be seen, stuck inside the exterior of the tower. Media related to Bergkerk at Wikimedia Commons
St Nicholas Church, Deventer
–
Bergkerk as seen from Bergstraat
St Nicholas Church, Deventer
–
Organ in 2002
St Nicholas Church, Deventer
–
Interior during an exhibition of
Museum de Fundatie in 2002
24.
Vikings
–
The term is also commonly extended in modern English and other vernaculars to the inhabitants of Viking home communities during what has become known as the Viking Age. Facilitated by advanced seafaring skills, and characterised by the longship, Viking activities at times also extended into the Mediterranean littoral, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia. A romanticized picture of Vikings as noble savages began to emerge in the 18th century, current popular representations of the Vikings are typically based on cultural clichés and stereotypes, complicating modern appreciation of the Viking legacy. One etymology derives víking from the feminine vík, meaning creek, inlet, various theories have been offered that the word viking may be derived from the name of the historical Norwegian district of Viken, meaning a person from Viken. According to this theory, the word simply described persons from this area, however, there are a few major problems with this theory. People from the Viken area were not called Viking in Old Norse manuscripts, in addition, that explanation could only explain the masculine and ignore the feminine, which is a serious problem because the masculine is easily derived from the feminine but hardly vice versa. The form also occurs as a name on some Swedish rune stones. There is little indication of any negative connotation in the term before the end of the Viking Age and this is found in the Proto-Nordic verb *wikan, ‘to turn’, similar to Old Icelandic víkja ‘to move, to turn’, with well-attested nautical usages. In that case, the idea behind it seems to be that the rower moves aside for the rested rower on the thwart when he relieves him. A víkingr would then originally have been a participant on a sea journey characterized by the shifting of rowers, in that case, the word Viking was not originally connected to Scandinavian seafarers but assumed this meaning when the Scandinavians begun to dominate the seas. In Old English, the word wicing appears first in the Anglo-Saxon poem, Widsith, in Old English, and in the history of the archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen written by Adam of Bremen in about 1070, the term generally referred to Scandinavian pirates or raiders. As in the Old Norse usages, the term is not employed as a name for any people or culture in general, the word does not occur in any preserved Middle English texts. The Vikings were known as Ascomanni ashmen by the Germans for the ash wood of their boats, Lochlannach by the Gaels, the modern day name for Sweden in several neighbouring countries is possibly derived from rōþs-, Ruotsi in Finnish and Rootsi in Estonian. The Slavs and the Byzantines also called them Varangians, Scandinavian bodyguards of the Byzantine emperors were known as the Varangian Guard. The Franks normally called them Northmen or Danes, while for the English they were known as Danes or heathen. It is used in distinction from Anglo-Saxon, similar terms exist for other areas, such as Hiberno-Norse for Ireland and Scotland. The period from the earliest recorded raids in the 790s until the Norman conquest of England in 1066 is commonly known as the Viking Age of Scandinavian history, Vikings used the Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea for sea routes to the south. The Normans were descended from Vikings who were given feudal overlordship of areas in northern France—the Duchy of Normandy—in the 10th century, in that respect, descendants of the Vikings continued to have an influence in northern Europe
Vikings
–
Sea-faring
Danes depicted invading England. Illuminated illustration from the 12th century Miscellany on the Life of St. Edmund. Pierpont Morgan Library.
Vikings
–
Travels of the Vikings
Vikings
–
Blar a' Bhuailte, site of the Vikings' last stand in
Skye
25.
Hanseatic League
–
The Hanseatic League was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant guilds and their market towns. Growing from a few North German towns in the late 1100s and it stretched from the Baltic to the North Sea and inland during the Late Middle Ages and early modern period. Hanse, later spelled as Hansa, was the Middle Low German word for a convoy, the League was created to protect the guilds economic interests and diplomatic privileges in their affiliated cities and countries, as well as along the trade routes the merchants visited. The Hanseatic cities had their own system and furnished their own armies for mutual protection. The hegemony of Lübeck peaked during the 15th century, Lübeck became a base for merchants from Saxony and Westphalia trading eastward and northward. This area was a source of timber, wax, amber, resins, the towns raised their own armies, with each guild required to provide levies when needed. The Hanseatic cities came to the aid of one another, and commercial ships often had to be used to carry soldiers, Visby functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hansa. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a trading post at Novgorod called Gutagard in 1080, Merchants from northern Germany also stayed in the early period of the Gotlander settlement. Later they established their own trading station in Novgorod, known as Peterhof, in 1229, German merchants at Novgorod were granted certain privileges that made their position more secure. Hansa societies worked to remove restrictions to trade for their members, before the official foundation of the League in 1356, the word Hanse did not occur in the Baltic language. The earliest remaining documentary mention, although without a name, of a specific German commercial federation is from London 1157. That year, the merchants of the Hansa in Cologne convinced Henry II, King of England, to them from all tolls in London. The allied cities gained control over most of the trade, especially the Scania Market. In 1266, Henry III of England granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, much of the drive for this co-operation came from the fragmented nature of existing territorial government, which failed to provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years the Hansa itself emerged with formal agreements for confederation and co-operation covering the west and east trade routes. The principal city and linchpin remained Lübeck, with the first general Diet of the Hansa held there in 1356, other such alliances formed throughout the Holy Roman Empire. Yet the League never became a closely managed formal organisation, over the period, a network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities. The league succeeded in establishing additional Kontors in Bruges, Bergen and these trading posts became significant enclaves
Hanseatic League
–
Northern Europe in 1400, showing the extent of the Hansa.
