1.
The Difference Engine
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The Difference Engine is an alternative history novel by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling. It is widely regarded as a book that helped establish the conventions of steampunk. It posits a Victorian Britain in which technological and social change has occurred after entrepreneurial inventor Charles Babbage succeeded in his ambition to build a mechanical computer. The novel was nominated for the British Science Fiction Award in 1990, the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1991, the novel is chiefly set in 1855. The historical background diverges from our timeline around 1824, when Charles Babbage succeeded in creating his Difference Engine and he became politically powerful and at the 1830 general election opposed the Tory Government of the Duke of Wellington. Wellington staged a coup détat in 1830 in an attempt to overturn his defeat and prevent the acceleration of change and social upheaval. So the Industrial Radical Party, led by a Lord Byron who had not died in the Greek War of Independence, the Tory Party and hereditary peerage were eclipsed. British trade unions assisted the ascendancy of the Industrial Radical Party, as a result, Luddite anti-technological working class revolutionaries were ruthlessly suppressed. By 1855, the Babbage computers have become mass-produced and ubiquitous, other steam-powered technologies have also developed, so, for example, Gurney steam carriages are an increasingly common sight. In the novel, the British Empire is more powerful than in our reality, thanks to the development, in addition, similar military technology has enhanced the capabilities of the armed forces, and the Babbage computers themselves. Under the Industrial Radical Party, Britain shows the utmost respect for leading scientific and industrial figures such as Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Charles Darwin. Indeed, they are collectively called savants and often raised to the peerage on their merits, causing a break with the past as regards social prestige and class distinction. These new patterns are also reflected in the sphere, classical studies have lost importance compared to more practical concerns such as engineering. Napoleon IIIs French Empire holds an entente with the British and Napoleon is even married to a British woman, in the world of The Difference Engine, it occupies Mexico, as it did briefly in reality during the American Civil War. Like Great Britain, it has its own engines, especially used in the context of domestic surveillance within its police force and intelligence agencies. Japan is awakening after the British ended its isolation, and looks, as in our world, is set to one of this worlds leading industrial. Linking all their stories is the trail of a set of reportedly very powerful computer punch cards. Many characters come to believe that the cards are a gambling modus
2.
Science Museum, London
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The Science Museum is a major museum on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. It was founded in 1857 and today is one of the major tourist attractions. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the Science Museum does not charge visitors for admission. Temporary exhibitions, however, may incur an admission fee and it is part of the Science Museum Group, having merged with the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in 2012. It included a collection of machinery which became the Museum of Patents in 1858, and this collection contained many of the most famous exhibits of what is now the Science Museum. In 1883, the contents of the Patent Office Museum were transferred to the South Kensington Museum, in 1885, the Science Collections were renamed the Science Museum and in 1893 a separate director was appointed. The Art Collections were renamed the Art Museum, which became the Victoria. When Queen Victoria laid the stone for the new building for the Art Museum, she stipulated that the museum be renamed after herself. On 26 June 1909 the Science Museum, as an independent entity, the Science Museums present quarters, designed by Sir Richard Allison, were opened to the public in stages over the period 1919–28. This building was known as the East Block, construction of which began in 1913, as the name suggests it was intended to be the first building of a much larger project, which was never realized. It also contains hundreds of interactive exhibits, a recent addition is the IMAX 3D Cinema showing science and nature documentaries, most of them in 3-D, and the Wellcome Wing which focuses on digital technology. Entrance has been free since 1 December 2001, the museum houses some of the many objects collected by Henry Wellcome around a medical theme. The fourth floor exhibit is called Glimpses of Medical History, with reconstructions, the fifth floor gallery is called Science and the Art of Medicine, with exhibits of medical instruments and practices from ancient days and from many countries. The collection is strong in clinical medicine, biosciences and public health, the museum is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. The Science Museum has a library, and until the 1960s was Britains National Library for Science, Medicine. It holds runs of periodicals, early books and manuscripts, and is used by scholars worldwide and it was, for a number of years, run in conjunction with the Library of Imperial College, but in 2007 the Library was divided over two sites. The Imperial College library catalogue search system now informs searchers that volumes formerly held there are Available at Science Museum Library Swindon Currently unavailable, a new Research Centre with library facilities is promised for late 2015 but is unlikely to have book stacks nearby. The Science Museums medical collections have a scope and coverage
3.
