1.
Modem
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A modem is a network hardware device that modulates one or more carrier wave signals to encode digital information for transmission and demodulates signals to decode the transmitted information. The goal is attempting to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily, modems can be used with any means of transmitting analog signals, from light emitting diodes to radio. Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually expressed in bits per second. Modems can also be classified by their rate, measured in baud. The baud unit denotes symbols per second, or the number of times per second the modem sends a new signal. For example, the ITU V.21 standard used audio frequency shift keying with two frequencies, corresponding to two distinct symbols, to carry 300 bits per second using 300 baud. By contrast, the original ITU V.22 standard, which could transmit and receive four distinct symbols, news wire services in the 1920s used multiplex devices that satisfied the definition of a modem. However, the function was incidental to the multiplexing function, so they are not commonly included in the history of modems. S. SAGE modems were described by AT&Ts Bell Labs as conforming to their newly published Bell 101 dataset standard, while they ran on dedicated telephone lines, the devices at each end were no different from commercial acoustically coupled Bell 101,110 baud modems. The 201A and 201B Data-Phones were synchronous modems using two-bit-per-baud phase-shift keying, the famous Bell 103A dataset standard was also introduced by AT&T in 1962. It provided full-duplex service at 300 bit/s over normal phone lines, frequency-shift keying was used, with the call originator transmitting at 1,070 or 1,270 Hz and the answering modem transmitting at 2,025 or 2,225 Hz. The readily available 103A2 gave an important boost to the use of remote low-speed terminals such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR and KSR, AT&T reduced modem costs by introducing the originate-only 113D and the answer-only 113B/C modems. For many years, the Bell System maintained a monopoly on the use of its phone lines, however, the seminal Hush-a-Phone v. FCC case of 1956 concluded it was within the FCCs jurisdiction to regulate the operation of the Bell System. The FCC found that as long as a device was not electronically attached to the system and this led to a number of devices that mechanically connected to the phone through a standard handset. Since most handsets were supplied by Western Electric and thus of a standard design and this type of connection was used for many devices, such as answering machines. Acoustically coupled Bell 103A-compatible 300 bit/s modems were common during the 1970s, well-known models included the Novation CAT and the Anderson-Jacobson, the latter spun off from an in-house project at Stanford Research Institute. An even lower-cost option was the Pennywhistle modem, designed to be built using parts from electronics scrap, in December 1972, Vadic introduced the VA3400, notable for full-duplex operation at 1,200 bit/s over the phone network. Like the 103A, it used different frequency bands for transmit, in November 1976, AT&T introduced the 212A modem to compete with Vadic
2.
Internet access
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Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email, Internet service providers offer Internet access through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates. Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s, by the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. By 2014 this was almost ubiquitous worldwide, with an average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s. Use by a wider audience came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 bit/s in the early 1980s, initially, dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support use of the Internet protocols. Broadband connections are made using a computers built in Ethernet networking capabilities. Most broadband services provide a continuous always on connection, there is no dial-in process required, made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses, in 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each, the broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in telephone and cable plants. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations, Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using 3G and 4G technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users laptops to local area networks, Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers, various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based and these services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park
3.
Internet service provider
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An Internet service provider is an organization that provides services for accessing and using the Internet. Internet service providers may be organized in various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, Internet services typically provided by ISPs include Internet access, Internet transit, domain name registration, web hosting, Usenet service, and colocation. The Internet was developed as a network between government research laboratories and participating departments of universities, by the late 1980s, a process was set in place towards public, commercial use of the Internet. The remaining restrictions were removed by 1995,4 years after the introduction of the World Wide Web, in 1989, the first ISPs were established in Australia and the United States. In Brookline, Massachusetts, The World became the first commercial ISP in the US and its first customer was served in November 1989. On 23 April 2014, the U. S, a possible solution to net neutrality concerns may be municipal broadband, according to Professor Susan Crawford, a legal and technology expert at Harvard Law School. On 10 November 2014, President Barack Obama recommended that the FCC reclassify broadband Internet service as a service in order to preserve net neutrality. On 31 January 2015, AP News reported that the FCC will present the notion of applying Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 to the internet in a vote expected on 26 February 2015. Adoption of this notion would reclassify internet service from one of information to one of the telecommunications and, according to Tom Wheeler, chairman of the FCC, the FCC is expected to enforce net neutrality in its vote, according to the New York Times. On 26 February 2015, the FCC ruled in favor of net neutrality by adopting Title II of the Communications Act of 1934 and Section 706 in the Telecommunications Act of 1996 to the Internet. The FCC Chairman, Tom Wheeler, commented, This is no more a plan to regulate the Internet than the First Amendment is a plan to free speech. They both stand for the same concept, on 12 March 2015, the FCC released the specific details of the net neutrality rules. On 13 April 2015, the FCC published the rule on its new Net Neutrality regulations. ISPs provide Internet access, employing a range of technologies to connect users to their network, available technologies have ranged from computer modems with acoustic couplers to telephone lines, to television cable, wireless Ethernet, and fiber optics. For users and small businesses, traditional options include copper wires to provide dial-up, DSL, typically asymmetric digital subscriber line, using fiber-optics to end users is called Fiber To The Home or similar names. Wireless access is another option, including cellular and satellite Internet access, a mailbox provider is an organization that provides services for hosting electronic mail domains with access to storage for mail boxes. It provides email servers to send, receive, accept, many mailbox providers are also access providers, while others are not. Internet hosting services provide email, web-hosting, or online storage services, other services include virtual server, cloud services, or physical server operation
4.
Telephone number
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A telephone number serves as an address for switching telephone calls using a system of destination code routing. Telephone numbers are entered or dialed by a party on the originating telephone set. The exchange completes the call either to another locally connected subscriber or via the PSTN to the called party, telephone numbers were first used in 1879 in Lowell, Massachusetts when they replaced the request for subscriber names by callers connecting to the switchboard operator. Telephone numbers are dialed in conjunction with other signaling code sequences, such as vertical service codes. When telephone numbers were first used they were short, from one to three digits, and were communicated orally to a switchboard operator when initiating a call. As telephone systems have grown and interconnected to encompass worldwide communication, in addition to telephones, they have been used to access other devices, such as computer modems, pagers, and fax machines. The number contains the necessary to identify uniquely the intended endpoint for the telephone call. Each such endpoint must have a number within the public switched telephone network. Most countries use fixed length numbers and therefore the number of endpoints determines the length of the telephone number. It is also possible for each subscriber to have a set of numbers for the endpoints most often used. These shorthand or speed calling numbers are translated to unique telephone numbers before the call can be connected. Some special services have their own short numbers The dialing plan in some areas permits dialing numbers in the local calling area without using area code or city code prefixes. For example, a number in North America consists of a three-digit area code, a three-digit central office code. If the area has no area code overlays, seven-digit dialing may be permissible for calls within the area, for each large metro area, all of these lines will share the same prefix, the last digits typically corresponding to the stations frequency, callsign, or moniker. In the international network, the format of telephone numbers is standardized by ITU-T recommendation E.164. This code specifies that the number should be 15 digits or shorter. For most countries, this is followed by a code or city code and the subscriber number. ITU-T recommendation E.123 describes how to represent an international telephone number in writing or print, starting with a plus sign and the country code
5.
Telephone line
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A telephone line or telephone circuit is a single-user circuit on a telephone communication system. Telephone lines are used to deliver landline telephone service and Digital subscriber line phone service to the premises. Telephone overhead lines are connected to the switched telephone network. Modern lines may run underground, and may carry analog or digital signals to the exchange, often the customer end of that wire pair is connected to a data access arrangement, the telephone company end of that wire pair is connected to a telephone hybrid. In most cases, two wires for each telephone line run from a home or other small building to a local telephone exchange. The wires between the box and the exchange are known as the local loop, and the network of wires going to an exchange. The vast majority of houses in the U. S. are wired with 6-position modular jacks with four conductors wired to the junction box with copper wires. Those wires may be connected back to two telephone lines at the local telephone exchange, thus making those jacks RJ14 jacks. More often, only two of the wires are connected to the exchange as one line, and the others are unconnected. In that case, the jacks in the house are RJ11, inside the walls of the house—between the houses outside junction box and the interior wall jacks—the most common telephone cable in new houses is Category 5 cable—4 pairs of 24 AWG solid copper. Inside large buildings, and in the cables that run to the telephone company POP
6.
Router (computing)
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A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet, a data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another router through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node. A router is connected to two or more lines from different networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the lines, then, using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. The most familiar type of routers are home and small office routers that simply pass IP packets between the computers and the Internet. An example of a router would be the cable or DSL router. Though routers are typically dedicated hardware devices, software-based routers also exist, when multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information about destination addresses using a dynamic routing protocol. Each router builds up a table listing the preferred routes between any two systems on the interconnected networks. A router may have interfaces for different physical types of connections, such as copper cables, fibre optic. Its firmware can also support different networking communications protocol standards, each network interface is used by this specialized computer software to enable data packets to be forwarded from one protocol transmission system to another. Routers may also be used to two or more logical groups of computer devices known as subnets, each with a different network prefix. The network prefixes recorded in the table do not necessarily map directly to the physical interface connections. It does this using internal pre-configured directives, called static routes, static and dynamic routes are stored in the Routing Information Base. The control-plane logic then strips non-essential directives from the RIB and builds a Forwarding Information Base to be used by the forwarding-plane, Forwarding plane, The router forwards data packets between incoming and outgoing interface connections. It routes them to the network type using information that the packet header contains. It uses data recorded in the routing control plane. Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises, between enterprises and the Internet, or between internet service providers networks, the largest routers interconnect the various ISPs, or may be used in large enterprise networks. Smaller routers usually provide connectivity for typical home and office networks, other networking solutions may be provided by a backbone Wireless Distribution System, which avoids the costs of introducing networking cables into buildings
7.