Hanseatic League
–
The Hanseatic League was a powerful economic and defensive alliance that left a great cultural and architectural heritage. It is especially renowned for its
Brick Gothic monuments, such as St. Nikolai and the city hall of
Stralsund shown here. Together with
Wismar, the old town is a
World Heritage Site by
UNESCO.
Hanseatic League
–
Foundation of the alliance between Lübeck and Hamburg
Hanseatic League
–
Town Hall of Reval (now
Tallinn, Estonia).
26.
Stockfish
–
Stockfish is unsalted fish, especially cod, dried by cold air and wind on wooden racks on the foreshore. The drying of food is the worlds oldest known preservation method, the method is cheap and effective in suitable climates, the work can be done by the fisherman and family, and the resulting product is easily transported to market. Cod is the most common used in stockfish production, while other whitefish, such as pollock, haddock, ling. Over the centuries, several variants of dried fish have evolved, the stockfish category is often wrongly mixed with the clipfish, or salted cod, category where the fish is salted before drying. After 2–3 weeks in salt the fish has salt-matured, and is transformed from wet salted fish to clipfish through a drying process, the salted fish was earlier dried on rocks on the foreshore. The production method of clipfish was developed by the Portuguese who first mined salt near the water of Aveiro. Salting was not economically feasible until the 17th century, when salt from southern Europe became available to the maritime nations of northern Europe. Stockfish is cured in a process called fermentation where cold-adapted bacteria matures the fish, clipfish is processed in a chemical curing process called salt-maturing, similar to the maturing processes of other salt-matured products like Parma ham. The word stockfish is a word from Frisian stokfisk, possibly referring to the wooden racks on which stockfish are traditionally dried or because the dried fish resembles a stick. Stock may also refer to a yoke or harness on a horse or mule. This etymology is consistent with the fact that Stockmaß is German for the height of a horse at the withers, Stockfish and Stockmaß therefore refer essentially to the same basic length. Stockfish is Norways longest sustained export commodity and this product accounted for most of Norways trade income from the Viking age throughout the Medieval period. Preserved cod fed Iceland for centuries, to the extent where it has described as a local equivalent of bread. The Normans brought it to Sicily, and everything is very widespread especially in Messina with the name of stoccafissu, Stockfish is extremely popular and is widely consumed in Catholic Mediterranean countries, notably Italy. The science of producing good stockfish is in ways comparable to that of making a good cognac, Parma ham. The Slow Food movement insists that all these products must be made on a small scale. The fish is prepared immediately after capture, after gutting the fish, it is either dried whole, or split along the spine leaving the tail connected. The fish is hung on the hjell from February to May, stable cool weather protects the fish from insects and prevents an uncontrolled bacterial growth
Stockfish
–
Drying flake ('hjell') in Norway
Stockfish
–
Stockfish warehouse in the village of
Forsøl, Norway
Stockfish
–
Stockfish from cod in
Venice, Italy
Stockfish
–
The
baccalà alla lucana: traditional recipe from
Basilicata
27.
Zwolle
–
Zwolle is the capital city and municipality of the province of Overijssel, Netherlands. It has a population around 125,000, archaeological findings indicate that the area surrounding Zwolle has been inhabited for a long time. A woodhenge that was found in the Zwolle-Zuid suburb in 1993 was dated to the Bronze Age period, during the Roman era, the area was inhabited by Salian Franks. The modern city was founded around 800 CE by Frisian merchants, the name Zwolle is derived from the word Suolle, which means hill. This refers to an incline in the landscape between the four rivers surrounding the city, IJssel, Vecht, Aa and Zwarte Water, the hill was the only piece of land that would remain dry during the frequent floodings of the rivers. Zwolle was established on that incline, a document mentions the existence of a parish church dedicated to St Michael. That church, the Grote or Sint Michaëlskerk, was renovated in the first half of the 15th century, the church contains a richly carved pulpit, the work of Adam Straes van Weilborch, some good carving and an exquisite organ. On August 31,1230, the bishop of Utrecht granted Zwolle city rights, Zwolle became a member of the Hanseatic league in 1294, and in 1361 joined the war between the Hanseatic League and Valdemar IV of Denmark. In the 1370 Treaty of Stralsund that ended the war, Zwolle was awarded a vitte, zwolles golden age came in the 15th century. Between 1402 and 1450, the citys Gross Regional Product multiplied by about six, in July 1324 and October 1361, regional noblemen set fire to Zwolle. In the 1324 fire, only nine buildings escaped the flames, Zwolle was also, with Deventer, one of the centers of the Brethren of the Common Life, a monastic movement. 5 km from Zwolle, on an eminence called the Agnietenberg, once stood the Augustinian convent in which Thomas à Kempis spent the greatest part of his life. At least as early as 1911, Zwolle had a trade by river, a large fish market. The more important industries comprised cotton manufactures, iron works, boat-building, dyeing and bleaching, tanning, rope-making, in World War II, Zwolle was single-handedly liberated from the Germans by Canadian soldier Léo Major. He was made a citizen of Zwolle in 2005 and a street is named for him. Citizens of Zwolle are colloquially known as Blauwvingers and this dates back to 1682, when the St Michaels church tower collapsed. The authorities were strapped for cash and saw no option but to sell the church bells to neighbouring city Kampen, to make sure that Kampen would not make too much profit from the deal, the local authorities asked a high price for the church bells. Kampen accepted, yet after the arrival of the bells it became clear, in revenge, Kampen paid in copper coins of four duiten
Zwolle
–
Zwolle city centre
Zwolle
–
Dutch Topographic map of Zwolle (city), Sept. 2014
Zwolle
–
Map of Zwolle by
Joan Blaeu in Blaeu's "Toonneel der Steden", 1652
Zwolle
–
Librije
28.