Mechanical calculator
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A mechanical calculator, or calculating machine, was a mechanical device used to perform automatically the basic operations of arithmetic. Most mechanical calculators were comparable in size to small computers and have been rendered obsolete by the advent of the electronic calculator. Surviving notes from Wilhelm Schickard in 1623 reveal that he designed and had built the earliest of the attempts at mechanizing calculation. A study of the surviving notes shows a machine that would have jammed after a few entries on the dial. Schickard abandoned his project in 1624 and never mentioned it again until his death years later in 1635. Two decades after Schickards supposedly failed attempt, in 1642, Blaise Pascal decisively solved these problems with his invention of the mechanical calculator. Co-opted into his fathers labour as tax collector in Rouen, Pascal designed the calculator to help in the amount of tedious arithmetic required. It was called Pascals Calculator or Pascaline, for forty years the arithmometer was the only type of mechanical calculator available for sale. The comptometer, introduced in 1887, was the first machine to use a keyboard which consisted of columns of nine keys for each digit, the Dalton adding machine, manufactured from 1902, was the first to have a 10 key keyboard. Electric motors were used on some mechanical calculators from 1901, the production of mechanical calculators came to a stop in the middle of the 1970s closing an industry that had lasted for 120 years. The first one was a mechanical calculator, his difference engine. In 1855, Georg Scheutz became the first of a handful of designers to succeed at building a smaller and simpler model of his difference engine, a crucial step was the adoption of a punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom making it infinitely programmable. The desire to economize time and mental effort in arithmetical computations and this instrument was probably invented by the Semitic races and later adopted in India, whence it spread westward throughout Europe and eastward to China and Japan. After the development of the abacus, no further advances were made until John Napier devised his numbering rods, or Napiers Bones, in 1617. The 17th century marked the beginning of the history of mechanical calculators, as it saw the invention of its first machines, including Pascals calculator, Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator with a sophisticated carry mechanism in 1642. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes he introduced his calculator to the public and he built twenty of these machines in the following ten years. This machine could add and subtract two numbers directly and multiply and divide by repetition and this suggests that the carry mechanism would have proved itself in practice many times over. Pascals invention of the machine, just three hundred years ago, was made while he was a youth of nineteen
4.
Polynomial
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In mathematics, a polynomial is an expression consisting of variables and coefficients, that involves only the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and non-negative integer exponents. An example of a polynomial of a single indeterminate x is x2 − 4x +7, an example in three variables is x3 + 2xyz2 − yz +1. Polynomials appear in a variety of areas of mathematics and science. In advanced mathematics, polynomials are used to construct polynomial rings and algebraic varieties, central concepts in algebra, the word polynomial joins two diverse roots, the Greek poly, meaning many, and the Latin nomen, or name. It was derived from the binomial by replacing the Latin root bi- with the Greek poly-. The word polynomial was first used in the 17th century, the x occurring in a polynomial is commonly called either a variable or an indeterminate. When the polynomial is considered as an expression, x is a symbol which does not have any value. It is thus correct to call it an indeterminate. However, when one considers the function defined by the polynomial, then x represents the argument of the function, many authors use these two words interchangeably. It is a convention to use uppercase letters for the indeterminates. However one may use it over any domain where addition and multiplication are defined, in particular, when a is the indeterminate x, then the image of x by this function is the polynomial P itself. This equality allows writing let P be a polynomial as a shorthand for let P be a polynomial in the indeterminate x. A polynomial is an expression that can be built from constants, the word indeterminate means that x represents no particular value, although any value may be substituted for it. The mapping that associates the result of substitution to the substituted value is a function. This can be expressed concisely by using summation notation, ∑ k =0 n a k x k That is. Each term consists of the product of a number—called the coefficient of the term—and a finite number of indeterminates, because x = x1, the degree of an indeterminate without a written exponent is one. A term and a polynomial with no indeterminates are called, respectively, a constant term, the degree of a constant term and of a nonzero constant polynomial is 0. The degree of the polynomial,0, is generally treated as not defined
5.