Steven M. Bellovin
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Steven M. Bellovin is a researcher on computer networking and security. He is currently a Professor in the Computer Science department at Columbia University, having previously been a Fellow at AT&T Labs Research in Florham Park, New Jersey. In September 2012, Bellovin was appointed Chief Technologist for the United States Federal Trade Commission, replacing Edward W. Felten, in February 2016, Bellovin became the first technology scholar for the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board. He received a BA degree from Columbia University, and an MS, as a graduate student, Bellovin was one of the originators of USENET. He later suggested that Gene Spafford should create the Phage mailing list as a response to the Morris Worm and he and Michael Merritt invented the Encrypted key exchange password-authenticated key agreement methods. He was also responsible for the discovery that one-time pads were invented in 1882, not 1917, Bellovin has been active in the IETF. He was a member of the Internet Architecture Board from 1996–2002, Bellovin later was Security Area co-director, and a member of the Internet Engineering Steering Group from 2002–2004. He identified some key security weaknesses in the Domain Name System and he received 2007 National Computer Systems Security Award by the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the National Security Agency. In 2001, he was elected to the National Academy of Engineering for his contributions to network, Bellovin is an active NetBSD user and a NetBSD developer focusing on architectural, operational, and security issues. Computer security Cryptography Wily hacker web page Steven M. Bellovin, DBLP Bibliography Steven M. Bellovin Publications, ATT Amnesty v. McConnell - Declaration of Steven M. Bellovin, ACLU
8.
Duke University
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Duke University is an American private research university located in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the town of Trinity in 1838. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established The Duke Endowment, at time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father. Dukes campus spans over 8,600 acres on three campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort. The main campus—designed largely by architect Julian Abele—incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210-foot Duke Chapel at the campus center, the first-year-populated East Campus contains Georgian-style architecture, while the main Gothic-style West Campus 1.5 miles away is adjacent to the Medical Center. Duke is the seventh-wealthiest private university in America with $11.4 billion in cash, Dukes research expenditures in the 2015 fiscal year were $1.037 billion, the seventh largest in the nation. In 2014, Thomson Reuters named 32 of Dukes professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers, Duke also ranks fifth among national universities to have produced Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars. Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university, Dukes sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Mens Division I Basketball Championships, most recently in 2015. Duke is consistently included among the best universities in the world by numerous university rankings, according to a Forbes study, Duke is ranked 11th among universities that have produced billionaires. Duke started in 1838 as Browns Schoolhouse, a subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, the academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus, in 1924 Washington Dukes son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund, income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges. Duke thought the change would come off as self-serving. Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly, Dukes original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the one mile west were completed. In 1878, Trinity awarded A. B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students
9.
Usenet
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Usenet is a worldwide distributed discussion system available on computers. It was developed from the general-purpose UUCP dial-up network architecture, tom Truscott and Jim Ellis conceived the idea in 1979, and it was established in 1980. Users read and post messages to one or more categories, known as newsgroups, Usenet resembles a bulletin board system in many respects and is the precursor to Internet forums that are widely used today. Discussions are threaded, as with web forums and BBSs, though posts are stored on the server sequentially, the name comes from the term users network. One notable difference between a BBS or web forum and Usenet is the absence of a server and dedicated administrator. Usenet is distributed among a large, constantly changing conglomeration of servers that store, individual users may read messages from and post messages to a local server operated by a commercial usenet provider, their Internet service provider, university, employer, or their own server. Usenet has significant cultural importance in the world, having given rise to, or popularized, many widely recognized concepts and terms such as FAQ, flame. The name Usenet emphasized its creators hope that the USENIX organization would take a role in its operation. The articles that users post to Usenet are organized into topical categories called newsgroups, for instance, sci. math and sci. physics are within the sci. * hierarchy, for science. Or, talk. origins and talk. atheism are in the talk. * hierarchy, when a user subscribes to a newsgroup, the news client software keeps track of which articles that user has read. In most newsgroups, the majority of the articles are responses to some other article, the set of articles that can be traced to one single non-reply article is called a thread. Most modern newsreaders display the articles arranged into threads and subthreads, when a user posts an article, it is initially only available on that users news server. Each news server talks to one or more servers and exchanges articles with them. In this fashion, the article is copied from server to server, the later peer-to-peer networks operate on a similar principle, but for Usenet it is normally the sender, rather than the receiver, who initiates transfers. Usenet was designed under conditions when networks were much slower and not always available, many sites on the original Usenet network would connect only once or twice a day to batch-transfer messages in and out. This is largely because the POTS network was used for transfers. The format and transmission of Usenet articles is similar to that of Internet e-mail messages, today, Usenet has diminished in importance with respect to Internet forums, blogs and mailing lists. The groups in alt. binaries are still used for data transfer
10.
Unix
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Among these is Apples macOS, which is the Unix version with the largest installed base as of 2014. Many Unix-like operating systems have arisen over the years, of which Linux is the most popular, Unix was originally meant to be a convenient platform for programmers developing software to be run on it and on other systems, rather than for non-programmer users. The system grew larger as the system started spreading in academic circles, as users added their own tools to the system. Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration and these concepts are collectively known as the Unix philosophy. By the early 1980s users began seeing Unix as a universal operating system. Under Unix, the system consists of many utilities along with the master control program. To mediate such access, the kernel has special rights, reflected in the division between user space and kernel space, the microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a standard computer consisted of a disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output. However, modern systems include networking and other new devices, as graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse. In the 1980s, non-blocking I/O and the set of inter-process communication mechanisms were augmented with Unix domain sockets, shared memory, message queues, and semaphores. In microkernel implementations, functions such as network protocols could be moved out of the kernel, Multics introduced many innovations, but had many problems. Frustrated by the size and complexity of Multics but not by the aims and their last researchers to leave Multics, Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, M. D. McIlroy, and J. F. Ossanna, decided to redo the work on a much smaller scale. The name Unics, a pun on Multics, was suggested for the project in 1970. Peter H. Salus credits Peter Neumann with the pun, while Brian Kernighan claims the coining for himself, in 1972, Unix was rewritten in the C programming language. Bell Labs produced several versions of Unix that are referred to as Research Unix. In 1975, the first source license for UNIX was sold to faculty at the University of Illinois Department of Computer Science, UIUC graduate student Greg Chesson was instrumental in negotiating the terms of this license. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to adoption of Unix by commercial startups, including Sequent, HP-UX, Solaris, AIX. In the late 1980s, AT&T Unix System Laboratories and Sun Microsystems developed System V Release 4, in the 1990s, Unix-like systems grew in popularity as Linux and BSD distributions were developed through collaboration by a worldwide network of programmers
11.
National Science Foundation Network
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NSFNET was also the name given to several nationwide backbone networks that were constructed to support NSFs networking initiatives from 1985 to 1995. The NSFNET initiated operations in 1986 using TCP/IP, pDP-11/73 minicomputers with routing and management software, called Fuzzballs, served as the network routers since they already implemented the TCP/IP standard. This original 56 kbit/s backbone was overseen by the supercomputer centers themselves with the lead taken by Ed Krol at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, pDP-11/73 Fuzzball routers were configured and run by Hans-Werner Braun at the Merit Network and statistics were collected by Cornell University. Incidentally, Ed Krol also authored the Hitchhikers Guide to the Internet to help users of the NSFNET understand its capabilities, the Hitchhikers Guide became one of the first help manuals for the Internet. As regional networks grew the 56 kbit/s NSFNET backbone experienced rapid increases in network traffic, in June 1987 NSF issued a new solicitation to upgrade and expand NSFNET.5 Mbit/s by July 1988. The backbone nodes used routers based on a collection of nine IBM RT systems running AOS, under its cooperative agreement with NSF the Merit Network was the lead organization in a partnership that included IBM, MCI, and the State of Michigan. Merit provided overall coordination, network design and engineering, a Network Operations Center. IBM provided equipment, software development, installation, maintenance and operations support, MCI provided the T-1 data circuits at reduced rates. The state of Michigan provided funding for facilities and personnel, eric M. Aupperle, Merits President, was the NSFNET Project Director, and Hans-Werner Braun was Co-Principal Investigator. The NSFNET became the principal Internet backbone starting in the Summer of 1986, when MIDnet, three new nodes were added as part of the upgrade to T-3, NEARNET in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Argone National Laboratory outside of Chicago, and SURAnet in Atlanta, Georgia. NSFNET connected to federal government networks including the NASA Science Internet, the Energy Science Network. Two Federal Internet Exchanges were established in June 1989 under the auspices of the Federal Engineering Planning Group, FIX East, at the University of Maryland in College Park and FIX West, at the NASA Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California. The existence of NSFNET and the FIXes allowed the ARPANET to be phased out in mid-1990, starting in August 1990 the NSFNET backbone supported the OSI Connectionless Network Protocol in addition to TCP/IP. However, CLNP usage remained low compared to TCP/IP. Traffic on the network continued its growth, doubling every seven months. Projections indicated that the T-1 backbone would become overloaded sometime in 1990, a critical routing technology, Border Gateway Protocol, originated during this period of Internet history. BGP allowed routers on the NSFNET backbone to differentiate routes originally learned via multiple paths, prior to BGP, interconnection between IP network was inherently hierarchical, and careful planning was needed to avoid routing loops. BGP turned the Internet into a topology, moving away from the centric architecture which the ARPANET emphasized
12.