Kampen (Overijssel)
–
Kampen is a municipality, a city and an old Hanseatic city at the lower reaches of the river IJssel in the Dutch province of Overijssel. The municipality of Kampen had a population of 51,278 in 2014, Kampen is located in the North West of Overijssel and is the largest city in this region. The city of Kampen itself has around 35,000 inhabitants, Kampen has one of the best preserved old town centres of the Netherlands, including remains of the ancient city wall and numerous churches. Also notable are the three bridges over the IJssel which connect Kampen with IJsselmuiden and Kampereiland, the area between the branches which form the IJssel delta, and a windmill. Traditionally people in Kampen speak a variation of the Sallands dialect, by 1150, there were already wooden buildings on the site where Kampen is currently located. The name Kampen, however, is not mentioned until 1277, the city has had city rights since 1236. In the 14th century, Kampen exchanged with the bishop of Utrecht, Jan van Arkel, the silting up of the IJssel brought a gradual end to the prosperity of Kampen from 1430 on. For a long time Kampen did not want to sign a union and make economic and political concessions to other cities, as was usual in the Hanseatic League. When the County of Holland went to war with the Hanseatic League this situation came to an end, Kampen was originally more oriented toward the Baltic trade and commerce with the hinterland of the Rhine, and therefore in 1441 formally joined the Hanseatic League. This project was accomplished in just five months, with this bridge Kampen hoped to be able to develop closer relationships with the hinterland. On 11 August 1572 Kampen was conquered from the Spaniards by Willem van den Bergh, after the massacre of Zutphen on 15 November, the city voluntarily surrendered to the Spanish. In 1578, the city changed again after the Siege of Kampen. Due to its right to increase the IJsseldelta, Kampen was owner of the growing Kampereiland, from 1500 the islands were leased. The rents were so large that the city did not need to raise taxes, Kampen only became well known again in the 19th century. The city was difficult to reach from the sea, because the wetlands became silted up. During the preceding centuries, the watercourse of the river IJssel was dredged several times, but the costs were high and within a few years. As the IJssel had several delta-like mouths here, the route of the river shifted several times. In the 19th century, a new strategy was put in place to counter this problem and this had the advantage that less sand and silt were deposited and resulted in a river course that swept itself clean
Kampen (Overijssel)
–
Kampen city centre with the
Bovenkerk in the centre
Kampen (Overijssel)
–
Kampen (Blaeu's Toonneel der Steden Dutch city maps, by Willem and Joan Blaeu, 1652
Kampen (Overijssel)
–
Winter landscape with skaters c. 1625
Kampen (Overijssel)
–
Topographic map of Kampen (city), March 2014
29.
Geert Groote
–
Gerard Groote, otherwise Gerrit or Gerhard Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, was a Dutch Roman Catholic deacon, who was a popular preacher and the founder of the Brethren of the Common Life. He was a key figure in the Devotio Moderna movement and he was born in the Hanseatic city Deventer in the Bishopric of Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He studied at Aachen, then went to the University of Paris when only fifteen, after a brilliant course he graduated in 1358. In 1362 he was appointed teacher at the Deventer chapter school, in 1366 his admiring countrymen sent him to Avignon on a secret mission to Pope Urban V. Soon after Groote settled in Cologne, teaching philosophy and theology, in 1374 Groote turned his family home in Deventer into a shelter for poor women and lived for several years as a guest of a Carthusian monastery. In 1379, having received ordination as a deacon, he became a preacher throughout the diocese of Utrecht. The bishop of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not in orders. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, no time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groote died before a foundation could be made. To initiation of movement was the great achievement of Grootes life, he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his other creation. He died of the plague at Deventer, which he had contracted while nursing the sick, young men especially flocked to him in great numbers. Some of these he sent to his schools, others he occupied at transcribing good books, Groote and Florence Radewyns, his favourite disciple, founded at Zwolle the Brethren of the Common Life. Henceforth his communities, which were spreading rapidly through the Netherlands, Lower Germany and he contemplated organizing his clerics into a community of canons regular, but it was left to Radewyns, his successor, to realize this plan at Windesheim two years later. A movement known as the Modern Devotion was founded in the Netherlands by Groote and Florens Radewyns, for Grote the pivotal point is the search for inner peace, which results from the denial of ones own self and is to be achieved by ardour and silence. This is the heart of the New Devotion, the Devotio moderna, solitary meditation on Christ’s Passion and redemption, on one’s own death, the Last Judgment, heaven, and hell was essential. In the course of the 15th century, the Modern Devotion found adherents throughout the Netherlands and its precepts were further disseminated in texts such as The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis, which reached an increasingly literate public. In this context small works of art such as diptychs that provided a focus for private worship enjoyed wide popularity, geert Groote College is located in Amsterdam. Florens Radewyns Devotio Moderna This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Groot
Geert Groote
–
The beginning of the
Book of the Hours of Geert Groote
30.