Function (mathematics)
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In mathematics, a function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the property that each input is related to exactly one output. An example is the function that each real number x to its square x2. The output of a function f corresponding to a x is denoted by f. In this example, if the input is −3, then the output is 9, likewise, if the input is 3, then the output is also 9, and we may write f =9. The input variable are sometimes referred to as the argument of the function, Functions of various kinds are the central objects of investigation in most fields of modern mathematics. There are many ways to describe or represent a function, some functions may be defined by a formula or algorithm that tells how to compute the output for a given input. Others are given by a picture, called the graph of the function, in science, functions are sometimes defined by a table that gives the outputs for selected inputs. A function could be described implicitly, for example as the inverse to another function or as a solution of a differential equation, sometimes the codomain is called the functions range, but more commonly the word range is used to mean, instead, specifically the set of outputs. For example, we could define a function using the rule f = x2 by saying that the domain and codomain are the numbers. The image of this function is the set of real numbers. In analogy with arithmetic, it is possible to define addition, subtraction, multiplication, another important operation defined on functions is function composition, where the output from one function becomes the input to another function. Linking each shape to its color is a function from X to Y, each shape is linked to a color, there is no shape that lacks a color and no shape that has more than one color. This function will be referred to as the color-of-the-shape function, the input to a function is called the argument and the output is called the value. The set of all permitted inputs to a function is called the domain of the function. Thus, the domain of the function is the set of the four shapes. The concept of a function does not require that every possible output is the value of some argument, a second example of a function is the following, the domain is chosen to be the set of natural numbers, and the codomain is the set of integers. The function associates to any number n the number 4−n. For example, to 1 it associates 3 and to 10 it associates −6, a third example of a function has the set of polygons as domain and the set of natural numbers as codomain
6.
Logarithm
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In mathematics, the logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. That means the logarithm of a number is the exponent to which another fixed number, in simple cases the logarithm counts factors in multiplication. For example, the base 10 logarithm of 1000 is 3, the logarithm of x to base b, denoted logb, is the unique real number y such that by = x. For example, log2 =6, as 64 =26, the logarithm to base 10 is called the common logarithm and has many applications in science and engineering. The natural logarithm has the e as its base, its use is widespread in mathematics and physics. The binary logarithm uses base 2 and is used in computer science. Logarithms were introduced by John Napier in the early 17th century as a means to simplify calculations and they were rapidly adopted by navigators, scientists, engineers, and others to perform computations more easily, using slide rules and logarithm tables. The present-day notion of logarithms comes from Leonhard Euler, who connected them to the function in the 18th century. Logarithmic scales reduce wide-ranging quantities to tiny scopes, for example, the decibel is a unit quantifying signal power log-ratios and amplitude log-ratios. In chemistry, pH is a measure for the acidity of an aqueous solution. Logarithms are commonplace in scientific formulae, and in measurements of the complexity of algorithms and they describe musical intervals, appear in formulas counting prime numbers, inform some models in psychophysics, and can aid in forensic accounting. In the same way as the logarithm reverses exponentiation, the logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function applied to complex numbers. The discrete logarithm is another variant, it has uses in public-key cryptography, the idea of logarithms is to reverse the operation of exponentiation, that is, raising a number to a power. For example, the power of 2 is 8, because 8 is the product of three factors of 2,23 =2 ×2 ×2 =8. It follows that the logarithm of 8 with respect to base 2 is 3, the third power of some number b is the product of three factors equal to b. More generally, raising b to the power, where n is a natural number, is done by multiplying n factors equal to b. The n-th power of b is written bn, so that b n = b × b × ⋯ × b ⏟ n factors, exponentiation may be extended to by, where b is a positive number and the exponent y is any real number. For example, b−1 is the reciprocal of b, that is, the logarithm of a positive real number x with respect to base b, a positive real number not equal to 1, is the exponent by which b must be raised to yield x
7.
Trigonometric functions
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In planar geometry, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle. Angles formed by two rays lie in a plane, but this plane does not have to be a Euclidean plane, Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes in Euclidean and other spaces. Angles formed by the intersection of two curves in a plane are defined as the angle determined by the tangent rays at the point of intersection. Similar statements hold in space, for example, the angle formed by two great circles on a sphere is the dihedral angle between the planes determined by the great circles. Angle is also used to designate the measure of an angle or of a rotation and this measure is the ratio of the length of a circular arc to its radius. In the case of an angle, the arc is centered at the vertex. In the case of a rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation. The word angle comes from the Latin word angulus, meaning corner, cognate words are the Greek ἀγκύλος, meaning crooked, curved, both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning to bend or bow. Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, according to Proclus an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. In mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters to serve as variables standing for the size of some angle, lower case Roman letters are also used, as are upper case Roman letters in the context of polygons. See the figures in this article for examples, in geometric figures, angles may also be identified by the labels attached to the three points that define them. For example, the angle at vertex A enclosed by the rays AB, sometimes, where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may be referred to simply by its vertex. However, in geometrical situations it is obvious from context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant. Otherwise, a convention may be adopted so that ∠BAC always refers to the angle from B to C. Angles smaller than an angle are called acute angles. An angle equal to 1/4 turn is called a right angle, two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular. Angles larger than an angle and smaller than a straight angle are called obtuse angles. An angle equal to 1/2 turn is called a straight angle, Angles larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn are called reflex angles
8.
