1.
Digeridoo (EP)
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Digeridoo is an EP by the musician Richard D. James under the alias Aphex Twin. All tracks were re-released on the Classics compilation, isopropophlex and Analogue Bubblebath are reprints of tracks from Analogue Bubblebath Vol I. Digeridoo was previously released as Aboriginal Mix on the Analogue Bubblebath 2 EP, Flaphead and Phloam are the only new tracks on the EP. Digeridoo does not contain an actual didgeridoo sample, however, according to Simon Reynolds of Energy Flash, eschewing samples, James labored for three days to concoct an electronic simulacrum of the primordial drone. The track Flaphead on the CD version of the EP is extended by about 20 seconds compared to the vinyl version, all tracks by Richard D. James. Digeridoo –7,11 Analogue Bubblebath 1 –4,44 Flaphead –7,00 Phloam –5,33 A1
2.
Brass instrument
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A brass instrument is a musical instrument that produces sound by sympathetic vibration of air in a tubular resonator in sympathy with the vibration of the players lips. Brass instruments are also called labrosones, literally meaning lip-vibrated instruments, there are several factors involved in producing different pitches on a brass instrument. The view of most scholars is that the brass instrument should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above. Thus one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the alphorn, the cornett, the serpent, as valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves, slide brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the family, though valve trombones are occasionally used. The trombone familys ancestor, the sackbut, and the folk instrument bazooka are also in the slide family, there are two other families that have, in general, become functionally obsolete for practical purposes. Instruments of both types, however, are used for period-instrument performances of Baroque or Classical pieces. In more modern compositions, they are used for their intonation or tone color. Natural brass instruments only play notes in the harmonic series. These include the bugle and older variants of the trumpet and horn, the trumpet was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the horn before about 1820. In the 18th century, makers developed interchangeable crooks of different lengths, natural instruments are still played for period performances and some ceremonial functions, and are occasionally found in more modern scores, such as those by Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Keyed or Fingered brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument and these included the cornett, serpent, ophicleide, keyed bugle and keyed trumpet. They are more difficult to play than valved instruments, Brass instruments may also be characterised by two generalizations about geometry of the bore, that is, the tubing between the mouthpiece and the flaring of the tubing into the bell. Those two generalizations are with regard to the degree of taper or conicity of the bore and the diameter of the bore with respect to its length, cylindrical bore brass instruments are generally perceived as having a brighter, more penetrating tone quality compared to conical bore brass instruments. The trumpet, baritone horn and all trombones are cylindrical bore, in particular, the slide design of the trombone necessitates this. Conical bore brass instruments are those in which tubing of constantly increasing diameter predominates, conical bore instruments are generally perceived as having a more mellow tone quality than the cylindrical bore brass instruments. The British brass band group of instruments fall into this category and this includes the flugelhorn, cornet, tenor horn, horn, euphonium and tuba
3.
Musical instrument classification
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Throughout history, various methods of musical instrument classification have been used. The most commonly used system divides instruments into string instruments, woodwind instruments, brass instruments and percussion instruments, the oldest known scheme of classifying instruments is Chinese and dates from the 3rd millennium BC. It grouped instruments according to the materials they are made of. However, the Chou-Li, an anonymous treatise compiled from sources in about the 2nd century BC, had the following order, metal, stone, clay, leather, silk, wood, gourd. The same order was presented in the Tso Chuan, attributed to Tso Chiu-Ming, more usually, instruments are classified according to how the sound is initially produced. The modern system divides instruments into wind, strings and percussion, the scheme was later expanded by Martin Agricola, who distinguished plucked string instruments, such as guitars, from bowed string instruments, such as violins. Classical musicians today do not always maintain this division, but distinguish between wind instruments with a reed and those where the air is set in motion directly by the lips, many instruments do not fit very neatly into this scheme. The serpent, for example, ought to be classified as a brass instrument, however, it looks more like a woodwind instrument, and is closer to one in many ways, having finger-holes to control pitch, rather than valves. Keyboard instruments do not fit easily into this scheme, for example, the piano has strings, but they are struck by hammers, so it is not clear whether it should be classified as a string instrument or a percussion instrument. Ottoman encyclopedist Hadji Khalifa also recognized the three classes in his Kashf al-Zunun an Asami al-Kutub wa al-Funun, a treatise on the origin. The division pervades Tboli thought about cosmology, social characters of men and women, victor-Charles Mahillon later adopted a system very similar to this. This scheme was taken up by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs who published an extensive new scheme for classication in Zeitschrift für Ethnologie in 1914. Their scheme is used today, and is most often known as the Hornbostel-Sachs system. Electrophones, such as the guitar or electric bass, which produce sound through electricity and is required to be plugged in to an amplifier. Later Sachs added a category, electrophones, such as theremins. Modern synthesizers and electronic instruments fall in this category, within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, in 1932, comparative musicologist André Schaeffner developed a new classification scheme that was exhaustive, potentially covering all real and conceivable instruments. The Kpelle of West Africa also use this system and they distinguish the struck, including both beaten and plucked, and the blown
4.
Wind instrument
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The pitch of the vibration is determined by the length of the tube and by manual modifications of the effective length of the vibrating column of air. In the case of wind instruments, sound is produced by blowing through a reed. Using different air columns for different tones, such as in the pan flute and this method is used on nearly all brass instruments. Changing the length of the air column by lengthening and/or shortening the tube using a sliding mechanism. This method is used on the trombone and the slide whistle, changing the frequency of vibration through opening or closing holes in the side of the tube. This can be done by covering the holes with fingers or pressing a key which then closes the hole and this method is used in nearly all woodwind instruments. Making the column of air vibrate at different harmonics without changing the length of the column of air, almost all wind instruments use the last method, often in combination with one of the others, to extend their register. A more accurate way to determine whether an instrument is brass or woodwind is to examine how the player produces sound, in brass instruments, the players lips vibrate, causing the air within the instrument to vibrate. For example, the saxophone is typically made of brass, but is classified as an instrument because it produces sound with a vibrating reed. In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, wind instruments are classed as aerophones, sound production in all wind instruments depends on the entry of air into a flow-control valve attached to a resonant chamber. The resonator is typically a long cylindrical or conical tube, open at the far end, a pulse of high pressure from the valve will travel down the tube at the speed of sound. It will be reflected from the end as a return pulse of low pressure. Under suitable conditions, the valve will reflect the pulse back, with increased energy, Reed instruments such as the clarinet or oboe have a flexible reed or reeds at the mouthpiece, forming a pressure-controlled valve. Standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, the reed vibrates at a rate determined by the resonator. For Lip Reed instruments, the controls the tension in their lips so that they vibrate under the influence of the air flow through them. They adjust the vibration so that the lips are most closed, and the air flow is lowest, standing waves inside the tube will be odd multiples of a quarter-wavelength, with a pressure anti-node at the mouthpiece, and a pressure node at the open end. For Air Reed instruments, the thin grazing air sheet flowing across an opening in the pipe interacts with an edge to generate sound. The jet is generated by the player, when blowing through a thin slit, for recorders and flue organ pipes this slit is manufactured by the instrument maker and has a fixed geometry
5.
Aerophone
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Aerophones categorically comprise the largest and most complex group of instruments in the Americas. The first class includes instruments which, when played, do not contain the vibrating air and this class includes free reed instruments, such as the harmonica, but also many instruments unlikely to be called wind instruments at all by most people, such as sirens and whips. The second class includes instruments which contain the air when being played. This class includes almost all instruments generally called wind instruments — including the didgeridoo, brass instruments, additionally, very loud sounds can be made by explosions directed into, or being detonated inside of resonant cavities. Detonations inside the calliope, as well as the pyrophone might thus be considered as class 42 instruments, according to Ardal Powell, flute is a simple instrument found in numerous ancient cultures. There are three legendary and archeologically verifiable birthplace sites of flutes, Egypt, Greece and India, of these, the transverse flute appeared only in ancient India, while the fipple flutes are found in all three. It is likely, states Powell, that the modern Indian bansuri has not changed much since the medieval era. Archaeological studies have found examples of globular flutes in ancient Mexico, Colombia and Peru, the use of shells of Conches as an aerophone have also been found to be prevalent in areas such as Central America and Peru. Examples of aerophone type instruments in China can be dated back to the Neolithic period, fragments of bone flutes can be found at the burial sites of the Jiahu settlements of ancient China, and they represent some of the earliest known examples of playable instruments. The instruments were carved from the wing bone of the red-crowned crane. The flutes were efficient enough to sound in a nearly accurate octave. Examples of flutes made out of bamboo in China date back to 2nd Century BC and these flutes were known as Dizis or simply Di and typically had 6 holes for playing melodies that were framed by scale-modes. Flutes including the famous Bansuri, have been a part of Indian classical music since 1500 BC. A major deity of Hinduism, Krishna, has been associated with the flute, some early flutes were made out of tibias. Free aerophones are instruments where the air is not enclosed by the instrument itself. The air-stream meets a sharp edge, or an edge is moved through the air. Occasionally called percussive aerophones, plosive aerophones are sounded by percussion caused by a single compression, an example of a plosive aerophone is the scraper flute which has tubes with ridged or serrated edges so that they can be scraped with a rod to produce sound. Non-free aerophones are instruments where the air is contained within the instrument
6.