Erasmus
–
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, known as Erasmus or Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch/Netherlandish Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed the sobriquet Prince of the Humanists, and has called the crowning glory of the Christian humanists. He also wrote On Free Will, The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia, Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Erasmus remained a member of the Roman Catholic Church all his life, remaining committed to reforming the Church and he also held to the Catholic doctrine of free will, which some Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road approach disappointed and even angered scholars in both camps, Erasmus died suddenly in Basel in 1536 while preparing to return to Brabant, and was buried in Basel Minster, the former cathedral of the city. A bronze statue of him was erected in his city of birth in 1622, Desiderius Erasmus is reported to have been born in Rotterdam on 28 October in the late 1460s. He was named after Saint Erasmus of Formiae, whom Erasmuss father Gerard personally favored, a 17th-century legend has it that Erasmus was first named Geert Geerts, but this is unfounded. He was born in Rotterdam, but there are insufficient records to confirm that, a well-known wooden picture indicates, Goudæ conceptus, Roterodami natus. According to an article by historian Renier Snooy, Erasmus was born in Gouda, the exact year of his birth is debated, with most biographers citing the year as 1466. Some evidence confirming 1466 can be found in Erasmuss own words, of twenty-three statements Erasmus made about his age, all and he was christened Erasmus after the saint of that name. Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for four years. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings and his parents were not legally married. His father, Gerard, was a Catholic priest and curate in Gouda, little is known of his mother other than that her name was Margaretha Rogerius and she was the daughter of a physician from Zevenbergen, she may have been Gerards housekeeper. Erasmus was given the highest education available to a man of his day. During his stay there the curriculum was renewed by the principal of the school, for the first time ever Greek was taught at a lower level than a university in Europe, and this is where he began learning it. He also gleaned there the importance of a relationship with God but eschewed the harsh rules. His education there ended when plague struck the city about 1483, and his mother, in 1492, poverty forced Erasmus into the consecrated life
Erasmus
–
Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 as depicted by
Hans Holbein the Younger. The Greek and Latin words on the book translate to "The Herculean Labours of Erasmus of Rotterdam".
Erasmus
–
Bust by
Hildo Krop (1950) at
Gouda, where Erasmus spent his youth
Erasmus
–
Portrait of Desiderius Erasmus by
Albrecht Dürer, 1526, engraved in
Nuremberg, Germany.
Erasmus
–
Bronze statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam. It was created by
Hendrick de Keyser in 1622, replacing a stone statue of 1557.
31.
Desiderius Erasmus
–
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus, known as Erasmus or Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch/Netherlandish Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian. Erasmus was a scholar and wrote in a pure Latin style. Among humanists he enjoyed the sobriquet Prince of the Humanists, and has called the crowning glory of the Christian humanists. He also wrote On Free Will, The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia, Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works. Erasmus remained a member of the Roman Catholic Church all his life, remaining committed to reforming the Church and he also held to the Catholic doctrine of free will, which some Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road approach disappointed and even angered scholars in both camps, Erasmus died suddenly in Basel in 1536 while preparing to return to Brabant, and was buried in Basel Minster, the former cathedral of the city. A bronze statue of him was erected in his city of birth in 1622, Desiderius Erasmus is reported to have been born in Rotterdam on 28 October in the late 1460s. He was named after Saint Erasmus of Formiae, whom Erasmuss father Gerard personally favored, a 17th-century legend has it that Erasmus was first named Geert Geerts, but this is unfounded. He was born in Rotterdam, but there are insufficient records to confirm that, a well-known wooden picture indicates, Goudæ conceptus, Roterodami natus. According to an article by historian Renier Snooy, Erasmus was born in Gouda, the exact year of his birth is debated, with most biographers citing the year as 1466. Some evidence confirming 1466 can be found in Erasmuss own words, of twenty-three statements Erasmus made about his age, all and he was christened Erasmus after the saint of that name. Although associated closely with Rotterdam, he lived there for four years. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings and his parents were not legally married. His father, Gerard, was a Catholic priest and curate in Gouda, little is known of his mother other than that her name was Margaretha Rogerius and she was the daughter of a physician from Zevenbergen, she may have been Gerards housekeeper. Erasmus was given the highest education available to a man of his day. During his stay there the curriculum was renewed by the principal of the school, for the first time ever Greek was taught at a lower level than a university in Europe, and this is where he began learning it. He also gleaned there the importance of a relationship with God but eschewed the harsh rules. His education there ended when plague struck the city about 1483, and his mother, in 1492, poverty forced Erasmus into the consecrated life
Desiderius Erasmus
–
Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 as depicted by
Hans Holbein the Younger. The Greek and Latin words on the book translate to "The Herculean Labours of Erasmus of Rotterdam".
Desiderius Erasmus
–
Bust by
Hildo Krop (1950) at
Gouda, where Erasmus spent his youth
Desiderius Erasmus
–
Portrait of Desiderius Erasmus by
Albrecht Dürer, 1526, engraved in
Nuremberg, Germany.
Desiderius Erasmus
–
Bronze statue of Erasmus in Rotterdam. It was created by
Hendrick de Keyser in 1622, replacing a stone statue of 1557.