Taylor series
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In mathematics, a Taylor series is a representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of the functions derivatives at a single point. The concept of a Taylor series was formulated by the Scottish mathematician James Gregory, a function can be approximated by using a finite number of terms of its Taylor series. Taylors theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error introduced by the use of such an approximation, the polynomial formed by taking some initial terms of the Taylor series is called a Taylor polynomial. The Taylor series of a function is the limit of that functions Taylor polynomials as the degree increases, a function may not be equal to its Taylor series, even if its Taylor series converges at every point. A function that is equal to its Taylor series in an interval is known as an analytic function in that interval. The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function f that is differentiable at a real or complex number a is the power series f + f ′1. Which can be written in the more compact sigma notation as ∑ n =0 ∞ f n, N where n. denotes the factorial of n and f denotes the nth derivative of f evaluated at the point a. The derivative of order zero of f is defined to be f itself and 0 and 0. are both defined to be 1, when a =0, the series is also called a Maclaurin series. The Maclaurin series for any polynomial is the polynomial itself. The Maclaurin series for 1/1 − x is the geometric series 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ⋯ so the Taylor series for 1/x at a =1 is 1 − +2 −3 + ⋯. The Taylor series for the exponential function ex at a =0 is x 00, + ⋯ =1 + x + x 22 + x 36 + x 424 + x 5120 + ⋯ = ∑ n =0 ∞ x n n. The above expansion holds because the derivative of ex with respect to x is also ex and this leaves the terms n in the numerator and n. in the denominator for each term in the infinite sum. The Greek philosopher Zeno considered the problem of summing an infinite series to achieve a result, but rejected it as an impossibility. It was through Archimedess method of exhaustion that a number of progressive subdivisions could be performed to achieve a finite result. Liu Hui independently employed a similar method a few centuries later, in the 14th century, the earliest examples of the use of Taylor series and closely related methods were given by Madhava of Sangamagrama. The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics further expanded his works with various series expansions, in the 17th century, James Gregory also worked in this area and published several Maclaurin series. It was not until 1715 however that a method for constructing these series for all functions for which they exist was finally provided by Brook Taylor. The Maclaurin series was named after Colin Maclaurin, a professor in Edinburgh, if f is given by a convergent power series in an open disc centered at b in the complex plane, it is said to be analytic in this disc
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Mathematical table
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Tables of logarithms and trigonometric functions were common in math and science textbooks. Specialized tables were published for such as astronomy, celestial navigation. However, this answer is only accurate to four decimal places, if one wanted greater accuracy, one could interpolate linearly as follows, From the Bernegger table, sin =0.9666746 sin =0.9666001 The difference between these values is 0.0000745. For tables with greater precision, higher order interpolation may be needed to get full accuracy, to understand the importance of accuracy in applications like navigation note that at sea level one minute of arc along the Earths equator or a meridian equals approximately one nautical mile. The first tables of trigonometric functions known to be made were by Hipparchus and Menelaus, along with the surviving table of Ptolemy, they were all tables of chords and not of half-chords, i. e. the sine function. The table produced by the Indian mathematician Āryabhaṭa is considered the first sine table ever constructed, Āryabhaṭas table remained the standard sine table of ancient India. Tables of common logarithms were used until the invention of computers and electronic calculators to do rapid multiplications, divisions and this was motivated mainly by errors in logarithmic tables made by the human computers of the time. Early digital computers were developed during World War II in part to produce specialized mathematical tables for aiming artillery, from 1972 onwards, with the launch and growing use of scientific calculators, most mathematical tables went out of use. In essence, one trades computing speed for the memory space required to store the tables. But same mantissa could be used for less than one by offsetting the characteristic. Thus a single table of common logarithms can be used for the range of positive decimal numbers. See common logarithm for details on the use of characteristics and mantissas, michael Stifel published Arithmetica integra in Nuremberg in 1544 which contains a table of integers and powers of 2 that has been considered an early version of a logarithmic table. The method of logarithms was publicly propounded by John Napier in 1614, the book contained fifty-seven pages of explanatory matter and ninety pages of tables related to natural logarithms. The English mathematician Henry Briggs visited Napier in 1615, and proposed a re-scaling of Napiers logarithms to form what is now known as the common or base-10 logarithms
10.