Sprint Corporation
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Sprint Corporation, commonly referred to as Sprint, is an American telecommunications holding company that provides wireless services and is an internet service provider. It is the fourth largest mobile operator in the United States. The company is headquartered in Overland Park, Kansas, Sprint traces its origins to the Brown Telephone Company, which was founded in 1899 to deploy telephone service to the rural area around Abilene, Kansas. In 2006, Sprint exited the local telephone business, spinning those assets off into a newly created company named Embarq. The company continues to be one of the largest long distance providers in the United States, prior to 2005, the company was also known as the Sprint Corporation, but took the name Sprint Nextel Corporation when it merged with Nextel Communications that year. In 2013, following the shutdown of the Nextel network and concurrent with the acquisition by SoftBank, in July 2013, as part of the SoftBank transactions, Sprint acquired the remaining shares of wireless broadband carrier Clearwire Corporation which it did not already own. On August 6,2014, it was announced that CEO Dan Hesse would be replaced by Marcelo Claure, Claure is the founder and former CEO of wireless supplier Brightstar. Sprint Corporation traces its origins to the Brown Telephone Company, which was founded in 1899 by Cleyson Brown and Jacob Brown to deploy telephone service to the area around Abilene. The Browns installed their first long-distance circuit in 1900 and chartered their own company in October 1902, in March 1903, they joined with 14 other Kansas independents to incorporate the Union Telephone and Telegraph Company, which would provide long-distance service to Kansas City. Brown formed United Telephone and Electric in 1925 in order to stock in subsidiary companies across widely scattered geographical areas. Browns UT&E eventually controlled more than 68 other companies, more than two-thirds of which were telephone companies, the Great Depression caused more than three million telephone subscribers to give up their phone service between 1931 and 1933. Consequently, UT&E suffered severe financial strain and had to seek protection to reorganize under bankruptcy laws, all but six of UT&Es 85 companies survived, with some showing profits again in 1936. During the reorganization, a number of companies were merged and later phased out, the reorganization plan received final approval in late 1937. UT&E was dissolved, and its assets were placed in a newly formed company, United Utilities, Incorporated, when Paul H. Henson became president of United Utilities in 1964, he almost immediately reorganized the company in accordance with C. L. Brown’s belief that some of the company’s functions would result in greater efficiency, cost reductions. In 1972, United Utilities changed its name to United Telecommunications, in 1980, United Telecom launched a national X.25 data service, Uninet. To enter the long-distance voice market, United Telecom acquired ISACOMM in 1981, in 1983, United Telecom began offering cellular telephone services in their territories under the brand name Telespectrum. Southern Pacific Communications Company, a unit of the Southern Pacific Railroad, SPC was headquartered on Adrian Court in Burlingame, California, where Sprint still maintains its Sprint Applied Research & Advanced Technology Labs
13.
Infrastructure
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Infrastructure refers to the fundamental facilities and systems serving a country, city, or area, including the services and facilities necessary for its economy to function. The word was imported from French, where it means subgrade, the word is a combination of the Latin prefix infra, meaning below, and structure. The military use of the term achieved currency in the United States after the formation of NATO in the 1940s and this crisis discussion contributed to an increase in infrastructure asset management and maintenance planning in the US. Public-policy discussions have been hampered by lack of a definition for infrastructure. A1987 US National Research Council panel adopted the public works infrastructure. The OECD also classifies communications as a part of infrastructure, the American Society of Civil Engineers has not defined the term, though issuing a US Infrastructure Report Card every 2-4 years. Hard infrastructure refers to the physical networks necessary for the functioning of an industrial nation. The term critical infrastructure distinguishes those infrastructure elements that, if damaged or destroyed. Similarly, a booking system might be critical infrastructure for an airline. These elements of infrastructure are the focus of efforts in the aftermath of natural disasters. The term infrastructure may be confused with the following overlapping or related concepts, service connections to municipal service and public utility networks would also be considered land improvements, not infrastructure. The term public works includes government-owned and operated infrastructure as well as buildings, such as schools. Public works generally refers to physical assets needed to deliver public services, public services include both infrastructure and services generally provided by government. Infrastructure may be owned and managed by governments or by private companies, generally, most roads, major ports and airports, water distribution systems and sewage networks are publicly owned, whereas most energy and telecommunications networks are privately owned. Publicly owned infrastructure may be paid for taxes, tolls, or metered user fees. Major investment projects are financed by the issuance of long-term bonds. Government owned and operated infrastructure may be developed and operated in the sector or in public-private partnerships. As of 2008 in the United States for example, public spending on infrastructure has varied between 2. 3% and 3. 6% of GDP since 1950, many financial institutions invest in infrastructure
14.
Pew Research Center
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The Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan American fact tank, which is based in Washington, D. C. It provides information on issues, public opinion, and demographic trends shaping the United States. It also conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis, Pew Research Center does not take explicit policy positions, and is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. In 1990 the Times Mirror Company founded the Times Mirror Center for the People & the Press as a project, tasked with conducting polls on politics. Andrew Kohut became its director in 1993, and The Pew Charitable Trusts became its sponsor in 1996. In 2004, the trust established the Pew Research Center in Washington, in 2013, Kohut stepped down as president and became founding director, and Alan Murray became the second president of the center. In October 2014, Michael Dimock, a 14-year veteran of the Pew Research Center, was named president, the Pew Research Center is a nonprofit, tax-exempt 501 organization and a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts, its primary funder. Some projects are funded by the Evangelical Protestant John Templeton Foundation, the Centers research is divided into seven areas. Politics & Policy Journalism & Media Internet, Science & Tech Religion & Public Life Hispanic Trends Global Attitudes & Trends Social & Demographic Trends Official website The Pew Charitable Trusts
15.
Federal Communications Commission
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The FCC works towards six goals in the areas of broadband, competition, the spectrum, the media, public safety and homeland security, and modernizing itself. The FCC was formed by the Communications Act of 1934 to replace the radio regulation functions of the Federal Radio Commission, the FCC took over wire communication regulation from the Interstate Commerce Commission. The FCCs mandated jurisdiction covers the 50 states, the District of Columbia, the FCC also provides varied degrees of cooperation, oversight, and leadership for similar communications bodies in other countries of North America. The FCC is funded entirely by regulatory fees and it has an estimated fiscal-2016 budget of US$388 million. Consistent with the objectives of the Act as well as the 1993 Government Performance and Results Act and these are, Broadband All Americans should have affordable access to robust and reliable broadband products and services. Competition Competition in the provision of services, both domestically and overseas, supports the Nations economy. The competitive framework for communications services should foster innovation and offer consumers reliable, Media The Nations media regulations must promote competition and diversity and facilitate the transition to digital modes of delivery. Public Safety and Homeland Security Communications during emergencies and crisis must be available for public safety, health, defense, the Nations critical communications infrastructure must be reliable, interoperable, redundant, and rapidly restorable. The FCC is directed by five appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate for five-year terms. The U. S. President designates one of the commissioners to serve as chairman, only three commissioners may be members of the same political party. None of them may have a financial interest in any FCC-related business, importantly, commissioners may continue serving until the appointment of their replacements, but may not serve beyond the end of the next session of Congress following term expiration. In practice, as of 2016 this means that commissioners may serve up to 1 1/2 years beyond the term expiration dates listed above if no replacement is appointed. The Consumer & Governmental Affairs Bureau develops and implements the FCCs consumer policies, CGB serves as the public face of the FCC through outreach and education, as well as through their Consumer Center, which is responsible for responding to consumer inquiries and complaints. CGB also maintains partnerships with state, local, and tribal governments in such areas as emergency preparedness. The Enforcement Bureau is responsible for enforcement of provisions of the Communications Act 1934, FCC rules, FCC orders, major areas of enforcement that are handled by the Enforcement Bureau are consumer protection, local competition, public safety, and homeland security. S. The International Bureau also oversees FCC compliance with the international Radio Regulations, the Media Bureau also handles post-licensing matters regarding direct broadcast satellite service. The Wireless Telecommunications Bureau regulates domestic wireless telecommunications programs and policies, the Wireline Competition Bureau develops policy concerning wire line telecommunications. The Wireline Competition Bureaus main objective is to promote growth and economical investments in technology infrastructure, development, markets
16.