Natural trumpet
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A natural trumpet is a valveless brass instrument that is able to play the notes of the harmonic series. The natural trumpet was used as an instrument to facilitate communication. Even before the late Baroque period the natural trumpet had been accepted into Western Art Music, there is evidence, for example, of extensive use of trumpet ensembles in Venetian ceremonial music of the 16th century. Although neither Andrea nor Giovanni Gabrieli wrote music specifically for the trumpet, the most talented players were even able to produce certain chromatic notes outside the harmonic series by this process, although these notes were mostly used as brief passing tones. Other impure harmonics were avoided by most composers, but were deliberately used, for example. Baroque composers—such as Antonio Vivaldi, Georg Philipp Telemann, George Frideric Handel and Johann Sebastian Bach—made frequent use of trumpets in sacred, orchestral, indeed, highly skilled trumpeters were a prized commodity in the era, held in high esteem and avidly sought after by musical patrons. The vast majority of baroque trumpet parts were written for an instrument pitched in C or D. In the 18th century various attempts were made to overcome the limitations in the notes available to natural trumpets. As early as the time of Bach, crooks were introduced between the mouthpiece and the body which lowered the pitch of the instrument and allowed it to be used in a variety of keys. In the latter part of the 18th century side holes covered with keys, later Anton Weidinger, court trumpeter in Vienna, invented a 5-key trumpet. Natural trumpets continued to be used through the Classical era and even into the early Romantic period, but changing musical styles along with a growing dearth of sufficiently capable players spelled an end to the high, florid, complicated parts typical of baroque music. A few transitional composers, such as Michael Haydn, Leopold Mozart, however, for many decades following, most orchestral trumpet writing consisted of basic harmonic support and fanfare-like passages, with very little in the way of melody. Even as late as 1843, for example, Wagner was writing for valveless trumpets in his opera The Flying Dutchman, the use of finger holes on reconstructions of natural trumpets is traceable to Otto Steinkopf, who early in the 20th century discovered holes on a few museum originals. However, it appears that these holes were placed at antinodes. The natural trumpet is differentiated from another valveless brass instrument, the bugle and this places the higher harmonics in a playable range, enabling the performance of diatonic melodies. The bugle, by contrast, is useful for performing simple fanfares and military calls in a lower range. Some of the finest surviving examples of trumpets date back as far as the 1580s, other notable trumpet makers include, the Hainlein family of Nuremberg, the Haas family of Nuremberg, the Ehe family of Nuremberg, and William Bull of London. All of these instrument makers built what are now called natural trumpets, during the period, however, these instruments were simply called trumpets
7.
Range (music)
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In music, the range of a musical instrument is the distance from the lowest to the highest pitch it can play. For a singing voice, the equivalent is vocal range, the range of a musical part is the distance between its lowest and highest note. The terms sounding range, written range, designated range, duration range, a piccolo, for example, typically has a sounding range one octave higher than its written range. The designated range is the set of notes the player should or can achieve while playing, all instruments have a designated range, and all pitched instruments have a playing range. Timbre, dynamics, and duration ranges are interrelated and one may achieve registral range at the expense of timbre, the designated range is thus the range in which a player is expected to have comfortable control of all aspects. The duration range is the difference between the shortest and longest rhythm used, dynamic range is the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. Although woodwind instruments and string instruments have no upper limit to their range. Brass instruments, on the hand, can play beyond their designated ranges. Notes lower than the brass instruments designated range are called pedal tones, the playing range of a brass instrument depends on both the technical limitations of the instrument and the skill of the player. Classical arrangements seldom make woodwind or brass instruments play beyond their designed range, string musicians play the bottom of their ranges very frequently, but the top of a string instruments range is rather fuzzy, and it is unusual for a string player to exceed the designated range. It is quite rare for wind musicians to play the extremes of their instruments, the most common exception is that in many 20th century works, pedal tones are called for in bass trombones. This chart uses standard numberings for octaves where middle C corresponds to C4, in the MIDI language middle C is referred to as MIDI note number 60. The lowest note that an organ can sound is C−1. However, if acoustic combination counts, the lowest note is C−2, *This chart only displays down to C0, though some pipe organs, such as the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, extend down to C−1. Also, the frequency of the subcontrabass tuba is B♭−1
8.
Musical instrument
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A musical instrument is an instrument created or adapted to make musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument, the history of musical instruments dates to the beginnings of human culture. Early musical instruments may have used for ritual, such as a trumpet to signal success on the hunt. Cultures eventually developed composition and performance of melodies for entertainment, Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications. The date and origin of the first device considered an instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some refer to as a musical instrument. Some consensus dates early flutes to about 37,000 years ago, many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials. Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world, however, contact among civilizations caused rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the Middle Ages, instruments from Mesopotamia were in maritime Southeast Asia, development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in areas and was dominated by the Occident. Musical instrument classification is a discipline in its own right, Instruments can be classified by their effective range, their material composition, their size, etc. However, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of instruments is called organology. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by using objects to create music from sounds. Primitive instruments were designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the notion of making music. Musical instruments are constructed in an array of styles and shapes
9.
Trumpet
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A trumpet is a musical instrument commonly used in classical and jazz ensembles. The trumpet group contains the instruments with the highest register in the brass family, trumpets are used in art music styles, for instance in orchestras, concert bands, and jazz ensembles, as well as in popular music. They are played by blowing air through almost-closed lips, producing a sound that starts a standing wave vibration in the air column inside the instrument. Since the late 15th century they have primarily been constructed of brass tubing, there are many distinct types of trumpet, with the most common being pitched in B♭, having a tubing length of about 1.48 m. Early trumpets did not provide means to change the length of tubing, most trumpets have valves of the piston type, while some have the rotary type. The use of rotary-valved trumpets is more common in orchestral settings, each valve, when engaged, increases the length of tubing, lowering the pitch of the instrument. A musician who plays the trumpet is called a trumpet player or trumpeter, the earliest trumpets date back to 1500 BC and earlier. The bronze and silver trumpets from Tutankhamuns grave in Egypt, bronze lurs from Scandinavia, trumpets from the Oxus civilization of Central Asia have decorated swellings in the middle, yet are made out of one sheet of metal, which is considered a technical wonder. The Shofar, made from a ram horn and the Hatzotzeroth and they were played in Solomons Temple around 3000 years ago. They were said to be used to blow down the walls of Jericho and they are still used on certain religious days. The Salpinx was a straight trumpet 62 inches long, made of bone or bronze, Salpinx contests were a part of the original Olympic Games. The Moche people of ancient Peru depicted trumpets in their art going back to AD300, the earliest trumpets were signaling instruments used for military or religious purposes, rather than music in the modern sense, and the modern bugle continues this signaling tradition. Improvements to instrument design and metal making in the late Middle Ages, the natural trumpets of this era consisted of a single coiled tube without valves and therefore could only produce the notes of a single overtone series. Changing keys required the player to change crooks of the instrument, the development of the upper, clarino register by specialist trumpeters—notably Cesare Bendinelli—would lend itself well to the Baroque era, also known as the Golden Age of the natural trumpet. During this period, a vast body of music was written for virtuoso trumpeters, the art was revived in the mid-20th century and natural trumpet playing is again a thriving art around the world. The melody-dominated homophony of the classical and romantic periods relegated the trumpet to a role by most major composers owing to the limitations of the natural trumpet. Berlioz wrote in 1844, Notwithstanding the real loftiness and distinguished nature of its quality of tone, there are few instruments that have been more degraded. The attempt to give the trumpet more chromatic freedom in its range saw the development of the keyed trumpet, the symphonies of Mozart, Beethoven, and as late as Brahms, were still played on natural trumpets
10.
Flugelhorn
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The flugelhorn is a brass instrument pitched in B♭, and resembles a trumpet, but has a wider, conical bore. The instrument known today as the flugelhorn is a descendant of the valved bugle, the valved bugle provided Adolphe Sax with the inspiration for his B♭ soprano saxhorns, on which the modern-day flugelhorn is modeled. The German word Flügel translates into English as wing or flank, the flugelhorn is built in the same B♭ pitch as many trumpets and cornets. It usually has three valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments, but four-piston valve. It can thus be played too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players. It is usually played with a more deeply conical mouthpiece than either trumpets or cornets, some modern flugelhorns feature a fourth valve that lowers the pitch a perfect fourth. This adds a low range that, coupled with the flugelhorns dark sound. More often, however, players use the valve in place of the first and third valve combination. A pair of bass flugelhorns in C, called fiscorns, are played in the Catalan cobla bands which provide music for sardana dancers, the tone is fatter and usually regarded as more mellow and dark than the trumpet or cornet. The sound of the flugelhorn has been described as halfway between a trumpet and a French horn, whereas the sound is halfway between a trumpet and a flugelhorn. The flugelhorn is as agile as the cornet but more difficult to control in the high register and it is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as trumpets and cornets often are, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. The flugelhorn is a member of the British-style brass band. It also appears occasionally in orchestral and concert band music, famous orchestral works with flugelhorn include Igor Stravinskys Threni, Ralph Vaughan Williamss Ninth Symphony, Danzon no.2 by Arturo Marquez, and Michael Tippetts third symphony. The flugelhorn is sometimes substituted for the post horn in Mahlers Third Symphony, in HK Grubers trumpet concerto Busking the soloist is directed to play a flugelhorn in the slow middle movement. The flugelhorn figured prominently in many of Burt Bacharachs 1960s pop song arrangements and it is featured in a solo role in Bert Kaempferts 1962 recording of That Happy Feeling. Flugelhorns have occasionally used as the alto or low soprano voice in a drum. The flugelhorns in these orchestras are pitched in B-flat, with sporadically an E-flat soloïst, due to bad intonation these E-flat flugelhorns are mostly being replaced by the E-flat trumpet or cornet. Joe Bishop, as a member of the Woody Herman band in 1936, was one of the earliest jazz musicians to use the flugelhorn, shorty Rogers and Kenny Baker began playing it in the early fifties, and Clark Terry used it in Duke Ellingtons orchestra in the mid-1950s
11.