Human computer
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The term computer, in use from the early 17th century, meant one who computes, a person performing mathematical calculations, before electronic computers became commercially available. The human computer is supposed to be following fixed rules, he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail, teams of people were frequently used to undertake long and often tedious calculations, the work was divided so that this could be done in parallel. Since the end of the 20th century, the human computer has also been applied to individuals with prodigious powers of mental arithmetic. The approach was taken for astronomical and other complex calculations, for some men, being a computer was a temporary position until they moved on to greater advancements. This changed in the nineteenth century with Edward Charles Pickering. His group was at times termed Harvard Computers, many of the women astronomers from this era were computers with possibly the best known being Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who worked with Pickering from 1893. Florence Cushman was another of the Harvard University computers from 1888 onward, among her best known works was A Catalogue of 16,300 Stars Observed with the 12-inch Meridian Photometer. She also worked with Annie Jump Cannon, the Indian mathematician Radhanath Sikdar was employed as a computer for the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India in 1840. It was he who first identified and calculated the height of the worlds highest mountain, Human computers were used to compile 18th and 19th century Western European mathematical tables, for example those for trigonometry and logarithms. Although these tables were most often known by the names of the principal mathematician involved in the project, such tables were often in fact the work of an army of unknown, ever more accurate tables to a high degree of precision were needed for navigation and engineering. Approaches differred, but one was to break up the project into a form of long distance work from home piece work. The computers, often educated middle class women who society deemed it unseemly to engage in the professions or go out to work, would receive, Human computers were used to predict the effects of building the Afsluitdijk in the Zuiderzee. The computer simulation was set up by Hendrik Lorentz, around 1910 he had already used human computers to calculate the stresses inside a masonry dam. In the Manhattan Project, human computers, working with a variety of mechanical aids, Margot Lee Shetterlys biographical book, Hidden Figures, documents the contributions of African American woman who served as human computers at NASA. One such computer was Dorothy Vaughan who began her work in 1943 with the Langley Research Center as a special hire to aid the WWII effort and this usage is questionable for the following reason. HBC is a technique where a machine outsources certain tasks to humans. In fact, most of the humans in the context of HBC are not provided with a sequence of exact steps that needs to be executed to yield an answer. HBC is agnostic about how humans solve the problem and this is why the term outsourcing is used in the definition
11.
Charles Babbage
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Charles Babbage KH FRS was an English polymath. A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage is best remembered for originating the concept of a programmable computer. His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as pre-eminent among the many polymaths of his century, parts of Babbages uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London. In 1991, a perfectly functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbages original plans, built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbages machine would have worked. Babbages birthplace is disputed, but according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, a blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. His date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792, the parish register of St. Marys Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791. Babbage was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumleigh Teape and his father was a banking partner of William Praed in founding Praeds & Co. of Fleet Street, London, in 1801. In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth, around the age of eight, Babbage was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life-threatening fever. For a short time he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes, South Devon, Babbage then joined the 30-student Holmwood academy, in Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex, under the Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a library that prompted Babbages love of mathematics and he studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. The first was a clergyman near Cambridge, through him Babbage encountered Charles Simeon and his evangelical followers and he was brought home, to study at the Totnes school, this was at age 16 or 17. The second was an Oxford tutor, under whom Babbage reached a level in Classics sufficient to be accepted by Cambridge, Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1810. He was already self-taught in some parts of mathematics, he had read in Robert Woodhouse, Joseph Louis Lagrange. As a result, he was disappointed in the standard mathematical instruction available at the university, Babbage, John Herschel, George Peacock, and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812, they were also close to Edward Ryan. In 1812 Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge and he was the top mathematician there, but did not graduate with honours. He instead received a degree without examination in 1814 and he had defended a thesis that was considered blasphemous in the preliminary public disputation, but it is not known whether this fact is related to his not sitting the examination. Considering his reputation, Babbage quickly made progress and he lectured to the Royal Institution on astronomy in 1815, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816. After graduation, on the hand, he applied for positions unsuccessfully
12.
Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
13.
Antikythera mechanism
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Found housed in a 340 millimetres ×180 millimetres ×90 millimetres wooden box, the device is a complex clockwork mechanism composed of at least 30 meshing bronze gears. Its remains were found as one lump, later separated in three fragments, which are now divided into 82 separate fragments after conservation works. Four of these fragments contain gears, while inscriptions are found on many others, the largest gear is approximately 140 millimetres in diameter and originally had 223 teeth. The artefact was recovered probably in July 1901 from the Antikythera shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera. Believed to have designed and constructed by Greek scientists, the instrument has been dated either between 150 and 100 BC, or, according to a more recent view, in 205 BC. All known fragments of the Antikythera mechanism are kept at the National Archaeological Museum, in Athens, the Antikythera mechanism was discovered in 45 metres of water in the Antikythera shipwreck off Point Glyphadia on the Greek island of Antikythera. All were transferred to the National Museum of Archaeology in Athens for storage, merely a lump of corroded bronze and wood at the time, the mechanism went unnoticed for two years while museum staff worked on piecing together more obvious statues. On 17 May 1902, archaeologist Valerios Stais was examining the finds, investigations into the object were soon dropped until British science historian and Yale University professor, Derek J. de Solla Price became interested in it in 1951. In 1971, both Price and Greek nuclear physicist Charalampos Karakalos made X-ray and gamma-ray images of the 82 fragments, Price published an extensive 70-page paper on their findings in 1974. Generally referred to as the first known computer, the quality and complexity of the mechanisms manufacture suggests it has undiscovered predecessors made during the Hellenistic period. Its construction relied upon theories of astronomy and mathematics developed by Greek astronomers, in 1974, Derek de Solla Price concluded from gear settings and inscriptions on the mechanisms faces that it was made about 87 BC and lost only a few years later. Jacques Cousteau and associates visited the wreck in 1976 and recovered coins dated to between 76 and 67 BC, though its advanced state of corrosion has made it impossible to perform an accurate compositional analysis, it is believed the device was made of a low-tin bronze alloy. All its instructions are written in Koine Greek, and the consensus among scholars is that the mechanism was made in the Greek-speaking world, syracuse was a colony of Corinth and the home of Archimedes, which might imply a connection with the school of Archimedes. With its many scrolls of art and science, it was second in only to the Library of Alexandria during the Hellenistic period. A busy trading port in antiquity, Rhodes was also a centre of astronomy and mechanical engineering, home to the astronomer Hipparchus and that the mechanism uses Hipparchuss theory for the motion of the moon suggests the possibility he may have designed, or at least worked on it. He regarded the Antikythera mechanism as more valuable than the Mona Lisa, in 2014, a study by Carman and Evans argued for a new dating of approximately 200 BC. Moreover, according to Carman and Evans, the Babylonian arithmetic style of prediction fits much better with the devices predictive models than the traditional Greek trigonometric style, further dives are being undertaken in the hope of discovering more of the mechanism. The original mechanism apparently came out of the Mediterranean as a single encrusted piece, soon afterward it fractured into three major pieces
14.