32.
Willem Blaeu
–
Willem Janszoon Blaeu, also abbreviated to Willem Jansz. Blaeu, was a Dutch cartographer, atlas maker and publisher and he was one of the notable representatives of the Netherlandish/Dutch school of cartography in its golden age. Blaeu was born at Uitgeest or Alkmaar, as the son of a well-to-do herring salesman, he was destined to succeed his father in the trade, but his interests lay more in mathematics and astronomy. Between 1594 and 1596, as a student of the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe, he qualified as an instrument, in 1600 he discovered the second ever variable star, now known as P Cygni. In 1633 he was appointed map-maker of the Dutch East India Company and he had two sons, Johannes and Cornelis Blaeu, who continued their fathers mapmaking and publishing business after his death in 1638. Prints of the works are still sold today. Original maps are rare collector items, Blaeus maps were featured in the works of the Dutch painter Johannes Vermeer of Delft, who holds a position of great honor among map historians. Several of his paintings illustrate maps hanging on walls or globes standing on tables or cabinets, Vermeer painted these cartographical documents with such detail that it is often possible to identify the actual maps. Though no longer extant, the existence is known from archival sources. Topographia, Descriptore Balthazaro Florentio a Berkerode Batavo, Vermeer must have had a copy at his disposal. Bright sunlight bathes the girl and the map on the wall. Vermeers gift for realism is evidenced by the fact that the map, mounted on linen and wooden rods, is identifiable as Blaeus 1621 map of Holland. He captures faithfully its characteristic design, decoration, and geographic content and his maps formed the bulk of the Atlas Maior, that became a collectors item in Amsterdam. One of Blaeus globes was purchased at auction by Maarten Magielse, Magielse is now lending it to the globe museum in Vienna, where it is being exhibited. Aardglobe Hemelglobe Nieuw Graetboeck Nywe Paskaerte t Licht der zeevaert Spieghel der Schrijfkonste Nova et Accurata Totius Hollandiae Westfriesiaeq, Atlas Novus Atlas Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Toonneel des Aerdrycks Le Theatre du Monde Theatre du monde ou Nouvel Atlas Firma Blaeu is window nummer 18 in the Canon of Amsterdam. Blaeu and Joan Blaeu, Houten, Hes & De Graaf publishers BV, ISBN 90-6194-438-4 P. J. H. Baudet, Johannes Keuning and Marijke Donkersloot-de Vrij, Willem Jansz. Blaeu, a biography and history of his work as cartographer and publisher, Amsterdam 1973
Willem Blaeu
–
Blaeu's 1644 map of Europe
Willem Blaeu
–
Willem Janszoon Blaeu by
Jeremias Falck
Willem Blaeu
–
Joan & Willem Blaeu Atlas in 11 volumes with white leather binding with gold leaf and special chest to hold it in, with a portrait of Willem Blaeu on the wall next to it, copy owned by the
University of Amsterdam Special Collections
33.
Joan Blaeu
–
Joan Blaeu was a Dutch cartographer born in Alkmaar, the son of cartographer Willem Blaeu. In 1620 he became a doctor of law but he joined the work of his father, in 1635 they published the Atlas Novus in two volumes. Joan and his brother Cornelius took over the studio after their father died in 1638, Joan became the official cartographer of the Dutch East India Company. Blaeus world map, Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula, incorporating the discoveries of Abel Tasman, was published in 1648 and this map was revolutionary in that it depicts the solar system according to the heliocentric theories of Nicolaus Copernicus, which show the earth revolving around the sun. Blaeus map was copied for the map of the set into the pavement of the Groote Burger-Zaal of the new Amsterdam Town Hall, designed by the Dutch architect Jacob van Campen. As Jean Blaeu, he published the 12 volume Le Grand Atlas, ou Cosmographie blaviane, en laquelle est exactement descritte la terre, la mer. That was folio, and contained 593 engraved maps and plates, in March 2015, a copy was on sale for £750,000. Around 1649 Joan Blaeu published a collection of Dutch city maps named Toonneel der Steeden, in 1651 he was voted into the Amsterdam council. In 1654 Joan published the first atlas of Scotland, devised by Timothy Pont, in 1662 he reissued the Atlas Novus, also known as Atlas Maior, in 11 volumes, and one for oceans. A cosmology was planned as their project, but a fire destroyed the studio completely in 1672. Joan Blaeu died in Amsterdam the following year and he is buried in the Westerkerk there. Blaeu and Joan Blaeu, Houten, Hes & De Graaf publishers BV, ISBN 90-6194-438-4 BROTTON, Jerry, A History of the World in Twelve Maps, London, utrecht University Arader Galleries Collection of Maps from Blaeus Atlas Major. Brazil map by Joan Blaeu, Amsterdam 1650 Plan of Delft from Joan Blaeu Town book, Amsterdam 1660 Blaeu on the Dutch map Jonathan Potter Maps
Joan Blaeu
–
Joan Blaeu. By J.van Rossum
Joan Blaeu
–
City centre of
Gouda, ca. 1650
Joan Blaeu
–
Nova et Accuratissima Terrarum Orbis Tabula (J. Blaeu, 1664).
Joan Blaeu
–
Title page of the
Atlas Novus
34.