Cornet
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The cornet /ˈkɔːrnɪt/ is a brass instrument similar to the trumpet but distinguished from it by its conical bore, more compact shape, and mellower tone quality. The most common cornet is an instrument in B♭, though there is also a soprano cornet in E♭. Both are unrelated to the renaissance and early baroque cornett, the cornet was initially derived from the post horn around 1820 in France. Among the first manufacturers of modern cornets was Parisian Jean Asté in 1828, cornets first appeared as separate instrumental parts in 19th century French compositions. This instrument could not have developed without the improvement of piston valves by Silesian oboe player Friedrich Blühmel. These two instrument makers almost simultaneously invented valves, though it is likely that Blühmel was the inventor and they jointly applied for a patent and were granted this for a period of ten years. Later, and most importantly, François Périnet received a patent in 1838 for a valve which is the basis of all modern brass instrument piston valves. Up until the early 20th century, the trumpet and cornet coexisted in musical ensembles, symphonic repertoire often involves separate parts for trumpet and cornet. As several instrument builders made improvements to instruments, they started to look and sound more alike. The modern day cornet is used in bands, concert bands. The name cornet derives from corne, meaning horn, itself from Latin cornu, while not musically related, instruments of the Zink family are named cornetto or cornett in modern English to distinguish them from the valved cornet described here. The 11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica referred to serpents as old wooden cornets, the Roman/Etruscan cornu is the lingual ancestor of these. It is a predecessor of the post horn from which the evolved and was used like a bugle to signal orders on the battlefield. The instrument was once referred to as a cornopean, referencing the earliest cornets with the Stölzel valve system. The cornet was invented by adding valves to the post horn in 1814, the valves allowed for melodic playing throughout the register of the cornet. Trumpets were slower to adopt the new technology, so for the next 100 years or more. The trumpet would play fanfare-like passages, while the cornet played more melodic passages, the modern trumpet has valves that allow it to play the same notes and fingerings as the cornet. Cornets and trumpets made in a key play at the same pitch
12.
Bugle
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The bugle is one of the simplest brass instruments, having no valves or other pitch-altering devices. All pitch control is done by varying the players embouchure, consequently, the bugle is limited to notes within the harmonic series. See bugle call for scores to standard bugle calls, all consisting of five notes. These notes are known as the bugle scale, the bugle developed from early musical or communication instruments made of animal horns, with the word bugle itself coming from buculus, Latin for bullock. Predecessors and relatives of the bugle included the post horn, the Pless horn, the ancient Roman army used the buccina. The first verifiable use of a brass bugle as a military signal device was the Halbmondbläser, or half-moon bugle. It was U-shaped and comfortably carried by a strap attached at the mouthpiece. It first spread to England in 1764 where it was accepted widely in foot regiments. The bugle is used mainly in the military and Boy Scouts, historically the bugle was used in the cavalry to relay instructions from officers to soldiers during battle. They were used to assemble the leaders and to give marching orders to the camps, the bugle is also used in Boy Scout troops and in the Boys Brigade. The Rifles, a regiment in the British Army, has retained the bugle for ceremonial. The bugle has also used as a sign of peace in the case of a surrender. 19th century variants based on the bugle included both keyed and valved bugles. Keyed bugles were invented in England in the early 19th century, with a patent for one design, the Royal Kent bugle, taken out by Joseph Halliday in 1811. This bugle was highly popular and widely in use until c.1850 – for example, in works by Richard Willis and this variant of the bugle fell out of use with the invention of the valved cornet. Modern instruments classified as bugles are often valved, soprano bugle Alto bugle Baritone bugle Contrabass bugle Ralph T
13.
Post horn
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The post horn is a valveless cylindrical brass instrument with cupped mouthpiece, used to signal the arrival or departure of a post rider or mail coach. It was used especially by postilions of the 18th and 19th centuries, the post horn is sometimes confused with the coach horn. While the two types of horn principally served the purpose, the post horn has a cylindrical bore and was generally used on a coach pulled by two horses. John Lloyd is one of the users of post horn since 1900s, the instrument commonly had a circular or coiled shape with three turns of the tubing, though sometimes it was straight. It is, therefore an example of a natural horn, the cornet was developed from the post horn by adding valves. In the late 17th century, Johann Beer composed a Concerto à4 in B♭,9, the Post horn Serenade, in 1779. Mahler and others incorporated the post horn into their orchestras for certain pieces, on such occasions, the orchestras horn player usually plays the instrument. One example of post horn use in classical music is the famous off-stage solo in Mahlers Third Symphony. Due to the scarcity of this instrument, however, music written for it is played on a trumpet or fugelhorn. In 1844, the German cornet player Hermann Koeing wrote Post Horn Gallop as a solo for post horn with orchestral accompaniment, in the 20th century it became a popular piece for brass bands. During World War I wooden post horns were used as a means of collecting war donations via a method called the Nail Men, people would donate, and in exchange be allowed to hammer a nail into the horn, until the horn was completely covered. Since 1941 it has played, usually on bugle, at the beginning of home matches of Leicester City Football Club of Association Football in Britain. An imitation of the post horns fanfare was a device in music describing, or referring to. Handels Belshazzar includes in the act a sinofonia which uses a similar motive, subtitled allegro postilions. A very similar movement in included in the production of Telemanns Tafelmusik. Beethovens Les adieux piano sonata is centered around on a horn-like motive, schuberts Winterreise includes the song Die Post, of which the piano part prominently features a horn signal motive. The post horn is used in the logo of national post services in many countries, the post horn is included in Unicode as U+1F4EF
14.
Roman tuba
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The tuba of ancient Rome is a military signal trumpet, quite different from the modern tuba. The tuba was produced around 500 BC and its shape was straight, in contrast to the military buccina or cornu, which was more like the modern sousaphone in curving around the body. Its origin is thought to be Etruscan, and it is similar to the Greek salpinx, about four feet in length, it was made usually of bronze, and was played with a detachable mouthpiece. Tuba is one of the most important music instruments in the military and it can be used for parades and funerals, but the most important way to use it is to give orders to soldiers. The main purpose of this instrument is to amplify the voice, people who play this instrument are called tubicines. In representations of playing this instrument, they are usually pointing it up or down. They also just use one hand to hold it, as the hand is placed on the hip to help dilate the torso. 1. Daniel A.2. John Ziolkowski, The Roman Bucina,1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, mirrored at Online Encyclopedia. Image of tuba on Trajans Column
15.
Cornu (horn)
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A cornu or cornum was an ancient Roman brass instrument about 3 m long in the shape of a letter G. The instrument was braced by a crossbar that stiffened the structure, some specimens survive in the archaeological record, two from the ruins of Pompeii. The cornu may be difficult to distinguish from the buccina and it was used by the Roman army for communicating orders to troops in battle. In Roman art, the cornu appears among the instruments that accompany games or gladiator combat in the arena, the cornu was carried by the cornicen who coded the generals orders into signals and broadcast them over the field during battles. The Roman army also made use of a trumpet called a tuba. The military writer Vegetius described the use of horns to give signals, The music of the consists of trumpets, cornets. The trumpet sounds the charge and the retreat, the ordinary guards and outposts are always mounted and relieved by the sound of trumpet, which also directs the motions of the soldiers on working parties and on field days. The cornets sound whenever the colors are to be struck or planted, for reason will convince us that what is necessary to be performed in the heat of action should constantly be practiced in the leisure of peace. The cornu was revived as the tuba curva during the French Revolution, both were first used in music that François Joseph Gossec composed for the translation of the remains of Voltaire to the Pantheon, on 11 July 1791. Music of ancient Rome Sousaphone William Smith, D. C. L, a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, John Murray, London,1875
16.