Digital subscriber line
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Digital subscriber line is a family of technologies that are used to transmit digital data over telephone lines. In telecommunications marketing, the term DSL is widely understood to mean asymmetric digital subscriber line, DSL service can be delivered simultaneously with wired telephone service on the same telephone line. This is possible because DSL uses higher frequency bands for data, on the customer premises, a DSL filter on each non-DSL outlet blocks any high-frequency interference to enable simultaneous use of the voice and DSL services. Bit rates of 1 Gbit/s have been reached in trials, in ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction is lower, hence the designation of asymmetric service. In symmetric digital subscriber line services, the downstream and upstream data rates are equal, researchers at Bell Labs have reached speeds of 10 Gbit/s, while delivering 1 Gbit/s symmetrical broadband access services using traditional copper telephone lines. These higher speeds are lab results, however, a 2012 survey found that DSL continues to be the dominant technology for broadband access with 364.1 million subscribers worldwide. For a long time it was thought that it was not possible to operate a conventional phone-line beyond low-speed limits, in the 1950s, ordinary twisted-pair telephone-cable often carried four megahertz television signals between studios, suggesting that such lines would allow transmitting many megabits per second. One such circuit in the UK ran some ten miles between the BBC studios in Newcastle-upon-Tyne and the Pontop Pike transmitting station and it was able to give the studios a low quality cue feed but not one suitable for transmission. However, these cables had other impairments besides Gaussian noise, preventing such rates from becoming practical in the field, the 1980s saw the development of techniques for broadband communications that allowed the limit to be greatly extended. A patent was filed in 1979 for the use of existing telephone wires for both telephones and data terminals that were connected to a computer via a digital data carrier system. Joseph W. Lechleiders contribution to DSL was his insight that an asymmetric arrangement offered more than double the capacity of symmetric DSL. ADSL supports two modes of transport—fast channel and interleaved channel, fast channel is preferred for streaming multimedia, where an occasional dropped bit is acceptable, but lags are less so. Interleaved channel works better for file transfers, where the data must be error-free. Older ADSL standards delivered 8 Mbit/s to the customer over about 2 km of unshielded twisted-pair copper wire, distances greater than 2 km significantly reduce the bandwidth usable on the wires, thus reducing the data rate. But ADSL loop extenders increase these distances by repeating the signal, until the late 1990s, the cost of digital signal processors for DSL was prohibitive. All types of DSL employ highly complex digital signal processing algorithms to overcome the inherent limitations of the twisted pair wires. Due to the advancements of very-large-scale integration technology, the cost of the equipment associated with a DSL deployment lowered significantly, the two main pieces of equipment are a digital subscriber line access multiplexer at one end and a DSL modem at the other end. A DSL connection can be deployed over existing cable, such deployment, even including equipment, is much cheaper than installing a new, high-bandwidth fiber-optic cable over the same route and distance
17.
Satellite Internet access
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Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through communications satellites. Following the launch of the first satellite, Sputnik 1, by the Soviet Union in October 1957, the first commercial communications satellite was Telstar 1, built by Bell Labs and launched in July 1962. Clarke in a paper in Wireless World in 1945, the first satellite to successfully reach geostationary orbit was Syncom3, built by Hughes Aircraft for NASA and launched August 19,1963. Following the invention of the Internet and the World Wide Web, a significant enabler of satellite-delivered Internet has been the opening up of the Ka band for satellites. In December 1993, Hughes Aircraft Co. filed with the Federal Communications Commission for a license to launch the first Ka-band satellite, in 1995, the FCC issued a call for more Ka-band satellite applications, attracting applications from 15 companies. Among those were EchoStar, Lockheed Martin, GE-Americom, Motorola and KaStar Satellite, the project was abandoned in 2003. It wasn’t until September 2003 when the first Internet-ready satellite for consumers was launched by Eutelsat, in 2004, with the launch of Anik F2, the first high throughput satellite, a class of next-generation satellites providing improved capacity and bandwidth became operational. Internet access services tied to these satellites are targeted largely to rural residents as an alternative to Internet service via dial-up, companies providing home internet service include ViaSat, through its Exede brand, and EchoStar, through subsidiary HughesNet. With this configuration, the number of remote VSATs that can be connected to the hub is virtually limitless, marketed as the center of the new broadband satellite networks are a new generation of high-powered GEO satellites positioned 35,786 kilometres above the equator, operating in Ka-band mode. This spot beam technology allows satellites to reuse assigned bandwidth multiple times which can enable them to much higher overall capacity than conventional broad beam satellites. The spot beams can also increase performance and consequential capacity by focusing more power, note that moving off the tight footprint of a spotbeam can degrade performance significantly. Also, spotbeams can make impossible the use of significant new technologies including Carrier in Carrier modulation. The term bent-pipe is used to describe the shape of the path between sending and receiving antennas, with the satellite positioned at the point of the bend. Simply put, the role in this network arrangement is to relay signals from the end users terminal to the ISPs gateways. The satellite receives, amplifies, and redirects a carrier on a radio frequency through a signal path called a transponder. The satellite has its own set of antennas to receive signals from Earth. These antennas and transponders are part of the payload, which is designed to receive and transmit signals to. The satellites high-gain receiving antenna passes the data to the transponder which filters, translates and amplifies them
18.
Fiber to the x
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Fiber to the x is a generic term for any broadband network architecture using optical fiber to provide all or part of the local loop used for last mile telecommunications. As fiber optic cables are able to much more data than copper cables, especially over long distances. FTTX is a generalization for several configurations of fibre deployment, arranged into two groups, FTTP/FTTH/FTTB and FTTC/N, the telecommunications industry differentiates between several distinct FTTX configurations. The terms in most widespread use today are, FTTP, This term is used either as a term for both FTTH and FTTB, or where the fiber network includes both homes and small businesses. FTTH, Fiber reaches the boundary of the space, such as a box on the outside wall of a home. Passive optical networks and point-to-point Ethernet are architectures that deliver services over FTTH networks directly from an operators central office. FTTD, Fiber connection is installed from the computer room to a terminal or fiber media converter near the users desk. FTTO, Fiber connection is installed from the main computer room/core switch to a special mini-switch located at the user´s workstation or service points and this mini-switch provides Ethernet services to end user devices via standard twisted pair patch cords. The switches are located all over the building, but managed from one central point. FTTE and FTTZ are not considered part of the FTTX group of technologies, FTTF This is very similar to FTTB. In a fiber to the front yard scenario, each fiber node serves a single subscriber and this allows for multi-gigabit speeds using XG-fast technology. The fiber node may be reverse-powered by the subscriber modem, FTTN is often an interim step toward full FTTH and is typically used to deliver advanced triple-play telecommunications services. FTTC is occasionally ambiguously called FTTP, leading to confusion with the distinct fiber-to-the-premises system, the FTTH Councils do not have formal definitions for FTTC and FTTN. While fiber optic cables can carry data at speeds over long distances, copper cables used in traditional telephone lines. For example, the form of gigabit Ethernet runs over relatively economical category 5e, category 6 or augmented category 6 unshielded twisted-pair copper cabling. However,1 Gbit/s ethernet over fiber can easily reach tens of kilometres, therefore, FTTP has been selected by every major communications provider in the world to carry data over long 1 Gbit/s symmetrical connections directly to consumer homes. FTTP configurations that bring fiber directly into the building can offer the highest speeds since the segments can use standard ethernet or coaxial cable. Google Fiber provides speed of 1 Gbit/s, still, the type and length of employed fibers chosen, e. g. multimode vs. single-mode, are critical for applicability for future connections of over 1 Gbit/s
19.
Reverse proxy
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In computer networks, a reverse proxy is a type of proxy server that retrieves resources on behalf of a client from one or more servers. These resources are then returned to the client like they originated from the server itself. Contrary to a proxy, which is an intermediary for its associated clients to contact any server. Quite often, popular web servers utilize reverse-proxying functionality, shielding application frameworks of weaker HTTP capabilities, reverse proxies can hide the existence and characteristics of an origin server or servers. Application firewall features can protect against common web-based attacks, like DoS or DDoS, without a reverse proxy, removing malware or initiating takedowns, for example, can become difficult. In the case of secure websites, a web server may not perform SSL encryption itself, a reverse proxy can distribute the load from incoming requests to several servers, with each server serving its own application area. A reverse proxy can reduce load on its origin servers by caching static content, as well as dynamic content - synonym, proxy caches of this sort can often satisfy a considerable number of website requests, greatly reducing the load on the origin server. A reverse proxy can optimize content by compressing it in order to speed up loading times. In a technique named spoon-feed a dynamically generated page can be produced all at once and served to the reverse-proxy, the program that generates the page need not remain open, thus releasing server resources during the possibly extended time the client requires to complete the transfer. Reverse proxies can operate wherever multiple web-servers must be accessible via a single public IP address, the web servers listen on different ports in the same machine, with the same local IP address or, possibly, on different machines and different local IP addresses altogether. The reverse proxy analyzes each incoming request and delivers it to the server within the local area network. Reverse proxies can perform A/B testing and multivariate testing without placing JavaScript tags or code into pages, commercial or enterprise level out-of-box solutions exist and can have an agent installed on user systems to ensure a constant connection to a cloud proxy / reverse proxy server also a SaaS solution. An example of this is McAfee Web Protection Gateway - SaaS solution, a reverse proxy can add basic HTTP access authentication to a web server that does not have any authentication
20.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
21.