Holland
–
Holland is a region and former province on the western coast of the Netherlands. The name Holland is also used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. From the 10th to the 16th century, Holland proper was a political region within the Holy Roman Empire as a county ruled by the Counts of Holland. By the 17th century, Holland had risen to become a maritime and economic power, the name Holland first appeared in sources in 866 for the region around Haarlem, and by 1064 was being used as the name of the entire county. By this time, the inhabitants of Holland were referring to themselves as Hollanders, Holland is derived from the Middle Dutch term holtland. This spelling variation remained in use until around the 14th century, a popular folk etymology holds that Holland is derived from hol land and was inspired by the low-lying geography of Holland. The proper name of the area in both Dutch and English is Holland, Holland is a part of the Netherlands. Holland is informally used in English and other languages, including sometimes the Dutch language itself, the people of Holland are referred to as Hollanders in both Dutch and English. Today this refers specifically to people from the current provinces of North Holland, strictly speaking, the term Hollanders does not refer to people from the other provinces in the Netherlands, but colloquially Hollanders is sometimes used in this wider sense. In Dutch, the Dutch word Hollands is the form for Holland. In English, Dutch refers to the Netherlands as a whole, the word Hollandish is no longer in common use. Hollandic is the name give to the dialect spoken in Holland, and is occasionally also used by historians. Initially, Holland was a corner of the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, its importance increased until it began to have a decisive. Until the start of the 12th century, the inhabitants of the area that became Holland were known as Frisians, the area was initially part of Frisia. At the end of the 9th century, West-Frisia became a county in the Holy Roman Empire. The first Count known about with certainty was Dirk I, who ruled from 896 to 931 and he was succeeded by a long line of counts in the House of Holland. When John I, count of Holland, died childless in 1299, by the time of William V the count of Holland was also the count of Hainaut and Zealand
Holland
–
A map of Holland from 1682.
Holland
–
North and
South Holland (in orange) shown together within the
Netherlands
Holland
–
Benthuizen polder, as seen from a dike.
35.
Dutch War of Independence
–
The southern provinces initially joined in the revolt, but later submitted to Spain. The religious clash of cultures built up gradually but inexorably into outbursts of violence against the repression of the Habsburg Crown. These tensions led to the formation of the independent Dutch Republic, the first leader was William of Orange, followed by several of his descendants and relations. This revolt was one of the first successful secessions in Europe, and led to one of the first European republics of the modern era, King Philip was initially successful in suppressing the rebellion. In 1572, however, the rebels captured Brielle and the rebellion resurged, the northern provinces became independent, first in 1581 de facto, and in 1648 de jure. The Southern Netherlands remained under Spanish rule, the continuous heavy-handed rule by the Habsburgs in the south caused many of its financial, intellectual, and cultural elite to flee north, contributing to the success of the Dutch Republic. The Dutch imposed a blockade on the southern provinces which prevented Baltic grain relieving famine in the southern towns. The first phase of the conflict can be considered to be the Dutch War of Independence, the focus of the latter phase was to gain official recognition of the already de facto independence of the United Provinces. This phase coincided with the rise of the Dutch Republic as a major power, in a series of marriages and conquests, a succession of Dukes of Burgundy expanded their original territory by adding to it a series of fiefdoms, including the Seventeen Provinces. Although Burgundy itself had been lost to France in 1477, the Burgundian Netherlands were still intact when Charles V was born in Ghent in 1500 and he was raised in the Netherlands and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Spanish, and some German. In 1506, he became lord of the Burgundian states, among which were the Netherlands, subsequently, in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the combined kingdoms of Aragon, and Castile and León which had become a worldwide empire with the Spanish colonization of the Americas. In 1519, he became ruler of the Habsburg empire, although Friesland and Guelders offered prolonged resistance, virtually all of the Netherlands had been incorporated into the Habsburg domains by the early 1540s. Flanders had long been a wealthy region, and had been coveted by the French kings for a long time. The other Netherlands had also grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within the empire, Charles Vs empire became a worldwide empire with large American and European territories. The latter were, however, distributed throughout Europe, control and defense of these were hampered by the disparity of the territories and huge length of the empires borders. This large realm was almost continuously at war with its neighbors in its European heartlands, most notably against France in the Italian Wars, further wars were fought against Protestant princes in Germany. The Netherlands paid heavy taxes to fund these wars, but perceived them as unnecessary and sometimes downright harmful, during the 16th century, Protestantism rapidly gained ground in northern Europe. Dutch Protestants, after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities, by the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then
Dutch War of Independence
–
Prince Maurice at the Battle of Nieuwpoort by
Pauwels van Hillegaert. Oil on canvas.
Dutch War of Independence
–
Philip II,
King of Spain.
Dutch War of Independence
–
Philip II of Spain berating William the Silent. Prince of Orange by
Cornelis Kruseman, painting from 19th century. This scene was purported to have happened on the dock in Flushing when Philip departed the Netherlands.
Dutch War of Independence
–
Relief statues in the
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht, attacked in
Reformation iconoclasm in the 16th century.
36.