Shofar
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A shofar is an ancient musical horn made of rams horn, used for Jewish religious purposes. Like the modern bugle, the shofar lacks pitch-altering devices, all pitch control is done by varying the players embouchure. The shofar is blown in synagogue services on Rosh Hashanah and at the end of Yom Kippur. Shofars come in a variety of sizes and shapes, depending on the choice of animal, the shofar is mentioned frequently in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud and rabbinic literature. The blast of a shofar emanating from the cloud on Mount Sinai made the Israelites tremble in awe. The shofar was used to announce holidays and the Jubilee year, the first day of the seventh month is termed a memorial of blowing, or a day of blowing, the shofar. They were used for signifying the start of a war, later, it was also employed in processions, as musical accompaniment and eventually it was inserted into the temple orchestra by David. Note that the trumpets described in Numbers 10 are a different instrument, described by the Hebrew word trumpet, the Torah describes the first day of the seventh month as a zikron teruˁah and as a yom teruˁah. This was interpreted by the Jewish sages as referring to the sounding of the shofar, in the Temple in Jerusalem, the shofar was sometimes used together with the trumpet. On fast days the principal ceremony was conducted with the trumpets in the center, on those occasions the shofarot were rams horns curved in shape and ornamented with silver at the mouthpieces. On Yom Kippur of the year the ceremony was performed with the shofar as on New Years Day. On Rosh Hashanah and other full holidays a single Priest perfected two sacrifices in honor of the full holiday, on Rosh Hashanah, something special occurred during the special sacrifice. Arguably two Shofar Sounders played the notes and one Trumpet player played the short note. Accordingly, Rosh Hashanah is called Yom Teruah Otherwise, the Trumpets had top billing, Rosh Hashanah 27a, supports this claim, Said Raba or it may have been R. Joshua B. Levi, What is the warrant for this. – Because it is written, With trumpets and the sound of the Shofar shout ye before the King in the Temple, we require trumpets and the sound of the Shofar, elsewhere not. Indeed, on Yom Kippur, the Shofar was sounded to announce the Jubilee Year curved ram, 2) curved other sheep, 3) curved other animal, 4) straight—ram or otherwise, 5) non-kosher animal, 6) cow. The first four categories are used with a bracha, the fifth without a bracha, and the last, not at all
17.
Conch (instrument)
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A, gift from the sea that provides a natural conical bore is conch. Conch shell trumpets have been played in many Pacific Island countries, as well as South America and they produce warm, full, and far-carrying tone. The shells of marine gastropods are blown into as if it were a trumpet. A completely unmodified conch may be used, or, a hole is created either by breaking off the point of the shell or by boring a small hole in the body. Wooden, bamboo, or even metal mouthpieces may be inserted into the end of the shell, embouchure is used to produce notes from the harmonic series. A tone hole may be added to change the frequency but globally this is extremely rare. The most common types of shell used for trumpets are the triton, cassis, instrument with multiple meanings and uses. How old the custom is and whence it originated are not known. Probably the first musical instruments that were ever invented were made of shells, shell trumpets have been known since the Magdalenian period, one example being the conch Marsoulas, an archeological Charonia lampas shell trumpet which is on display at the Museum de Toulouse. As might be expected from an instrument that has been around since neolithic times, conch-shell trumpets are found almost everywhere, in Israel/Palestine, the conch trumpet was used at a very early stage in antiquity. The sacred chank, Turbinella pyrum, is known in India as the shankha and it is blown, to declare the victory of good over evil. In the. Mahabharata, Lord Krishna used to blow the shell to announce the beginning. It is also considered as the symbol of. Lakshmi, in Tibet it is known as Dung-Dkar. The conch is but one of trumpets which play a part in Tibets unique temple music. As a natural trumpet that comes from regions, the conch is believed to have magical power over rain. Thus, its flange is decorated with dragons and clouds. Throughout Mesoamerican history, conch trumpets were used, often in a ritual context, in Ancient Maya art, such conches were often decorated with ancestral images, scenes painted on vases show hunters and hunting deities blowing the conch trumpet. Quechua and Warao still use the conch, the Queen Conch Strombus gigas was, and sometimes still is, used as a trumpet in the West Indies and other parts of the Caribbean. The Triton shell, also known as Tritons trumpet Charonia tritonis, is used as a trumpet in Melanesian and Polynesian culture, in Japan this kind of trumpet is known as the horagai, which spread across Asia with Buddhism
18.
Lur
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A lur, also lure or lurr, is a long natural blowing horn without finger holes that is played by embouchure. Lurs can be straight or curved in various shapes, the purpose of the curves was to make long instruments easier to carry and to prevent directing the loud noise at nearby people. The name lur is particularly given to two types of ancient wind instruments. The more recent type is made of wood and was in use in Scandinavia during the Middle Ages. The older type, named after the more recent type, is made of bronze, dates to the Bronze Age and was found in pairs, deposited in bogs, mainly in Denmark. It consists of a mouthpiece and several pieces and/or pipes and its length can reach between 1.5 meters and 2 meters. It has been found in Norway, Denmark, South Sweden, illustrations of lurs have also been found on several rock paintings in Scandinavia. The earliest references to an instrument called the lur come from Icelandic sagas and these lurs, several examples of which have been discovered in longboats, are straight, end-blown wooden tubes, around one meter long. They do not have holes, and are played much like a modern brass instrument. A kind of lur very similar to these war instruments has been played by farmers and these instruments, called in English a birch trumpet were used for calling cattle and signaling. They are similar in construction and playing technique to the war instrument, the word lur is still in the Swedish language, indicating any funnel-shaped implement used for producing or receiving sound. For instance, the Swedish word for headphones is hörlurar, the Norwegian and Swedish words for foghorn are respectively tåkelur and mistlur. The Danish butter brand Lurpak is named after the lur, the word lur has several other meanings in Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish that are not related to sound. Birch trumpet Natural trumpet 2007 CD by Odd Sylvarnes Lund of Lur and Bukkehorn music - informations on recordings with modern use of the old instruments The Nordic Lurs, part of O. J. s Trumpet Page
19.
Baritone horn
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The baritone horn, or sometimes just called baritone, is a low-pitched brass instrument in the saxhorn family. It is a brass instrument with a bore that is mostly conical, like the flugelhorn and alto horn. It uses a cup mouthpiece like that of its peers. Like the trombone and the euphonium, the horn can be considered either a transposing or non-transposing instrument. In the UK, the horn is frequently found in brass bands. In concert band music, there is often a part marked baritone, a person who plays a baritone horn is a baritone player or baritonist. The baritone, like the trombone and euphonium, is a brass tube. It is predominately of conical bore, like the euphonium, but has a narrow bore than the euphonium. The smaller bore renders its attack more distinct than the attack of the euphonium. The baritone is pitched in concert B♭, meaning that when no valves are actuated, music for the baritone horn can be written in either the bass clef or the treble clef. When written in the bass clef, the horn is a non-transposing instrument. It is often used to play parts written for the similarly pitched tenor trombone or euphonium, the baritone is part of the tenor section of a band. Its second partial with no valves pressed is concert B♭ on the line from the bottom of the bass clef. The eighth partial with no valves pressed is concert B♭ in the center of the treble clef, the baritone sounds with a timbre between the brightness of the trombone and the more mellow tone of the euphonium. The baritone horn usually has a wrap and a smaller bell, and is thus smaller and lighter overall. This practice has not yet stopped, there is a common misconception that three-valve instrument is a baritone and that the four-valve instrument is a euphonium. Euphoniums often have a valve as an alternate fingering for 1&3 split fingering with improved intonation. The fourth valve can also be viewed in the way as an F trigger on trombone
20.
Clapstick
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Clapsticks or clappers are a type of drumstick, percussion mallet or claves that serve to maintain rhythm in Aboriginal voice chants. Unlike drumsticks, which are used to strike a drum. As an ancestral instrument that may accompany the didgeridoo, it is sometimes referred to as musicstick or just Stick. In the language of the Yolngu Aborigines of Northeast Arnhem Land, near Darwin, boomerang clapsticks are similar to regular clapsticks but they can be shaken for a rattling sound and be clapped together. The usual technique employed when using clapsticks is to clap the sticks together to create a rhythm that goes along with the song
21.
Nightcliff, Northern Territory
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Nightcliff is a northern suburb of the city of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. Although the origin of the name Nightcliff has always surrounded by conjecture and controversy. Early that day, the HMS Beagle, which was engaged on an excursion of the Australian coast, sailed into the area and we had some difficulty in landing, and then in scrambling up the cliffs by the light of a lantern. The term Night Cliff was thus applied to the locality, goyder also mentioned the locality a couple of times in the diary he kept as leader of the Northern Territory Survey Expedition. It was known that Knight enjoyed visiting the Nightcliff environs and it is believed that he spent long periods of contemplation on the cliff tops. As late as 1952, a resident who had lived in Darwin between 1876 and 1926 wrote to the Northern Territory News insisting that the area was known during that period as Knightscliff. It is evident that many Territorians have preferred this variant form of name in deference to one of the most highly distinguished local public figures of the nineteenth century. However, records show that Knight did not arrive in Darwin until 1873, the Nightcliff foreshore was the site of Royal Australian Air Force camps with spotlights and large guns used to defend Darwin from bombing during the Second World War. During 1941, a naval outpost including a large concrete artillery outpost bunker was established on the headland, various other defence facilities were constructed inland as large numbers of military personnel moved into the area. The 2/14 Field Regiment A. I. F. was given the task of planning and constructing a camp which became known as Night Cliffs Camp. After the war, increasing pressure for suburban development caused the Nomenclature Committee of the N. T. to officially name the area on 29 October 1948, the conjoint version of the name, Nightcliff was adopted. Today, a footpath along the foreshore of Nightcliff is used for walking and cycling. Along the footpath there is Nightcliff Jetty, Nightcliff Beach and Nightcliff Swimming Pool, on Sundays, the Nightcliff Markets occur from 6am to 2pm. The stalls at the markets are mainly food and drinks but there is also craft, a live music band usually plays music on the stage in the middle of the markets. The Nightcliff area is associated with its sister suburb, Rapid Creek. Nightcliff has arguably become one of Darwins most popular suburbs, as it is situated directly on the coastal fringe. A lot of development has completed on the coastal road. Several well-known and long-established sports clubs are associated with the Nightcliff regional area, including the Nightcliff Football Club, close to the foreshore is Nightcliff Primary School, one of Darwins oldest schools
22.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
23.