Communications protocol
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These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both, Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has a meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses pre-determined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is independent of how it is to be implemented. Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved, to reach agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication, a group of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite, when implemented in software they are a protocol stack. Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communication, the ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the PSTN. As the PSTN and Internet converge, the two sets of standards are also being driven towards convergence, the nature of a communication, the actual data exchanged and any state-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by algorithms, expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language makes the protocol software operating-system independent. Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate each other. This communication is governed by protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems, to implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machines operating system. This framework implements the functionality of the operating system. The best known frameworks are the TCP/IP model and the OSI model and this gave rise to the concept of layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design. Systems typically do not use a protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a family or protocol suite. Some of the best known protocol suites are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, X.25, AX.25, the protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance there is a group of transport protocols
22.
Noise (electronics)
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In electronics, noise is a random fluctuation in an electrical signal, a characteristic of all electronic circuits. Noise generated by electronic devices varies greatly as it is produced by different effects. In communication systems, noise is an error or undesired random disturbance of an information signal. The noise is a summation of unwanted or disturbing energy from natural, Noise is, however, typically distinguished from interference, for example in the signal-to-noise ratio, signal-to-interference ratio and signal-to-noise plus interference ratio measures. While noise is generally unwanted, it can serve a purpose in some applications. Johnson–Nyquist noise is unavoidable, and generated by the thermal motion of charge carriers, inside an electrical conductor. Thermal noise is white, meaning that its power spectral density is nearly equal throughout the frequency spectrum. The amplitude of the signal has very nearly a Gaussian probability density function, a communication system affected by thermal noise is often modeled as an additive white Gaussian noise channel. If electrons flow across a barrier, then they have discrete arrival times and those discrete arrivals exhibit shot noise. The output of a noise generator is easily set by the current. Typically, the barrier in a diode is used, shot noise in electronic devices results from unavoidable random statistical fluctuations of the electric current when the charge carriers traverse a gap. The current is a flow of charges, and the fluctuation in the arrivals of those charges creates shot noise. Shot noise is similar to the created by rain falling on a tin roof. The flow of rain may be constant, but the raindrops arrive discretely. The shot noise assumes independent arrivals, vacuum tubes have shot noise because the electrons randomly leave the cathode and arrive at the anode. A tube may not exhibit the full shot noise effect, the presence of a space charge tends to smooth out the arrival times. Conductors and resistors typically do not exhibit shot noise because the electrons thermalize and move diffusively within the material, shot noise has been demonstrated in mesoscopic resistors when the size of the resistive element becomes shorter than the electron-phonon scattering length. Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, is a signal or process with a spectrum that falls off steadily into the higher frequencies
23.
Loading coil
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A loading coil or load coil is an inductor that is inserted into an electronic circuit to increase its inductance. A loading coil is not a transformer as it does not provide coupling to another circuit, the term originated in the 19th century for inductors used to prevent signal distortion in long-distance telegraph transmission cables. The term is used for inductors in radio antennas, or between the antenna and its feedline, to make an electrically short antenna resonant at its operating frequency. The concept of loading coils was discovered by Oliver Heaviside in studying the problem of slow signalling speed of the first transatlantic cable in the 1860s. He concluded additional inductance was required to prevent amplitude and time delay distortion of the transmitted signal, the mathematical condition for distortion-free transmission is known as the Heaviside condition. Previous telegraph lines were overland or shorter and hence had less delay, Loading coils are historically also known as Pupin coils after Mihajlo Pupin, especially when used for the Heaviside condition and the process of inserting them is sometimes called pupinization. A common application of loading coils is to improve the voice-frequency amplitude response characteristics of the twisted balanced pairs in a telephone cable, because twisted pair is a balanced format, half the loading coil must be inserted in each leg of the pair to maintain the balance. It is common for both these windings to be formed on the same core and this increases the flux linkages, without which the number of turns on the coil would need to be increased. Above the cutoff frequency, attenuation increases rapidly, the shorter the distance between the coils, the higher the cut-off frequency. It should be emphasised that the effect is an artifact of using lumped inductors. With loading methods using continuous distributed inductance there is no cutoff, without loading coils, the line response is dominated by the resistance and capacitance of the line with the attenuation gently increasing with frequency. The coincidental formation of a frequency filter is also beneficial in that noise is reduced. When loading coils are in place, signal attenuation remains low for signals within the passband of the transmission line, using coils with parallel capacitors will form a filter with the topology of an m-derived filter and a band of frequencies above the cut-off will also be passed. If the coils are not removed, and the subscriber is a distance from the Central Office. This sometimes happens in dense, growing such as Southern California in the late 1990s. American early and middle 20th century telephone cables had load coils at intervals of a mile, due to narrower streets and higher cost of copper, European cables had thinner wires and used closer spacing. Intervals of a kilometer allowed European systems to carry 2 Mbit/s, another type of loading coil is used in radio antennas. To be resonant, the antenna must have a length of one quarter of the wavelength of the radio waves used
24.
Electric fence
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An electric fence is a barrier that uses electric shocks to deter animals from crossing a boundary. The voltage of the shock may have effects ranging from discomfort to death, Electric fences are designed to create an electrical circuit when touched by a person or animal. A component called a power energizer converts power into a high voltage pulse. One terminal of the power energizer releases an electrical pulse along a connected bare wire about once per second, another terminal is connected to a metal rod implanted in the earth, called a ground or earth rod. A person or animal touching both the wire and the earth during a pulse will complete a circuit and will conduct the pulse. Early alternating current fence chargers used a transformer and a mechanically driven switch to generate the electrical pulses, the pulses were wide and the voltage unpredictable, with no-load peaks in excess of 10,000 volts and a rapid drop in voltage as the fence leakage increased. The switch mechanism was prone to failure, later systems replaced the switch with a solid-state circuit, with an improvement in longevity but no change in pulse width or voltage control. Weed burner fence chargers were popular for a time and featured an output pulse that would destroy weeds touching the fence. These were responsible for many grass fires when used during dry weather, although still available, they have declined in popularity. The power consumption of a fence in good condition is low, for shorter periods dry cell batteries may be used. Some energizers can be powered by more than one source, smooth steel wire is the material most often used for electric fences, ranging from a fine thin wire used as a single line to thicker, high-tensile wire. Less often, woven wire or barbed wire fences can be electrified, though such practices create a more hazardous fence, the electrified fence itself must be kept insulated from the earth and from any materials that will conduct electricity and ignite or short out the fence. Fencing must therefore avoid vegetation, and cannot be attached directly to wood or metal posts, typically, wooden or metal posts are driven into the ground and plastic or porcelain insulators are attached to them, or plastic posts are used. The conducting material is attached to the posts. Electrified palisade fences are made from painted mild steel, galvanized steel. Typically the fences are 2.4 metres, the palisade fence is mechanically stronger than a typical steel cable electric fence to withstand impact from wildlife, small falling trees and wildfires. Published in 1870, Chapter 22 of Jules Vernes 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, describes, published in 1889, Mark Twains novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court, uses an electric fence for defensive purposes. David H. Wilson obtained United States Patent 343,939 in 1886, combining protection, an alarm bell and he constructed an experimental 30-mile electric fence energized by a water wheel in Texas in 1888, but it was not successful
25.
Digital loop carrier
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A digital loop carrier is a system which uses digital transmission to extend the range of the local loop farther than would be possible using only twisted pair copper wires. A DLC digitizes and multiplexes the individual signals carried by the local loops onto a single datastream on the DLC segment, subscriber Loop Carrier systems address a number of problems, Electrical constraints on long loops. When the subscriber goes off-hook, a cable pair behaves like a single loop inductance coil with a -48 V dc potential, Electric current values vary with cable length and gauge. A minimum current of around 20 mA dc is required to convey terminal signalling information to the network, there is also a minimum power level required to provide adequate volume for the voice signal. A variety of schemes were implemented before DLC technology to offset the impedance long loops offered to signalling and they included the following, Use heavy-gauge conductors – Up to 19 gauge, which is costly and bulky. The heavy-gauge cables yielded far fewer pairs per cable and led to congestion in cable routes, especially in bridge crossings. Increase battery voltage – This violation of operating standards could pose a safety hazard, add amplifiers to power the voice signal on long loops. This however, requires volumes of auxiliary equipment, a number of cross wiring points. Add signal regeneration and signal extension equipment – The comments regarding amplifiers apply here as well, add loading coils to reduce the attenuation of voice signals over long loops. These have detrimental effect to new transmission technologies using the loop, like DSL. DLC eliminates the need for these remedies by extending out closer to the customer the line card which digitises the voice signal for use by the PSTN. Once the voice signal is digitised, it is manipulated and is no longer subject to the vagaries of the analog loop caused by distance, impedance, attenuation. The DLC solution was dubbed pair gain, a fibre optic cable or several copper pairs for the whole system from the CO to the DLC remote terminal replace the individual pair previously needed for each loop. DLC remote terminals are typically stored in Serving Area Interfaces–metal cabinets alongside or near roadways that overlie communications rights-of-ways, fibre in the loop systems are functionally equivalent to DLC. FITL accomplishes the same two primary functions DLC was intended for, pair gain and the elimination of electrical constraints due to long metallic loops. FITL architectures vary from simply deploying fibre feeder plants to fibre to the curb and, ultimately fibre to the home where an optical network unit is located at each home
26.