Blaise Pascal
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Blaise Pascal was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Christian philosopher. He was a prodigy who was educated by his father. Pascal also wrote in defence of the scientific method, in 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines. After three years of effort and 50 prototypes, he built 20 finished machines over the following 10 years, following Galileo Galilei and Torricelli, in 1647, he rebutted Aristotles followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascals results caused many disputes before being accepted, in 1646, he and his sister Jacqueline identified with the religious movement within Catholicism known by its detractors as Jansenism. Following a religious experience in late 1654, he began writing works on philosophy. His two most famous works date from this period, the Lettres provinciales and the Pensées, the set in the conflict between Jansenists and Jesuits. In that year, he wrote an important treatise on the arithmetical triangle. Between 1658 and 1659 he wrote on the cycloid and its use in calculating the volume of solids, Pascal had poor health, especially after the age of 18, and he died just two months after his 39th birthday. Pascal was born in Clermont-Ferrand, which is in Frances Auvergne region and he lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, Étienne Pascal, who also had an interest in science and mathematics, was a local judge, Pascal had two sisters, the younger Jacqueline and the elder Gilberte. In 1631, five years after the death of his wife, the newly arrived family soon hired Louise Delfault, a maid who eventually became an instrumental member of the family. Étienne, who never remarried, decided that he alone would educate his children, for they all showed extraordinary intellectual ability, the young Pascal showed an amazing aptitude for mathematics and science. Particularly of interest to Pascal was a work of Desargues on conic sections and it states that if a hexagon is inscribed in a circle then the three intersection points of opposite sides lie on a line. Pascals work was so precocious that Descartes was convinced that Pascals father had written it, in France at that time offices and positions could be—and were—bought and sold. In 1631 Étienne sold his position as president of the Cour des Aides for 65,665 livres. The money was invested in a government bond which provided, if not a lavish, then certainly a comfortable income which allowed the Pascal family to move to, but in 1638 Richelieu, desperate for money to carry on the Thirty Years War, defaulted on the governments bonds. Suddenly Étienne Pascals worth had dropped from nearly 66,000 livres to less than 7,300 and it was only when Jacqueline performed well in a childrens play with Richelieu in attendance that Étienne was pardoned
15.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
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Leibnizs notation has been widely used ever since it was published. It was only in the 20th century that his Law of Continuity and he became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators. He also refined the number system, which is the foundation of virtually all digital computers. Leibniz, along with René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, was one of the three great 17th-century advocates of rationalism and he wrote works on philosophy, politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Leibnizs contributions to this vast array of subjects were scattered in various learned journals, in tens of thousands of letters and he wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin, French, and German. There is no complete gathering of the writings of Leibniz in English, Gottfried Leibniz was born on July 1,1646, toward the end of the Thirty Years War, in Leipzig, Saxony, to Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina Schmuck. Friedrich noted in his journal,21. Juny am Sontag 1646 Ist mein Sohn Gottfried Wilhelm, post sextam vespertinam 1/4 uff 7 uhr abents zur welt gebohren, in English, On Sunday 21 June 1646, my son Gottfried Wilhelm is born into the world a quarter after six in the evening, in Aquarius. Leibniz was baptized on July 3 of that year at St. Nicholas Church, Leipzig and his father died when he was six and a half years old, and from that point on he was raised by his mother. Her teachings influenced Leibnizs philosophical thoughts in his later life, Leibnizs father had been a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Leipzig, and the boy later inherited his fathers personal library. He was given access to it from the age of seven. Access to his fathers library, largely written in Latin, also led to his proficiency in the Latin language and he also composed 300 hexameters of Latin verse, in a single morning, for a special event at school at the age of 13. In April 1661 he enrolled in his fathers former university at age 15 and he defended his Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui, which addressed the principle of individuation, on June 9,1663. Leibniz earned his masters degree in Philosophy on February 7,1664, after one year of legal studies, he was awarded his bachelors degree in Law on September 28,1665. His dissertation was titled De conditionibus, in early 1666, at age 19, Leibniz wrote his first book, De Arte Combinatoria, the first part of which was also his habilitation thesis in Philosophy, which he defended in March 1666. His next goal was to earn his license and Doctorate in Law, in 1666, the University of Leipzig turned down Leibnizs doctoral application and refused to grant him a Doctorate in Law, most likely due to his relative youth. Leibniz then enrolled in the University of Altdorf and quickly submitted a thesis, the title of his thesis was Disputatio Inauguralis de Casibus Perplexis in Jure. Leibniz earned his license to practice law and his Doctorate in Law in November 1666 and he next declined the offer of an academic appointment at Altdorf, saying that my thoughts were turned in an entirely different direction
16.