Drone (music)
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In music, a drone is a harmonic or monophonic effect or accompaniment where a note or chord is continuously sounded throughout most or all of a piece. Burden also refers to a part of a song that is repeated at the end of each stanza, the term comes from the French bourdon, a staff, or a pipe made in the form of a staff. The drone does not take its name from the bee and it is a far older word, sharing an Indo-European root with the Sanskrit dhran, the Greek thren-os, and the English thrum, drum, and dream. Of all harmonic devices, it is not only the simplest, a drone effect can be achieved through a sustained sound or through repetition of a note. It most often establishes a tonality upon which the rest of the piece is built, a drone can be instrumental, vocal or both. Drone can be placed in different ranges of the texture, in the lowest part, in the highest part. The drone is most often placed upon the tonic or dominant, a drone on the same pitch as a melodic note tends to both hide that note and to bring attention to it by increasing its importance. A drone differs from a pedal tone or point in degree or quality. A pedal point may be a form of tone and thus required to resolve unlike a drone, or a pedal point may simply be considered a shorter drone. The systematic use of drones originated in instrumental music of ancient Southwest Asia, and spread north and west to Europe, east to India and it is a key component of much Australian aboriginal music through the didgeridoo. It is used in Indian music and is played with the tanpura and other Indian drone instruments like the ottu, the ektar, the dotara, the surpeti, the surmandal and the shank. Most of the types of bagpipes that exist worldwide have up to three drones, making one of the first instruments that comes to mind when speaking of drone music. In America, most forms of the African-influenced banjo contain a drone string, since the 1960s, the drone has become a prominent feature in drone music and other forms of avant-garde music. In vocal music drone is particularly widespread in traditional cultures, particularly in Europe. Drones are not uncommon in primitive music, but neither are they characteristic of it and it is also present in some isolated regions of Asia. Drone is also the term for the part of a musical instrument intended to produce the drone effects sustained pitch, different melodic Indian instruments contain a drone. For example, the sitar features three or four resonating drone strings, and Indian notes are practiced to a drone, bagpipes feature a number of drone pipes, giving the instruments their characteristic sounds. A hurdy-gurdy has one or more drone strings, the bass strings of the Slovenian drone zither also freely resonate as a drone
24.
Musicology
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Musicology is the scholarly analysis and research-based study of music. Musicology is part of the humanities, a scholar who participates in musical research is a musicologist. Traditionally, historical musicology has been the most prominent sub-discipline of musicology, in the 2010s, historical musicology is one of several large musicology sub-disciplines. Historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and systematic musicology are approximately equal in size, Ethnomusicology is the study of music in its cultural context. Cognitive musicology is the set of surrounding the computational modeling of music. Musical knowledge is applied in medicine, education, and music therapy—which, Music history or historical musicology is concerned with the composition, performance, reception, and criticism of music over time. Like the comparable field of art history, different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works, there are also national differences in various definitions of historical musicology. In theory, music history could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music, in practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology and historical musicology is typically assumed to imply Western Art music of the European tradition. The methods of historical musicology include source studies, paleography, philology, style criticism, historiography, musical analysis, Music historians may examine issues in a close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composers art songs. New musicology is a term applied since the late 1980s to a body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis. Such work may be based on feminist, gender studies, queer theory, or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor Adorno. Charles Rosen, however, retorts that McClary, sets up, like so many of the new musicologists, a man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning. Ethnomusicology, formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context and it is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of making music. Some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, but the majority are involved in long-term participant observation, or combine ethnographic, therefore, ethnomusiological scholarship can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive fieldwork component, often involving long-term residence within the community studied. Closely related to ethnomusiology is the branch of sociomusicology. For instance, Ko proposed the hypothesis of Biliterate and Trimusical in Hong Kong sociomusicology, the first journal focusing on popular music studies was Popular Music, which began publication in 1981. The same year an academic society devoted to the topic was formed
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Rock art
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In archaeology, rock art is human-made markings placed on natural stone, it is largely synonymous with parietal art. A global phenomenon, rock art is found in many diverse regions of the world. It has been produced in many contexts throughout history, although the majority of rock art that has been ethnographically recorded has been produced as a part of ritual. Such artworks are often divided into three forms, petroglyphs, which are carved into the surface, pictographs, which are painted onto the surface. The oldest known rock art dates from the Upper Palaeolithic period, having found in Europe, Australia, Asia. Archaeologists studying these artworks believe that they likely had magico-religious significance, Rock art continues to be of importance to indigenous peoples in various parts of the world, who view them as both sacred items and significant components of their cultural patrimony. Such archaeological sites are significant sources of cultural tourism, and have been utilised in popular culture for their aesthetic qualities. Normally found in cultures, a rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief sculpture carved on solid or living rock such as a cliff. They are a category of art, and sometimes found in conjunction with rock-cut architecture. However, they tend to be omitted in most works on rock art, a few such works exploit the natural contours of the rock and use them to define an image, but they do not amount to man-made reliefs. Rock reliefs have been made in many cultures, and were important in the art of the Ancient Near East. Rock reliefs are generally large, as they need to be to make an impact in the open air. Most have figures that are over life-size, and in many the figures are multiples of life-size, the vertical relief is most common, but reliefs on essentially horizontal surfaces are also found. The term typically excludes relief carvings inside caves, whether natural or themselves man-made, natural rock formations made into statues or other sculpture in the round, most famously at the Great Sphinx of Giza, are also usually excluded. Reliefs on large boulders left in their location, like the Hittite İmamkullu relief, are likely to be included. The term rock art appears in the literature as early as the 1940s. It has also described as rock carvings, rock drawings, rock engravings, rock inscriptions, rock paintings, rock pictures. The defining characteristic of rock art is that it is placed on natural rock surfaces, as such, rock art is a form of landscape art, and includes designs that have been placed on boulder and cliff faces, cave walls and ceilings, and on the ground surface
26.
Kakadu National Park
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Kakadu National Park is a protected area in the Northern Territory of Australia,171 km southeast of Darwin. The park is located within the Alligator Rivers Region of the Northern Territory and it covers an area of 19,804 km2, extending nearly 200 kilometres from north to south and over 100 kilometres from east to west. It is the size of Slovenia, about one-third the size of Tasmania, the Ranger Uranium Mine, one of the most productive uranium mines in the world, is surrounded by the park. The name Kakadu may come from the mispronunciation of Gaagudju, which is the name of an Aboriginal language formerly spoken in the part of the park. This name may derive from the Indonesian word kakatuwah, subsequently Anglicised as cockatoo, Kakadu is ecologically and biologically diverse. Some 117 species of reptiles Aboriginal people have occupied the Kakadu area continuously for at least 40,000 years, Kakadu National Park is renowned for the richness of its Aboriginal cultural sites. There are more than 5,000 recorded art sites illustrating Aboriginal culture over thousands of years, the archaeological sites demonstrate Aboriginal occupation for at least 20,000 and possibly up to 40,000 years. The cultural and natural values of Kakadu National Park were recognised internationally when the park was placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List and this is an international register of properties that are recognised as having outstanding cultural or natural values of international significance. Kakadu was listed in three stages, stage 1 in 1981, stage 2 in 1987, and the park in 1992. Approximately half of the land in Kakadu is aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976, the areas of the park that are owned by Aboriginal people are leased by the traditional owners to the Director of National Parks to be managed as a national park. The remaining area is commonwealth land vested under the Director of National Parks, all of Kakadu is declared a national park under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The Aboriginal traditional owners of the park are descendants of various groups from the Kakadu area and have longstanding affiliations with this country. Their lifestyle has changed in recent years, but their traditional customs, about 500 Aboriginal people live in the park, many of them are traditional owners. All of Kakadu is jointly managed by Aboriginal traditional owners and the Australian Governments Department of the Environment, Park Management is directed by the Kakadu Board of Management. Kakadu National Park was declared under the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1975 in three stages between 1979 and 1991, the NPWC Act was replaced by the EPBC Act in 2000. The declaration of the park continues under the EPBC Act, Stage One of the park was declared on 5 April 1979. Stage Two was declared on 28 February 1984, in March 1978, a claim was lodged under the Land Rights Act for the land included in Stage Two of Kakadu. The land claim was successful and, in 1986, three areas in the eastern part of Stage Two were granted to the Jabiluka Aboriginal Land Trust
27.