Videotelephony
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Videotelephony comprises the technologies for the reception and transmission of audio-video signals by users at different locations, for communication between people in real-time. A videophone is a telephone with a display, capable of simultaneous video. Videoconferencing implies the use of technology for a group or organizational meeting rather than for individuals. Telepresence may refer either to a high-quality videotelephony system or to meetup technology which goes beyond video into robotics, Videoconferencing has also been called visual collaboration and is a type of groupware. It is also used in commercial and corporate settings to facilitate meetings and conferences, Simple analog videophone communication could be established as early as the invention of the television. Such an antecedent usually consisted of two closed-circuit television systems connected via cable or radio. An example of that was the German Reich Postzentralamt video telephone network serving Berlin, the development of the crucial video technology first started in the latter half of the 1920s in the United Kingdom and the United States, spurred notably by John Logie Baird and AT&Ts Bell Labs. This occurred in part, at least with AT&T, to serve as an adjunct supplementing the use of the telephone, a number of organizations believed that videotelephony would be superior to plain voice communications. However video technology was to be deployed in analog television broadcasting long before it could become practical—or popular—for videophones, during the first manned space flights, NASA used two radio-frequency video links, one in each direction. TV channels routinely use this type of videotelephony when reporting from distant locations, the news media were to become regular users of mobile links to satellites using specially equipped trucks, and much later via special satellite videophones in a briefcase. This technique was very expensive, though, and could not be used for such as telemedicine, distance education. Videotelephony developed in parallel with conventional voice telephone systems from the mid-to-late 20th century, Only in the late 20th century with the advent of powerful video codecs combined with high-speed Internet broadband and ISDN service did videotelephony become a practical technology for regular use. In the 1980s, digital telephony transmission networks became possible, such as with ISDN networks, assuring a bit rate for compressed video. During this time, there was research into other forms of digital video. Many of these technologies, such as the Media space, are not as used today as videoconferencing but were still an important area of research. The first dedicated systems started to appear in the market as ISDN networks were expanding throughout the world, one of the first commercial videoconferencing systems sold to companies came from PictureTel Corp. which had an Initial Public Offering in November,1984. The company also secured a patent for a codec for full-motion videoconferencing, in 1992 CU-SeeMe was developed at Cornell by Tim Dorcey et al. In 1995 the first public videoconference between North America and Africa took place, linking a technofair in San Francisco with a techno-rave and cyberdeli in Cape Town
27.
Streaming media
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Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while being delivered by a provider. A client end-user can use their player to begin to play the data file before the entire file has been transmitted. For example, in the 1930s, elevator music was among the earliest popularly available streaming media, the term streaming media can apply to media other than video and audio such as live closed captioning, ticker tape, and real-time text, which are all considered streaming text. As of 2017, streaming is generally taken to refer to cases where a user watches digital video content or listens to audio content on a computer screen. With streaming content, the user does not have to download the digital video or digital audio file before they start to watch/listen to it. There are challenges with streaming content on the Internet, as of 2016, two popular streaming services are the video sharing website YouTube, which contains video and audio files on a huge range of topics and Netflix, which streams movies and TV shows. Live streaming refers to Internet content delivered in real-time, as events happen, Live internet streaming requires a form of source media, an encoder to digitize the content, a media publisher, and a content delivery network to distribute and deliver the content. Live streaming does not need to be recorded at the origination point, in the early 1920s, George O. Attempts to display media on computers date back to the earliest days of computing in the mid-20th century, however, little progress was made for several decades, primarily due to the high cost and limited capabilities of computer hardware. From the late 1980s through the 1990s, consumer-grade personal computers became powerful enough to various media. These technological improvement facilitated the streaming of audio and video content to users in their homes and workplaces. The band Severe Tire Damage was the first group to live on the Internet. On June 24,1993, the band was playing a gig at Xerox PARC while elsewhere in the building, as proof of PARCs technology, the bands performance was broadcast and could be seen live in Australia and elsewhere. Microsoft Research developed a Microsoft TV application which was compiled under MS Windows Studio Suite, realNetworks was also a pioneer in the streaming media markets, when it broadcast a baseball game between the New York Yankees and the Seattle Mariners over the Internet in 1995. The first symphonic concert on the Internet took place at the Paramount Theater in Seattle, the concert was a collaboration between The Seattle Symphony and various guest musicians such as Slash, Matt Cameron, and Barrett Martin. When Word Magazine launched in 1995, they featured the first-ever streaming soundtracks on the Internet.4 in 1999, in June 1999 Apple also introduced a streaming media format in its QuickTime 4 application. It was later widely adopted on websites along with RealPlayer. In 2000 Industryview. com launched its worlds largest streaming video archive website to help promote themselves
28.
EverQuest
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EverQuest is a 3D fantasy-themed massively multiplayer online role-playing game released on March 16,1999. It was the commercially viable MMORPG to be released, after Ultima Online. EverQuest has had a influence on subsequent releases within the market. The game surpassed early expectations and grew for many years after its release. It has received awards, including 1999 GameSpot Game of the Year, EverQuest began as a concept by John Smedley in 1996. The original design is credited to Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover and it was developed by Sonys 989 Studios and its early-1999 spin-off Verant Interactive, and published by Sony Online Entertainment. Since its acquisition of Verant in late 1999, EverQuest was developed by Sony Online Entertainment, famed book cover illustrator Keith Parkinson created the box covers for earlier installments of EverQuest. To implement the design, Smedley hired programmers Brad McQuaid and Steve Clover, EverQuest launched with modest expectations from Sony on 16 March 1999 under its Verant Interactive brand and quickly became successful. By the end of the year, it had surpassed competitor Ultima Online in number of subscriptions, numbers continued rising rapidly until mid-2001 when growth slowed. Sonys last reported subscription numbers were given as more than 430,000 players on 14 January 2004, EverQuest initially launched with volunteer Guides who would act as basic customer service/support via petitions. Issues could be forwarded to the Game Master assigned to the server or resolved by the volunteer, other guides would serve in administrative functions within the program or assisting the Quest Troupe with dynamic and persistent live events throughout the individual servers. Volunteers were compensated with free subscription and expansions to the game, many of the original EverQuest team, including Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover and Geoffrey Zatkin left SOE by 2002. However, the same points at a sharp decline after mid-2005. The first four expansions were released in traditional physical boxes at roughly one-year intervals and these were highly ambitious and offered huge new landmasses, new playable races and new classes. The Shadows of Luclin expansion gave a significant facelift to player character models, however, non-player characters which do not correspond to any playable race-gender-class combination were not updated, leading to the coexistence of 1999-era and 2001-era graphics in many locations. The Planes of Power expansion introduced The Plane of Knowledge, a hub zone from which players could quickly teleport to other destinations. This made the roads and ships largely redundant, and long-distance overland travel is now virtually unheard of. In the following year the game also moved beyond the PC market with a Mac OS X version, in 2003 experiments began with digital distribution of expansions, starting with the Legacy of Ykesha
29.
Red Faction
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Red Faction is a series of science fiction shooter video games developed by Volition, Inc. and is currently owned by THQ Nordic. Originating in 2001, the Red Faction games have spanned Microsoft Windows, macOS and many consoles, including the PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, PlayStation 3, the Red Faction series has been heavy on its thematic undertones throughout the games. One of the more outstanding themes of the series is a revolutionary socialist undertone, from the miners rebellion featured in Red Faction and Red Faction, Guerrilla, to the overthrown monarchy of Red Faction II, this has been a central theme since the games inception in 2001. The first two games were traditional first person shooters with unique environmental features that were praised in both games. The games include vehicles, pistols, rifles, explosives, and other traditional shooter weapons, while the first two games did not re-invent the first person shooter, their Geo-mod Engine and rebellious story made both games a new step for the genre. Rather than the traditional first person style of the first two games, both Guerrilla and Armageddon utilize a third person style of gameplay. Guerrilla takes place in an Open world environment on the planet of Mars allowing players to roam across the environment. Armageddon is a linear experience, largely moving through corridors. In the games, all environments are fully destructible which means every single building in the game can be destroyed. Players are usually equipped with four weapons, the weapon is a Sledgehammer with three more weapons of the players choice. Purchasable weapons include an Arc Rifle, Grinder, Rocket Launcher, Proximity Mines, players go around completing missions for the Red Faction and perform Guerilla actions to liberate various sectors of Mars from the control of the Earth Defense Force. In each game for the series, an engine called Geo-Mod, the Geo-Mod engine enables the player to destroy parts of the walls, floors, and other features of the levels in an non-predefined manner using various explosive weapons. Geo-Mod was updated to version 2.5 within Red Faction, Armageddon, though Volition had planned to include Geo-Mod in Saints Row, The Third, it did not make it into the final game. Red Faction is the first game in the Red Faction franchise that was released in mid-2001. Red Faction was also the first game to run on the Geo-Mod engine that allowed for unparalleled environmental destruction, the game takes place on Mars in the year 2075. The protagonist, Parker, is a miner who came to Mars seeking a life away from Earth. Instead, he finds that the Ultor Corporation abuses the workers, a plague of an unknown origin sweeps through the colony, but Ultor does nothing to halt its propagation or to provide for the sick. Red Faction II is the sequel to Red Faction, the game was released in October 2002 for the PlayStation 2, and early 2003 for other platforms
30.
Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos
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Warcraft III, Reign of Chaos is a high fantasy real-time strategy video game developed and published by Blizzard Entertainment, and was released in July 2002. It is the sequel to Warcraft, Orcs & Humans. An expansion pack, The Frozen Throne, was released in July 2003, Warcraft IIIs single-player campaign is laid out similarly to that of StarCraft, also by Blizzard Entertainment, being told through all four of the games races in a progressive manner. Multiplayer mode allows for play against other players, via the Internet, the game shipped 4.5 million units to retail stores and over one million units sold within a month. Warcraft III won many awards including Game of the Year from more than six different publications, Warcraft III takes place on a map of varying size, such as large plains and fields, with terrain features like rivers, mountains, seas, or cliffs. In Campaign mode, the map is covered with the Black Mask. During a game, players must establish settlements to gain resources, defend against other players, there are three main resources that are managed in Warcraft III, gold, lumber, and food. The first two are required to construct units and buildings, while food restricts the number of units the player may control at one time. The game also introduces creeps, computer controlled units that are hostile to all players, creeps guard key areas such as gold mines or neutral buildings and, when killed, provide experience points, gold, and special items to a players hero. Warcraft III also introduced a cycle to the series. Besides having advantages or disadvantages for certain races, at night most creeps fall asleep, making nighttime scouting safer, however, other minor changes to the gameplay were due to the 3D terrain. For instance, units on a cliff have a bonus when attacking units at lower elevations. In previous Warcraft games, there were two races, Orcs and Humans. In Warcraft III, the Night Elves and the Undead are added as playable races, as in StarCraft, each race has a unique set of units, structures, technologies, and base-building methodology. In addition, Warcraft III adds powerful new units called heroes, for each enemy unit killed, a hero will gain experience points, which allow the hero to level-up to a maximum level of 10. Progressing up a level increases the attributes and also allows the hero to gain new spell options. Certain hero abilities can apply beneficial auras to allied units, all heroes can equip items to increase skills, defense, and other abilities. At level six, the hero can obtain an ultimate skill that is more powerful than the three other spells that the hero possesses
31.
Final Fantasy XI
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Final Fantasy XI, also known as Final Fantasy XI Online, is a massively multiplayer online role-playing game, developed and published by Square as part of the Final Fantasy series. Designed and produced by Hiromichi Tanaka, it was released in Japan on May 16,2002, for PlayStation 2, the game was the first MMORPG to offer cross-platform play, connecting PlayStation 2 and personal computer, and the Xbox 360s first MMORPG. All versions of the game require a subscription to play. Players can undertake an array of quests and progress through the in-game hierarchy, since its debut in 2002, five expansion packs have been released along with six add-on scenarios. Each expansion pack and add-on brings a new storyline to the Final Fantasy XI world, along with numerous areas, quests, events. In 2015, Square Enix released the main scenario for Final Fantasy XI titled Rhapsodies of Vanadiel. Final Fantasy XI became the final active server on the PlayStation 2 online service, the servers for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions were ultimately shut down on March 31,2016. A mobile client for the game is under development by Square Enix in collaboration with Korean developer Nexon, a spinoff mobile game, Final Fantasy Grandmasters was released on September 30,2015. Final Fantasy XI is a multiplayer online role-playing game. There are currently 16 public game worlds available for play, down from 32 at the games height, a private Test Server was opened to eligible players to aid in feedback of updates in development for the game in mid-2011. The servers are named after summoned monsters from previous Final Fantasy titles, such as Ifrit, players have the ability to move between servers, though Square-Enix charges a world transfer fee to do so. The game servers are run by Square-Enix as part of their PlayOnline network, players have the option of using any combination of a keyboard, mouse, and controller to play Final Fantasy XI. The heads-up display in Final Fantasy XI consists of a log window, menus, the log window at the bottom of the screen displays system messages, battle messages, and text input by other players. Players may choose to filter what appears in the log window, menus allow the player to access different commands, status windows, and configuration options. The action command menu appears just above the log window and gives the player options to interact with the game world. Several menu options are available through the use of keyboard shortcuts, completing missions allows a player to advance in rank, which grants access to new areas, several privileges, and various other storylines. At first, a player may only complete missions for his nation, though they are able to change allegiances later on. At release, over one hundred quests were available to play and each expansion pack has added its own set of missions and quests
32.
Phantasy Star Online
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Phantasy Star Online is an online role-playing game developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for the Dreamcast. Unlike previous turn-based games in the Phantasy Star series, Phantasy Star Online features real-time hack, the game was first release in Japan in December 2000, and worldwide in early 2001. The game was a critical and commercial success, and has been followed by numerous expanded versions, related products, in particular are Phantasy Star Online Episode III released in 2003, Phantasy Star Universe released in 2006, and Phantasy Star Online 2 released in 2012. Sega chairman Isao Okawa believed that internet gaming would come to be important, though online play was popular in PC gaming, it had not yet become popular on consoles or in Japan. Okawa tasked Sonic Team with the creation of a game focused on network play. Work on Phantasy Star Online began after the completion of Sonic Adventure, Sonic Team divided to focus on three separate projects. With the working title Third World, art director Satoshi Sakai desired to create a game with science fiction and fantasy elements, with realistic 3D graphics. Creating concept art for the game, Sakai drew a dragon and showed it to Yuji Naka, the director of Sonic Team and this led to the project being retitled Phantasy Star Online. As there was no precedent for online gaming on console, the developers looked to Blizzards PC role-playing game Diablo for inspiration on the games mechanics, with a development time of two years, Phantasy Star Online was released on the Dreamcast on December 21,2000, in Japan. It was later released in North America on January 31,2001, Phantasy Star Online was bundled with a demo disc for Sonic Adventure 2. The PC version of the game was released in December 2001. In response to destruction of the world, the Pioneer Project is begun in order to search for a new planet to settle. Unmanned probes locate a suitable location, and the ship Pioneer 1 is sent to investigate, after confirming the suitability of the discovered planet, Ragol, construction is begun on the surface, including the Central Dome. Seven years later, Pioneer 2 arrives at Ragol with the majority of refugees aboard, however, as Pioneer 2 establishes a communications link with the Central Dome, a massive explosion shakes the planets surface, and no sign remains of the people of Pioneer 1 on the planet. In order to investigate, the Principal sends down a team of Hunters—the player characters—to the surface to investigate what happened, the investigation takes them through a forest, which is teeming with native animals, then to the base of the Central Dome. From there, the episodes continue through a series of caves full of altered beasts. After playing through levels and activating a monument in each area, access is opened to a series of ruins. During the entire course of the trip, message buoys serve to assist in providing advice to defeating monsters and these messages are left behind by Rico Tyrell, the daughter of the Principal of Pioneer 2 and known as Red Ring Rico
33.
Guild Wars
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Guild Wars is a competitive online role-playing game series developed by ArenaNet and published by NCSOFT. It provides two modes of gameplay—a cooperative role-playing component and a competitive PvP component—both of which are hosted on ArenaNets servers. Three stand-alone episodes, one major expansion pack, and several mini-expansions were released in the series from April 2005 to April 2013. The games depict the history of the fantasy world of Tyria. A player creates an avatar to play through the storyline of a campaign. Players can group with other players and non-player characters, known as henchmen and heroes, to perform missions, PvP combat is consensual, team based, and limited to areas designed for such combat. Players are allowed to create characters at level and with the best equipment specifically for PvP play. ArenaNet hosts official Guild Wars tournaments where the most successful players and guilds may compete for the chance to live at gaming conventions. Guild Wars differs from some of the other MMORPGs in its lack of subscription fees, after reaching the level cap, players differentiate their characters by which skills they equip to bring into battle, new skills can be learned by exploring and completing quests. Only eight of a players learned skills can be equipped at any one time, in April 2009, NCSoft announced that 6 million units of games in the Guild Wars series had been sold. The sequel, Guild Wars 2, was announced in March 2007 and it features updated graphics and gameplay mechanics, and continues the original Guild Wars tradition of no subscription fees. Players use a 3D avatar to interact with the world around them, the game predominantly features a third person perspective but also has the option of first person. These characters are able to walk/run and interact with other characters through chat and they can also perform actions such as fighting and picking up objects, as well as interacting with special objects. Players can choose from a range of up to ten different professions, when creating a character, players can select their hair style, face, skin tone, height and avatar name—the selection depending upon that profession chosen. As the player progresses through the game, they can unlock different armor and they can also decide whether they want their avatar to start in a Player vs. Environment world, or get right into the competitive Player vs. Player and fight live against other players in the game, the maximum level for character development is capped at 20—by this point, the character will also have reached 170 attribute points. Players may also choose to do quests to gain another 30 attribute points. Experience can still be gained and is used to more skills or buy consumable items throughout the game
34.