Iron
–
Iron is a chemical element with symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series and it is by mass the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earths outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earths crust, like the other group 8 elements, ruthenium and osmium, iron exists in a wide range of oxidation states, −2 to +6, although +2 and +3 are the most common. Elemental iron occurs in meteoroids and other low oxygen environments, but is reactive to oxygen, fresh iron surfaces appear lustrous silvery-gray, but oxidize in normal air to give hydrated iron oxides, commonly known as rust. Unlike the metals that form passivating oxide layers, iron oxides occupy more volume than the metal and thus flake off, Iron metal has been used since ancient times, although copper alloys, which have lower melting temperatures, were used even earlier in human history. Pure iron is soft, but is unobtainable by smelting because it is significantly hardened and strengthened by impurities, in particular carbon. A certain proportion of carbon steel, which may be up to 1000 times harder than pure iron. Crude iron metal is produced in blast furnaces, where ore is reduced by coke to pig iron, further refinement with oxygen reduces the carbon content to the correct proportion to make steel. Steels and iron alloys formed with metals are by far the most common industrial metals because they have a great range of desirable properties. Iron chemical compounds have many uses, Iron oxide mixed with aluminium powder can be ignited to create a thermite reaction, used in welding and purifying ores. Iron forms binary compounds with the halogens and the chalcogens, among its organometallic compounds is ferrocene, the first sandwich compound discovered. Iron plays an important role in biology, forming complexes with oxygen in hemoglobin and myoglobin. Iron is also the metal at the site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants. A human male of average height has about 4 grams of iron in his body and this iron is distributed throughout the body in hemoglobin, tissues, muscles, bone marrow, blood proteins, enzymes, ferritin, hemosiderin, and transport in plasma. The mechanical properties of iron and its alloys can be evaluated using a variety of tests, including the Brinell test, Rockwell test, the data on iron is so consistent that it is often used to calibrate measurements or to compare tests. An increase in the content will cause a significant increase in the hardness. Maximum hardness of 65 Rc is achieved with a 0. 6% carbon content, because of the softness of iron, it is much easier to work with than its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium. Because of its significance for planetary cores, the properties of iron at high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively
Iron
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Iron, 26 Fe
Iron
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Spectral lines of iron
Iron
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Iron meteorites, similar in composition to the Earth's inner- and outer core
Iron
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Hydrated
iron(III) chloride, also known as ferric chloride
37.
Wolters Kluwer
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Wolters Kluwer N. V. is a global information services company. The company is headquartered in Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands, Wolters Kluwer in its current form was founded in 1987 with a merger between Kluwer Publishers and Wolters Samson. The company serves legal, business, tax, accounting, finance, audit, risk, compliance and it operates in over 150 countries. Nancy McKinstry serves as executive officer of the company. Jan-Berend Wolters founded the Schoolbook publishing house in Groningen, Netherlands in 1836, in 1858, the Noordhoff publishing house was founded alongside the Schoolbook publishing house. The two publishing houses merged in 1968, wolters-Noordhoff merged with Information and Communications Union in 1972 and took the name ICU. ICU changed its name to Wolters-Samson in 1983, the company began serving foreign law firms and multinational companies in China in 1985. In 1987, Elsevier, the largest publishing house in the Netherlands, Kluwer merged with Wolters-Samson to fend off Elsevier’s take-over bid and formed Wolters Kluwer. The merger made Wolters Kluwer the second largest publishing house in the Netherlands, after the merger, Wolters Kluwer began expanding internationally with the purchase of IPSOA Editore, Kieser Verlag, Technipublicaciones and Tele Consulte in 1989. By the end of the year, Wolters Kluwer expanded its presence to Spain, West Germany, the company also launched LEX, its legal information system, in Poland. In 1989, 44% of the revenue was earned in foreign markets. The following year, Wolters Kluwer purchased J. B, the company acquired Liber, a Swedish publishing company, in 1993. The following year it established its first Eastern European subsidiary, IURA Edition, in Bratislava, the company acquired Jugend & Volk, Dalian, Fateco Fîrlag and Juristfîrlaget, Deutscher Kommunal-Verlag Dr. Naujoks & Behrendt and Colex Data in 1995. Wolters Kluwer was operating in 16 countries and had approximately 8000 employees by the end of that year, in 1996, Wolters Kluwer purchased CCH Inc. a tax and business materials publisher, for $1.9 billion. The purchase assisted in expanding the business in Asia because of CCH Inc. ’s involvement in Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Singapore. It also purchased Little, Brown and Company’s medical and legal division that year, ovid Technologies, Inc. and Plenum Publishing Corporation were acquired in 1998 with the intention of developing Wolters Kluwer’s medical and scientific publishing industry. The company established its first three-year strategy to deliver sustained value to customers and shareholders in 2003, the New Delhi Wolters Kluwer Health office opened in 2006. In September 2008, Wolters Kluwer acquired UpToDate, an evidence-based electronic clinical information resource, the following month, the company received a multi-year contract to provide prescription and patient-level data to the United States Food and Drug Administration
Wolters Kluwer
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Wolters Kluwer N.V.
38.