Northern Territory
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The Northern Territory is a federal Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. It shares borders with Western Australia to the west, South Australia to the south, to the north, the territory is bordered by the Timor Sea, the Arafura Sea and the Gulf of Carpentaria. Despite its large area—over 1,349,129 square kilometres, the Northern Territorys population of 244,000 makes it the least populous of Australias eight major states and territories, having fewer than half as many people as Tasmania. The archaeological history of the Northern Territory begins over 40,000 years ago when Indigenous Australians settled the region, makassan traders began trading with the indigenous people of the Northern Territory for trepang from at least the 18th century onwards. The coast of the territory was first seen by Europeans in the 17th century, the British were the first Europeans to attempt to settle the coastal regions. After three failed attempts to establish a settlement, success was achieved in 1869 with the establishment of a settlement at Port Darwin. Today the economy is based on tourism, especially Kakadu National Park in the Top End and the Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the capital and largest city is Darwin. The population is not concentrated in regions but rather along the Stuart Highway. The other major settlements are Palmerston, Alice Springs, Katherine, Nhulunbuy, residents of the Northern Territory are often known simply as Territorians and fully as Northern Territorians, or more informally as Top Enders and Centralians. With the coming of the British, there were four attempts to settle the harsh environment of the northern coast. The Northern Territory was part of colonial New South Wales from 1825 to 1863, except for a time from February to December 1846. It was part of South Australia from 1863 to 1911, under the administration of colonial South Australia, the overland telegraph was constructed between 1870 and 1872. A railway was built between Palmerston and Pine Creek between 1883 and 1889. The economic pattern of raising and mining was established so that by 1911 there were 513,000 cattle. Victoria River Downs was at one time the largest cattle station in the world, gold was found at Grove Hill in 1872 and at Pine Creek, Brocks Creek, Burrundi, and copper was found at Daly River. On 1 January 1911, a decade after federation, the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia, alfred Deakin opined at this time To me the question has been not so much commercial as national, first, second, third and last. Either we must accomplish the peopling of the territory or submit to its transfer to some other nation. In late 1912 there was growing sentiment that the name Northern Territory was unsatisfactory, the names Kingsland, Centralia and Territoria were proposed with Kingsland becoming the preferred choice in 1913
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Arnhem Land
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Arnhem Land is one of the five regions of the Northern Territory of Australia. It is located in the corner of the territory and is around 500 km from the territory capital Darwin. The region has an area of 97,000 km2, which covers the area of Kakadu National Park. The area covers about 34,000 km2 and has an population of 16,000, of whom 12,000 are Yolngu. The region’s service hub is Nhulunbuy,600 km east of Darwin, other major population centres are Yirrkala, Gunbalanya, Ramingining, and Maningrida. A substantial proportion of the population, which is mostly Aboriginal and this outstation movement started in the early 1980s. Many Aboriginal groups moved to very small settlements on their traditional lands. These population groups have very little western influence culturally speaking, many of the regions leaders have called and continue to call for a treaty that would allow the Yolngu to operate under their own traditional laws. In 2013-14, the region contributed around $1.3 billion or 7% to the Northern Territory’s gross state product. Arnhem Land has been occupied by people for tens of thousands of years and is the location of the oldest-known stone axe. The Gove Peninsula was heavily involved in the defence of Australia during World War II, at least since the 18th century Muslim traders from Makassar visited Arnhem Land each year to trade, harvest, and process sea cucumbers or trepang. This sea slug is highly prized in Chinese cuisine, for folk medicine and this Macassan contact with Australia is the first recorded example of interaction between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours. This contact had an effect on local indigenous Australians. The Makassans exchanged goods such as cloth, tobacco, knives, rice, Makassar pidgin became a lingua franca along the north coast among several indigenous Australian groups who were brought into greater contact with each other by the seafaring Makassan culture. These traders from the southwest corner of Sulawesi also introduced the word balanda for white people, in Arnhem Land, the word is still widely used today to refer to white Australians. The Dutch started settling in Sulawesi Island in the early 17th century, archeological remains of Makassar contact, including trepang processing plants from the 18th and 19th centuries, are still found at Australian locations such as Port Essington and Groote Eylandt. The Makassans also planted tamarind trees, after processing, the sea slugs were traded by the Makassans to Southern China. In 2014, an 18th-century Chinese coin was found in the area of Wessel Islands off the coast on a beach on Elcho Island during a historical expedition
29.
Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
30.
Cone
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A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of segments, half-lines, or lines connecting a common point. If the enclosed points are included in the base, the cone is a solid object, otherwise it is a two-dimensional object in three-dimensional space. In the case of an object, the boundary formed by these lines or partial lines is called the lateral surface, if the lateral surface is unbounded. In the case of line segments, the cone does not extend beyond the base, while in the case of half-lines, in the case of lines, the cone extends infinitely far in both directions from the apex, in which case it is sometimes called a double cone. Either half of a cone on one side of the apex is called a nappe. The axis of a cone is the line, passing through the apex. If the base is right circular the intersection of a plane with this surface is a conic section, in general, however, the base may be any shape and the apex may lie anywhere. Contrasted with right cones are oblique cones, in which the axis passes through the centre of the base non-perpendicularly, a cone with a polygonal base is called a pyramid. Depending on the context, cone may also mean specifically a convex cone or a projective cone, cones can also be generalized to higher dimensions. The perimeter of the base of a cone is called the directrix, the base radius of a circular cone is the radius of its base, often this is simply called the radius of the cone. The aperture of a circular cone is the maximum angle between two generatrix lines, if the generatrix makes an angle θ to the axis, the aperture is 2θ. A cone with a region including its apex cut off by a plane is called a cone, if the truncation plane is parallel to the cones base. An elliptical cone is a cone with an elliptical base, a generalized cone is the surface created by the set of lines passing through a vertex and every point on a boundary. The slant height of a circular cone is the distance from any point on the circle to the apex of the cone. It is given by r 2 + h 2, where r is the radius of the cirf the cone and this application is primarily useful in determining the slant height of a cone when given other information regarding the radius or height. The volume V of any conic solid is one third of the product of the area of the base A B and the height h V =13 A B h. In modern mathematics, this formula can easily be computed using calculus – it is, up to scaling, the integral ∫ x 2 d x =13 x 3
31.
Northern Australia
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The term Northern Australia includes Queensland and the Northern Territory. The part of Western Australia north of latitude 26° south—a definition widely used in law, the 26th Parallel also defines the southern border of the NT, whereas much of the southern border of Queensland is defined by 29° south. Although it comprises half of the total area of Australia. However, it includes several sources of Australian exports, being coal from the Great Dividing Range in Queensland/New South Wales and it also includes major natural tourist attractions, such as Uluru, the Great Barrier Reef and the Kakadu National Park. Almost all of Northern Australia is an ancient craton that has not experienced geological upheaval since the end of the Precambrian. The only exception to this generalisation is the Wet Tropics of northern Queensland, the vast craton in the north and west contains a number of quite rugged mountain ranges, of which the highest are the MacDonnell and Musgrave Ranges on the southern border of the Northern Territory. These rise to over 1,500 metres, but the most spectacular features are the deep gorges of rivers such as the Finke. Most of the craton, however, is flat and generally low-lying with an average elevation of around 400 metres. The climate of the north of Australia ranges from arid in the south to monsoonal in the Top End, on the eastern coast, however, the climate is much more humid and ranges from humid sub-tropical to humid tropical in the Wet Tropics. For instance, in Burketown, the months May to September are rainless in over fifty percent of years, temperatures in summer are generally unpleasantly hot apart from the eastern coastal belt. Maximum temperatures elsewhere between October and April range from 30 °C in the south in April to around 40 °C in the inland Pilbara, further north, maxima are consistently around 32 °C but extreme humidity makes conditions very unpleasant. On the coast, maxima in January range from 29 °C in the south to 32 °C, with minima generally around 21 °C. In July, temperatures show a range, from 31 °C in the north to around 19 °C in the south. The above generalisations, however, mask the variability of the climate throughout the whole region. With the exception of the north of the Northern Territory. For example, at Charters Towers, the rainfall over the wet season can vary from less than 100 millimetres in 1901/1902 to over 2,000 millimetres in 1973/1974. Tropical cyclones may cross the coast anywhere in Northern Australia but are most frequent between Derby and Onslow on the west side and between Cooktown and Rockhampton on the east. Inland, variability of rainfall is related to the penetration of the monsoon, with high rainfall in seasons like 1973/1974, 1975/1976
32.