Unreal Tournament
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Unreal Tournament is a first-person shooter video game developed by Epic Games and Digital Extremes. Players compete in a series of matches of various types, with the aim of out-killing opponents. The PC version supports multiplayer online or over a local area network, free expansion packs were released, some of which were bundled with a 2000 re-release, Unreal Tournament, Game of the Year Edition. The game is based on the technology that powered Unreal. Development took almost a year and a half, and the game was intended to be an expansion for Unreal. Unreal Tournament received critical acclaim, with praising the graphics, artificial intelligence and gameplay. The game won awards, and the series has continued with the releases of sequels Unreal Tournament 2003 in 2002, Unreal Tournament 2004 in 2004. Unreal Tournament is an arena shooter, with head-to-head multiplayer deathmatches being the primary focus of the game. The single-player campaign is a series of matches played with bots. The player moves up the tournament ladder in order to challenge the current champion, Xan, also available is a Practice mode, in which, as its name implies, the player practices a match. Also available are mutators which drastically alter gameplay aspects, such as InstaGib, weapons include Enforcers, Rocket Launchers, and Rippers, which fire ricocheting blades. Most weapons have two firing modes which have different effects, for example, Rippers can also fire non-ricocheting blades which explode on impact, a special weapon is the Redeemer, which causes a very large and powerful explosion. Items such as Body Armor, health packs, and Damage Amplifiers are scattered across levels, levels are set in a variety of environments, including spaceships, outposts, and buildings such as castles and monasteries. Many contain features such as elevators and teleporters, and obstacles such as water, the game is backwards compatible with the majority of Unreal multiplayer maps. For team matches, bots are used to fill the roles of the players teammates, the player can choose the bots skill level or have it automatically adjust to the players performance. Bots can be customized by changing attributes such as names, appearance. In team matches, players can give orders to bots on their team, the PC version supports multiplayer mode over the internet or a local area network. Assault, This game type is played two teams, one assaulting a base and the other defending it
35.
Halo: Combat Evolved
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Halo, Combat Evolved is a 2001 military science fiction first-person shooter video game developed by Bungie and published by Microsoft Game Studios. The first game of the Halo franchise, it was released as a title for the Xbox gaming system on November 15,2001. More than five copies were sold worldwide by November 2005. The game was released as a downloadable Xbox Original for the Xbox 360. Halo is set in the century, with the player assuming the role of the Master Chief. The player is accompanied by Cortana, an artificial intelligence who occupies the Master Chiefs neural interface, players battle various aliens as they attempt to uncover the secrets of the eponymous Halo, a ring-shaped artificial world. Halo has been praised as one of the greatest video games of all time, the games popularity has led to labels such as Halo clone and Halo killer, applied respectively to games either similar to or anticipated to be better than it. In addition, the inspired and was used in the fan-created Red vs. Blue video series, which is credited as the first big success of machinima, the player can move around and look up, down, left, or right. The game features vehicles, ranging from armored jeeps and tanks to alien hovercraft and aircraft, the game switches to a third-person perspective during vehicle use for pilots and mounted gun operators, passengers maintain a first-person view. The games heads-up display includes a motion tracker that registers moving allies, moving or firing enemies, the player character is equipped with an energy shield which nullifies damage from weapons fire and forceful impacts. The shields charge appears as a bar in the corner of the games heads-up display. When the shield is depleted, the player is highly vulnerable. When this health meter reaches zero, the dies and the game reloads from a saved checkpoint. Halos arsenal consists of weapons from science fiction, the game has been praised for giving each weapon a unique purpose, thus making each useful in different scenarios. In contrast to the large inventories of contemporary FPS games. All weapons may be used to bludgeon enemies, which allows Master Chief to silently kill opponents without alerting other nearby enemies, the Chief can also carry up to eight grenades at a time, up to four fragmentation and four plasma grenades each. The games main enemy force is the Covenant, a group of alien species allied by belief in a common religion, a secondary enemy is the Flood, a parasitic alien life form that appears in three main variants
36.
Audition Online
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Audition Online, also known as X-BEAT in Japan and popularly called AyoDance in Indonesia, is a free-to-play multiplayer online casual rhythm game produced by T3 Entertainment. It was originally released in South Korea in 2006 and has been localized by various publishers around the world, Audition Online is free to play, but earns revenue by selling virtual items such as clothes for the players avatar. Audition Online was first released for the South Korean region in 2006 and it was then expanded to other regions, such as the South Eastern Asian region, the Vietnamese region and the Indonesian region in 2006. A player is allowed to create a room or join a room, the DJ is given power to choose the settings for the room, song, chance, and game mode. The songs BPM usually will determine the difficulty and speed. While the DJ has the power to kick out of the room and close the dance floor off. After all, the most appealing part of the game is its social aspect, the basic game is played by pressing the arrows displayed on the screen and pressing the spacebar or the control key on every 4th beat of the song. The more accurately the spacebar or control key is pressed, the higher the score, if a player receives a MISS, he will not get the chance to play for the next move. The Finish Move, a move during most gameplay modes. If a person does not miss the move before the Finish Move, Finish moves issue a lot of points and can often be the key to success. When a player does 2 or more PERFECTs consecutively, he will get points for doing so. These PERFECT combos enable players to interfere with the opposition, a blue circle indicates that you made a PERFECT in your move and acts as a shield. When a player performs a PERFECT X1 they will make either the player ahead or behind them receive a yellow circle, while under the yellow circle, a person will not receive points if he does not achieve a PERFECT. Players can increase their score by playing chance, chance can be activated by pressing the delete key or the. Key on the number pad whereby red keys appear and players have to press in the direction of the red keys. At the end of the battle, the person with the most points is the winner. The player will have his character presented at the front of the stage, each player will receive experience points and Den/BEATS according to what position they finished in. If a single/group game is full, an event may occur
37.
Quake 3: Arena
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Quake III Arena is a multiplayer-focused first-person shooter video game released in December 1999. The game was developed by id Software and featured music composed by Sonic Mayhem and Front Line Assembly founder, Quake III Arena is the third game in the Quake series and differs from previous games by excluding a traditional single-player element, instead focusing on multiplayer action. The single-player mode is played against computer-controlled bots, Quake III Arena is available on a number of platforms and contains mature content. The game was praised by reviewers who, for the most part, described the gameplay as fun. Many liked the graphics and focus on multiplayer. Quake III Arena has also used extensively in professional electronic sports tournaments such as QuakeCon, Cyberathlete Professional League, Dreamhack. Unlike its predecessors, Quake III Arena does not have a plot-based single-player campaign, instead, it simulates the multiplayer experience with computer-controlled players known as bots. The games story is brief - the greatest warriors of all time fight for the amusement of a race called the Vadrigar in the Arena Eternal, the introduction video shows the abduction of such a warrior, Sarge, while making a last stand. Continuity with prior games in the Quake series and even Doom is maintained by the inclusion of player models and biographical information. A familiar mixture of gothic and technological map architecture as well as equipment is included, such as the Quad Damage power-up, the infamous rocket launcher. In Quake III Arena, the player progresses through tiers of maps, combating different bot characters that increase in difficulty, as the game progresses, the fights take place in more complex arenas and against tougher opponents. While deathmatch maps are designed for up to 16 players, tournament maps are designed for duels between 2 players and in the game could be considered as boss battles. The weapons are balanced by role, with each weapon having advantages in situations, such as the railgun at long-range. Weapons appear as level items, spawning at regular intervals in set locations on the map, if a player dies, all of their weapons are lost and they receive the spawn weapons for the current map, usually the gauntlet and machine gun. Players also drop the weapon they were using when killed, which players can then pick up. Quake III Arena was specifically designed for multiplayer, the game allows players whose computers are connected by a network or to the internet, to play against each other in real time, and incorporates a handicap system. It employs a model, requiring all players clients to connect to a server. Quake III Arenas focus on multiplayer gameplay spawned a community, similar to QuakeWorld
38.
Ragnarok Online
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Ragnarok Online, often referred to as RO, is a Korean massive multiplayer online role-playing game or MMORPG created by GRAVITY Co. Ltd. based on the manhwa Ragnarok by Lee Myung-jin. It was first released in South Korea on 31 August 2002 for Microsoft Windows and has since been released in other locales around the world. The game has spawned a series, Ragnarok the Animation. Player characters exist in a world with an environment that gradually changes with the passage of time. Major changes in the features and history of the world take place as episodes in the RO timeline, Player characters interact in a 3D environment but are represented by 2D character sprites for front, back, side and diagonal facings. The major types of server-supported gameplay are Player vs Environment, Guild vs Guild, also supported by the game server are Group vs Group, Arena Combat, Player vs Monster, Player vs All, and various other specific scenarios at designated instance locations in the game world. NPC-run challenges and contests are also available with prizes, awards, Ragnarok Online is divided into a series of maps on two major continents, each of which has its own terrain and native monsters, though many monsters are present in multiple regions. Transportation between maps requires loading the new map and monsters are unable to travel from one map to another unless directly associated with the such as a pet, mount. There are three nations in Ragnarok Online, the first of which and where all players start is the kingdom of Rune Midgard. The Schwaltzvalt Republic, a neighbor to the North, was added in Episode 10 and Arunafeltz. Areas from Norse mythology are included, such as Niflheim, the land of the dead, and Valhalla, new map content is constantly being added to game in the form of Episode updates. The official Ragnarok Online servers underwent massive game system changes in 2010, there are various other changes that come with Renewal, including interface and hotkey alterations, as well as skill changes. Renewal has different versions, according to the server it is being implemented in, the 2 major versions are called the kRO and jRO, titled after the server in which the version was created. Within the many cities and towns, there are activities that players can participate in. Usually, there will an Eden Teleport Officer and several Kafra Employees throughout the city, Eden Teleport Officers work for an organization called the Eden Group that allows players to sign up for quests and submit them for rewards. Kafra Employees help players by providing storage and teleport services for a small fee and these two NPCs are very important to the development of characters in the game. In addition, every town will have the stores and shops where players can purchase. Furthermore, there usually will be dozens of players sitting around selling and purchasing goods