Alphen aan den Rijn
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Alphen aan den Rijn is a town and municipality in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland, between Leiden and Utrecht. The town is situated on the banks of the river Oude Rijn, the municipality had a population of 107,117 in 2014, and covers an area of 132.49 km2 of which 5.91 km2 is water. The municipality of Alphen aan den Rijn also includes the communities of Aarlanderveen, Zwammerdam, the town is located in what is called the Green Heart of the Netherlands, which is a somewhat less densely populated centre area of the Randstad. The name Alphen is probably derived from the name of the Roman fort Albaniana and its remains still lie underneath the city centre today. The area around Alphen aan den Rijn has been inhabited for 2000 years, in the Roman era, the Oude Rijn was the main branch of the Rhine River and formed the north border of the Roman Empire. Since the rule of Emperor Claudius, divisions of the Roman army were stationed here, consequently, several Roman fortifications were located along the Oude Rijn, including castellum Albanianae in the centre of Alphen. The Romans had also built the first bridge over the Oude Rijn, Alphen was therefore an important commercial site in the area until Germanic raids ended that in 240 AD. After recurring problems with flooding, especially in Utrecht and Leiden, the Oude Rijn has not flooded since. During the Middle Ages, Alphen was a fiefdom called Alphen en Rietveld, in the 17th century, Alphen became prominent again as a hub for commerce. The Oude Rijn was used for traffic, there are still portions along the river where the towpath is present. The current municipality was formed in 1918 through the amalgamation of the municipalities of Alphen, Aarlanderveen. In 1964, the municipality of Zwammerdam was added as well, in 2014 the municipalities of Boskoop and Rijnwoude were amalgamated as well, doubling the land area and increasing the population to over 100,000. During the Second World War, the majority of Jews from Alphen were deported and subsequently murdered, after the war, the Jewish congregation was disbanded and merged with the one in Leiden. Since 1950, the city began to grow rapidly, a large new neighbourhood was built on the north side. And since the 1990s, a new development was built at the citys south side. Now Alphen aan den Rijn is mostly a commuter city, in recent years, a large part of the town centre has undergone a full urban renewal. Many older buildings built in the 1950s and earlier have been demolished to make place for modern architecture, as of 2006, all of these projects have been finished. On 9 April 2011, an opened fire at a shopping centre in Alphen aan den Rijn, killing six people
Alphen aan den Rijn
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Aar and Aarkade
Alphen aan den Rijn
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Topographic map of Alphen aan den Rijn (town), Sept. 2014
Alphen aan den Rijn
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The
vertical lift bridge over the Gouwe River was built in the 1930s.
Alphen aan den Rijn
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Monumental clocktower in Alphen aan den Rijn
39.
A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)
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A Bridge Too Far is a 1977 British-American epic war film based on the 1974 book of the same name by Cornelius Ryan, adapted by William Goldman. It was produced by Joseph E. Levine and Richard P. Levine, the film tells the story of the failure of Operation Market Garden during World War II. The music was scored by John Addison, who had served in the British XXX Corps during Market Garden, Operation Market Garden envisions 35,000 men being flown 300 miles from air bases in England and dropped behind enemy lines in the Netherlands. Two divisions of U. S. paratroopers, the 82nd & 101st Airborne, are responsible for securing the road, XXX Armoured Corps are to push up the road over the bridges captured by the American paratroopers and reach Arnhem two days after the drop. The British are to land using gliders near Arnhem, when General Urquhart briefs his officers, some of them are surprised they are going to attempt a landing so far from the bridge. The consensus among the British top brass is that resistance will consist entirely of Hitler Youth or old men on bicycles, although reconnaissance photos show German tanks at Arnhem, General Browning dismisses them and also ignores reports from the Dutch underground. He does not want to be the one to tell Field Marshall Montgomery of any doubts since many previous airborne operations had been cancelled. Arnhem’s is the bridge, the last means of escape for the German forces in the Netherlands. The road to it, however, is only a highway linking the various key bridges - trucks and tanks have to squeeze to the shoulder to pass. The road is elevated, causing anything moving on the road to stand out. The airborne drops catch the Germans by surprise and there is little resistance, most of the men come down safely and assemble quickly, but the Son bridge is blown up by the Germans just before the 101st Airborne secures it. However, soon after landing, troubles beset Urquharts division, many of the Jeeps either do not arrive by their gliders at all or are shot up in an ambush. Their radio sets are also useless, XXX Corps progress to relieve them is slowed by German resistance, the narrowness of the highway and the need to construct a Bailey bridge to replace the one destroyed at Son. They are then halted at Nijmegen, the Germans close in on the isolated British paratroops occupying part of Arnhem at the bridge, although armoured attacks are repelled. Urquhart had been separated from his men and the drop zones overrun by the Germans. Finally, Sosabowskis troops, held up by fog in England, after days of house-to-house fighting, pitted against crack SS infantry and panzers, the outgunned troops are captured or forced to withdraw. Arnhem itself is indiscriminately razed in the fighting, on arriving at British headquarters, Urquhart confronts Browning about his personal sentiments regarding the operation, does he think it went as well as was being claimed by Montgomery. Brownings reply contradicts his earlier optimism, Well, as you know, in the films final scene, a young Dutch woman, whose elegant and beautifully furnished home was used as an overflow hospital by the British, abandons the mostly destroyed house
A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)
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original film poster
A Bridge Too Far (1977 film)
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Shooting of a scene in Deventer on 18 May 1976. German vehicles are crossing the bridge
.svg)
listen)) is a municipality and city in the Salland region of the Dutch province of Overijssel. Deventer is largely situated on the east bank of the river IJssel, but also has a small part of its territory on the west bank; in 2005 the municipality of Bathmen (pop. 5,000) was merged with Deventer as part of a national effort to reduce bureaucracy in the country.
Tartu, Estonia [6]
London, Ontario, Canada [6]
Sibiu, Romania, since 2009.
Arnsberg, Germany, since 1956.
Deventer travel guide from Wikivoyage