Onomatopoeia
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An onomatopoeia is a word that phonetically imitates, resembles or suggests the sound that it describes. As an uncountable noun, onomatopoeia refers to the property of such words, common occurrences of onomatopoeias include animal noises such as oink, miaow, roar or chirp. Although in the English language, the term means the imitation of a sound. For words that imitate sounds, the term Ηχομιμητικό is used, Ηχομιμητικό derives from Ηχώ, meaning echo or sound, and μιμητικό, meaning mimetic or imitation. Some other very common English-language examples include hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, moo, machines and their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia, as in honk or beep-beep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom or brum for the engine. When someone speaks of an involving a audible arcing of electricity. Human sounds sometimes provide instances of onomatopoeia, as when mwah is used to represent a kiss, for animal sounds, words like quack, moo, bark or woof, roar, meow/miaow or purr, cluck and baa are typically used in English. Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs, some languages flexibly integrate onomatopoeic words into their structure. This may evolve into a new word, up to the point that it is no longer recognized as onomatopoeia, verba dicendi are a method of integrating onomatopoeia and ideophones into grammar. Sometimes things are named from the sounds they make, in English, for example, there is the universal fastener which is named for the onomatopoeic of the sound it makes, the zip or zipper. In Tamil and Malayalam, the word for crow is kaakaa and this practice is especially common in certain languages such as Māori and, therefore, in names of animals borrowed from these languages. Although a particular sound is heard similarly by people of different cultures, for example, the snip of a pair of scissors is cri-cri in Italian, riqui-riqui in Spanish, terre-terre or treque-treque in Portuguese, krits-krits in modern Greek and katr-katr in Hindi. Similarly, the honk of a horn is ba-ba in Mandarin, tut-tut in French, pu-pu in Japanese, bbang-bbang in Korean, bært-bært in Norwegian, fom-fom in Portuguese. Onomatopoeic effect can also be produced in a phrase or word string with the help of alliteration and consonance alone, the most famous example is the phrase furrow followed free in Samuel Taylor Coleridges The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. It may be noted that the words followed and free are not onomatopoeic in themselves, similarly, alliteration has been used in the line as the surf surged up the sun swept shore. To recreate the sound of breaking waves, in the poem I, She, comic strips and comic books made extensive use of onomatopoeia. Crane had fun with this, tossing in an occasional ker-splash or lickety-wop along with what would become the standard effects. Words as well as images became vehicles for carrying along his increasingly fast-paced storylines, in 2002, DC Comics introduced a villain named Onomatopoeia, an athlete, martial artist and weapons expert who often speaks sounds
33.
Irish language
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Irish, also referred to as Gaelic or Irish Gaelic, is a Goidelic language of the Indo-European language family originating in Ireland and historically spoken by the Irish people. Irish is spoken as a first language by a minority of Irish people. Irish enjoys constitutional status as the national and first official language of the Republic of Ireland and it is also among the official languages of the European Union. The public body Foras na Gaeilge is responsible for the promotion of the language throughout the island of Ireland and it has the oldest vernacular literature in Western Europe. The fate of the language was influenced by the power of the English state in Ireland. Elizabethan officials viewed the use of Irish unfavourably, as being a threat to all things English in Ireland and its decline began under English rule in the 17th century. In the latter part of the 19th century, there was a decrease in the number of speakers. Irish-speaking areas were hit especially hard, by the end of British rule, the language was spoken by less than 15% of the national population. Since then, Irish speakers have been in the minority, efforts have been made by the state, individuals and organisations to preserve, promote and revive the language, but with mixed results. Around the turn of the 21st century, estimates of native speakers ranged from 20,000 to 80,000 people. In the 2011 Census, these numbers had increased to 94,000 and 1.3 million, there are several thousand Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. It has been estimated that the active Irish-language scene probably comprises 5 to 10 per cent of Irelands population, there has been a significant increase in the number of urban Irish speakers, particularly in Dublin. In Gaeltacht areas, however, there has been a decline of the use of Irish. Údarás na Gaeltachta predicted that, by 2025, Irish will no longer be the language in any of the designated Gaeltacht areas. Survey data suggest that most Irish people think highly of Irish as a marker of identity. It has also argued that newer urban groups of Irish speakers are a disruptive force in this respect. In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil the name of the language is Gaeilge, before the spelling reform of 1948, this form was spelled Gaedhilge, originally this was the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Irish. Older spellings of this include Gaoidhealg in Classical Irish and Goídelc in Old Irish, the modern spelling results from the deletion of the silent dh in the middle of Gaedhilge, whereas Goidelic languages, used to refer to the language family including Irish, comes from Old Irish
34.
Humming
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A hum is a sound made by producing a wordless tone with the mouth opened or closed, forcing the sound to emerge from the nose. To hum is to such a sound, often with a melody. A hum has a particular timbre, usually a monotone or with slightly varying tones, there are other similar sounds not produced by human singing that are also called hums, such as a sound produced by machinery in operation or by an insect in flight. The hummingbird was named for the sound that bird makes in flight, a hum or humming by humans is created by the resonance of air in various parts of passages in the head and throat, in the act of breathing. The hum that a hummingbird creates is also created by resonance, in case by the passage of air against wings in the actions of flying. Joseph Jordania suggested that humming could have played an important role in the human evolution as contact calls. Many social animals produce seemingly haphazard and indistinct sounds when they are going about their everyday business, other animals quickly follow suit and very soon all the group is silent and is scanning the environment for the possible danger. Charles Darwin was the first to notice this phenomenon on the example of the wild horses, joseph Jordania suggested that for humans, as for many social animals, silence can be a sign of danger, and thats why gentle humming and musical sounds relax humans. Humming is often used in music of genres, from classical to jazz to R&B, another form of music derived from basic humming is the humwhistle. The folk art, also known as whistle-hum, produces a high pitch, the two-tone sound is related to field holler, overtone singing, and yodeling. The dictionary definition of hum at Wiktionary
35.
Croon
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Crooner is an American epithet given to male singers of jazz standards, mostly from the Great American Songbook, backed by either a full orchestra, a big band or a piano. Originally it was a term denoting a sentimental singing style made possible by the use of microphones. Some performers, such as Russ Columbo, did not accept the term and this dominant popular vocal style coincided with the advent of radio broadcasting and electrical recording. Before the advent of the microphone, popular singers like Al Jolson had to project to the seats of a theater, as did opera singers. The microphone made possible the more personal style and he could be heard by anyone with a phonograph or a radio. His first film, The Vagabond Lover, was promoted with the line, while his success brought press warnings of the Vallee Peril, this punk from Maine with the dripping voice required mounted police to beat back screaming, swooning females at his vaudeville shows. Even The New York Times predicted that crooning would be just a passing fad, the newspaper printed, They sing like that because they can’t help it. Their style is begging to go out of fashion…, crooners will soon go the way of tandem bicycles, mah jongg and midget golf. Voice range shifted from tenor to baritone, still, a 1931 record by Dick Robinson, Crosby, Columbo & Vallee, called upon men to fight these public enemies brought into homes via radio. There were female crooners, including Annette Hanshaw, Mildred Bailey and their performances had a variety of influences including ballads and swing and was included in popular film soundtracks. The term is used to describe a female singer, although Mildred Baileys pre-swing records as well as Helen Rowland are often considered part of the crooning style. Due to the country songs popularized by Bing Crosby, the style of singing became an enduring part of country music. Bing Crosby achieved a million seller with his 1940 rendition of the song San Antonio Rose, eddy Arnold, Jim Reeves and Ray Price are especially well known for their country crooner standards. Dean Martin is rather famous for the music he recorded in the period when he was working for Reprise Records. Fellow Italian-American crooner Perry Como recorded several albums with country producer Chet Atkins in Nashville, list of crooners Gary Giddins, Bing Crosby, A Pocketful of Dreams, The Early Years, 1903–1940. Boston, Little, Brown and Co.2001, allison McCracken, Real Men Dont Sing, Crooning in American Culture. Durham, NC, Duke University Press,2015
36.
Eavesdropping
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Eavesdropping is secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent, as defined by Blacks Law Dictionary. The practice is believed to be unethical. The verb eavesdrop is a back-formation from the noun eavesdropper, which was formed from the unrelated noun eavesdrop, an eavesdropper was someone who stands at the eavesdrop so as to hear what is said within. Eavesdropping can also be done over telephone lines, email, voIP communications software is also vulnerable to electronic eavesdropping via infections such as trojans. This type of attack is generally one of the most effective as a lack of encryption services are used. It is also linked to the collection of metadata and those who perform this type of attack are generally black hat hackers, however, government agencies, such as the National Security Agency, have also been connected. The dictionary definition of eavesdropping at Wiktionary Media related to Eavesdropping at Wikimedia Commons
37.
Chain smoking
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Chain smoking is the practice of smoking several cigarettes in succession, sometimes using the ember of a finished cigarette to light the next. Often the term chain smoker refers to a person who smokes relatively constantly, the term applies primarily to cigarettes, although it can be used to describe incessant cigar and pipe smoking as well. It is a form of addiction. The use of cocaine or an amphetamine with cigarettes can result in chain smoking, many people chain smoke when drinking alcoholic beverages because alcohol potentiates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, leading to re-sensitization and hence inducing a craving. The extent to chain smoking is driven by nicotine dependence has been studied. It does not seem that the amount of nicotine delivered is a significant factor as the puff volume correlates poorly with the frequency of cigarette consumption, chain-smoking is given as an example of excessive addictive behaviour in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It may be used as a form of therapy for smokers who are unused to such heavy smoking, inducing them to give up altogether. However, research confirms that current HVAC systems, while important for air quality
38.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
39.
Yolngu
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The Yolngu or Yolŋu are an Indigenous Australian people inhabiting north-eastern Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory of Australia. Yolngu means person in the Yolŋu languages, the term Murngin was formerly used by some anthropologists for the Yolngu. The complete system of Yolngu law is known as the Maḏayin, Maḏayin embodies the rights of the owners of the law, or citizens who have the rights and responsibilities for this embodiment of law. This law covers the ownership of land and waters, the resources on or within these lands and it regulates and controls production and trade and the moral, social and religious law including laws for the conservation and the farming of plants and aquatic life. Yolŋu believe that living out their life according to Maḏayin is right, the Maḏayin creates a state of Magaya, which is a state of peace, freedom from hostilities and true justice for all. Yolŋu groups are connected by a kinship system. This system governs fundamental aspects of Yolŋu life, including responsibilities for ceremony, Yolŋu life is divided into two moieties, Dhuwa and Yirritja. Each of these is represented by people of a number of different groups, each of which have their own lands, languages, totems, a Yirritja person must always marry a Dhuwa person and vice versa. If a man or woman is Dhuwa, their mother will be Yirritja, as with nearly all Aboriginal groups, avoidance relationships exist in Yolngu culture between certain relations. The two main avoidance relationships are, son-in-law – mother-in-law brother – sister Brother–sister avoidance called mirriri normally begins after initiation, in avoidance relationships, people dont speak directly or look at one another, and try to avoid being in too close proximity with each other. Yolngu speak a dozen dialects of a group known as Yolngu Matha. English can be anywhere from a third to a language for Yolŋu. Yolŋu identify six distinct seasons, Mirdawarr, Dhaarratharramirri, Rarranhdharr, Worlmamirri, Baarramirri, Yolŋu sustained good trade relations with Macassan fishermen for several hundred years. The Macassans respected the land as Yolŋu land, they only ever camped on the beach and they made yearly visits to harvest trepang and pearls, paying Yolŋu in kind with goods such as knives, metal, canoes, tobacco and pipes. The Yolŋu folklore has preserved accounts of the Baijini people, who appear to be distinct from the Macassans, in 1906, the South Australian Government did not renew the Macassans permit to harvest trepang. This loss of trade caused some disruption to the Yolŋu way of life, Yolŋu had well established trade routes within Australia, extending to Central Australian clans and other Aboriginal countries. (For example, they did not make boomerangs, but obtained these via trade from Central Australia, Yolŋu had known about Europeans prior to the arrival of British in Australia through their contact with Macassan traders, which probably began around the sixteenth century. Their word for European, Balanda, is derived from Hollander, in the late nineteenth century, white Australians began to open up Arnhem Land for cattle grazing
40.
Groote Eylandt
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Groote Eylandt is the largest island in the Gulf of Carpentaria and the fourth largest island in Australia. It is the homeland of, and is owned by, the Warnindhilyagwa who speak the isolated Anindilyakwa language, Groote Eylandt lies about 50 km from the Northern Territory mainland and eastern coast of Arnhem Land, about 630 km from Darwin, opposite Blue Mud Bay. The island measures about 50 km from east to west and 60 km from north to south and it is generally quite low-lying, with an average height above sea level of 15 metres, although Central Hill reaches an elevation of 219 metres. It was named by the explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 and is Dutch for Large Island in an archaic spelling, the modern Dutch spelling is Groot Eiland. Together with Bickerton Island and a few smaller islands, Groote Eylandt forms Anindilyakwa Ward of East Arnhem Region. It contains the communities of Angurugu, Alyangula, Umbakumba, Yadagba District, Uburamudja District and Sandy Hill, outside the local government subdivision is the mining company GEMCO town of Alyangula, which is unincorporated territory within the Northern Region of Northern Territory. Groote Eylandt is part of the Arnhem Land Aboriginal Reserve, GEMCO, a South32 / Anglo American plc joint venture, operates a large manganese mine near the community of Angurugu. In operation since the early 1960s, the mine more than 3.8 million tonnes annually - about a quarter of the worlds total. The island has recently been open to the public only with permission. There is now a resort hotel on the island and visitors are welcome. The whole of Groote Eylandt and its surrounding waters lie within the Anindilyakwa Indigenous Protected Area, an unnamed islet off the north-eastern coast has been classified by BirdLife International as an important bird area because of its global importance as a roseate tern breeding site. The first recorded sighting of Groote Eylandt was in 1623, by the Dutch ship Arnhem, however, the relative prevalence of the hereditary Machado-Joseph Disease in the Groote Eylandt community has been suggested as evidence of early contact with Portuguese sailors. Japan used to trade with Macassan traders and presumably the genes were transferred to them, the island was given its current name in 1644, when Tasman arrived. The first European settlement on the island was established at Emerald River in 1921, during World War II, in 1943, the mission moved to Angurugu, as the RAAF required the use of the missions airstrip, the ruins of the RAAF base are still evident today. In 1856 the local aboriginal conglomerate that regularly passed was known as the Jurambunga tribe, the island was also used as a flying boat base by Qantas for a period of time. In 1979, control of the island was transferred to the local Aboriginal Town Council, Groote Eylandt was converted to Aboriginal freehold title land following the passing of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act of 1976. On May 20,2008, the Federal Government signed a deal with local Aborigines from Groote Eylandt to lease land to the Government for 40 years. In return, the government will spend money in the community with the aim of improving housing, education, the Eylandt Echo newsletter is produced each fortnight
41.
Arrernte people
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Some Aranda live in other areas far from their homeland, including the major Australian cities and overseas. Aranda mythology and spirituality focuses on the landscape and the Dreamtime, altjira is the creator being of the Inapertwa that became all living creatures. Tjurunga are objects of religious significance, the Arrernte Council is the representative and administrative body for the Aranda Lands and is part of the Central Land Council. Tours are run regularly to Hermannsburg and Wallace Rockhole, both of which are Aranda, so as to more about the Aranda way of life, from their artwork to their culture. The name Aranda refers to the distinct groups, Central Aranda. Eastern Aranda, from the Aranda lands east of Alice Springs, western Aranda, from the Aranda lands west of Alice Springs, out to Mutitjulu and Kings Canyon. However, an alternative, narrower use of the word Aranda refers only to people from the north of Alice Springs. The ancestors of the Aranda all spoke one or more of the Arrernte group of languages/dialects, Aranda is a simplified, Australian English approximation of the traditional pronunciation of the name of Arrernte
42.
Alice Springs
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Alice Springs /ˌælᵻs ˈsprɪŋz/ is the third largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia. Popularly known as the Alice or simply Alice, Alice Springs is situated roughly in Australias geographic centre. The area is known as Mparntwe to its inhabitants, the Arrernte. The name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Lady Alice Todd, Alice Springs has a population of 27,972, which makes up 8.7 percent of the territorys population. Alice Springs is nearly equidistant from Adelaide and Darwin, the town straddles the usually dry Todd River on the northern side of the MacDonnell Ranges. The surrounding region is known as Central Australia, or the Red Centre, the Aboriginal name for Alice Springs is Mparntwe. Many Arrernte people also live in communities outside of Alice Springs, three major groups, the Western, Eastern and Central Arrernte people live in Central Australia, their traditional land including the area of Alice Springs and MacDonnell Ranges. They have also referred to as Aranda, Arrarnta, Arunta. There are five dialects of the Arrernte language, South-eastern, Central, Arrernte country is rich with mountain ranges, waterholes and gorges, which create a variety of natural habitats. The numerous sites of importance in and around Alice Springs include Anthwerrke, Akeyulerre, Ntaripe, Atnelkentyarliweke. A white settlement was started ten years later with the construction of a station on the Overland Telegraph Line. The OTL was completed in 1872 and it traced Stuarts route and opened up the interior for permanent settlement. The Alice Springs Telegraph Station was sited near what was thought to be a permanent waterhole in the normally dry Todd River, the settlement was optimistically named Alice Springs after the wife of the former Postmaster General of South Australia, Sir Charles Todd. The Todd River was named after Sir Charles and it was not until alluvial gold was discovered at Arltunga,100 kilometres east of the present Alice Springs, in 1887 that any significant European settlement occurred. The towns first substantial building was the Stuart Town Gaol in Parsons Street which was built in 1909 when the town had a European population of fewer than 20 people, many of the gaols first prisoners were first contact aboriginal men incarcerated for killing cattle. The first aircraft, piloted by Francis Stewart Briggs landed in 1921, Central Australias first hospital, Adelaide House, was built in 1926 when the European population of the town was about 40. It was not until 1929 when the line to Alice was built. Aboriginal Centralians outnumbered European Centralians until the mid-1930s, until 31 August 1933, the town was officially known as Stuart
43.
Gagudju
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Gaagudju is an extinct Australian Aboriginal language formerly spoken in Arnhem Land, northern Australia, in the environs of Kakadu National Park. Its last speaker, Big Bill Neidjie, died on 23 May 2002, Gaagudju has traditionally been classified with the Gunwinyguan languages. However, in 1997 Nicholas Evans proposed an Arnhem Land family that includes Gaagudju
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