Hessian (soldier)
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They took their name from the German state of Hesse-Kassel. The British hired Hessian troops for duty in several eighteenth century conflicts. About 30,000 German soldiers fought for the British during the American Revolutionary War and they entered the British service as entire units, fighting under their own German flags, commanded by their usual officers, and wearing their existing uniforms. The largest contingent came from the state of Hesse, which supplied about 40% of the German troops who fought for the British. The large number of troops from Hesse-Kassel led to the use of the term Hessians to refer to all German troops fighting on the British side, the others were rented from other small German states. Patriots presented the soldiers as foreign mercenaries with no stake in America, many of the men were press-ganged into Hessian service. Deserters were summarily executed or beaten by an entire company, Hessian prisoners of war were put to work on local farms. The small German states of the Holy Roman Empire had professional armies, when military conflict broke out, the German states provided a ready supply of trained troops that was ready to go into action immediately. Hesse-Kassel was particularly prominent in this role, Between 1706 and 1707,10,000 Hessians served as a corps in Eugene of Savoys army in Italy before moving to the Spanish Netherlands in 1708. In 1714,6,000 Hessians were rented to Sweden for its war with Russia whilst 12,000 Hessians were hired by George I of Great Britain in 1715 to combat the Jacobite Rebellion. In the midst of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744,6,000 Hessians were fighting with the British army in Flanders whilst another 6,000 were in the Bavarian army. By 1762,24,000 Hessians were serving with Ferdinand of Brunswicks army in Germany, in most of these wars, Hesse-Kassel never became a belligerent by declaring war on any other country. The troops were rented for service in other armies, and Hesse-Kassel itself had no stake in the outcome of the war. Thus, it was possible for Hessians to serve with the British and Bavarian armies in the War of the Austrian Succession, even though Britain, historian Charles Ingrao says that the local prince had turned Hesse into a mercenary state by renting out his regiments to fund his government. Of 30,067 German troops leased by Great Britain,12,992 were supplied by Hesse-Kassel and they came not as individuals but in entire units with their usual uniforms, flags, equipment, and officers. Hesse-Kassel like most of the other German principalities still had serfdom, once these troops entered British Territory, where serfdom was illegal, they were still bound by the military code. Their officers were for the most part the upper stratum of society, the only ways a Hessian regular soldier could become a free man under these circumstances was desertion or capture. Serfdom was only abolished in Hesse-Kassel in 1806 by Napoleon Bonaparte, Hessian troops included jäger, hussars, three artillery companies, and four battalions of grenadiers
17.
Adding machine
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An adding machine was a class of mechanical calculator, usually specialized for bookkeeping calculations. In the United States, the earliest adding machines were built to read in dollars. Adding machines were ubiquitous office equipment until they were phased out in favor of calculators in the 1970s, the older adding machines were rarely seen in American office settings by the year 2000. However, they did not gain widespread use until Dorr E. Felt started manufacturing his comptometer, to add a new list of numbers and arrive at a total, the user was first required to ZERO the machine. Then, to add sets of numbers, the user was required to press numbered keys on a keyboard, which would remain depressed. The user would then pull the crank, which caused the numbers to be shown on the wheels. The rotary wheels now showed 3072, press the 4 key in the 3rd column from the right, the 4 key in the 2nd column from right, and the 9 key in the rightmost column. The rotary wheels now show a total of 3521 which. Keyboards typically did not have or need 0 keys, one simply did not press any key in the column containing a zero, trailing zeros, were there by default because when a machine was zeroed, all numbers visible on the rotary wheels were reset to zero. Subtraction was impossible, except by adding the complement of a number, multiplication was a simple process of keying in the numbers one or more columns to the left and repeating the addition process. For example, to multiply 34.72 by 102, key in 3472, pull crank, wheels now show 354144, or 3,541.44 A later adding machine, called the comptometer, did not require that a crank be pulled to add. Numbers were input simply by pressing keys, the machine was thus driven by finger power. Multiplication was similar to that on the machine, but users would form up their fingers over the keys to be pressed. Using the above example, four fingers would be used to press down twice on the 3,4,7 and 2 keys and that finger shape would then move left two columns and press once. Usually a small crank near the wheels would be used to zero them, some adding machines were electromechanical — an old-style mechanism, but driven by electric power. Some ten-key machines had input of numbers as on a modern calculator –30.72 was input as 3,0,7,2 and these machines could subtract as well as add. Some could multiply and divide, although including these operations made the more complex. Those that could multiply, used a form of the old adding machine multiplication method, using the previous example of multiplying 34.72 by 102, the amount was keyed in, then the 2 key in the multiplication key column was pressed
18.
Royal Astronomical Society
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The Royal Astronomical Society is a learned society that began as the Astronomical Society of London in 1820 to support astronomical research. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving its Royal Charter from William IV, a Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up the fellowship to women. Meetings are held in Burlington House, in Piccadilly, London and they are involved in the production of astronomical journals and periodicals. The society has over 3000 members, around a third of whom live outside the UK, in addition, those members of the public who have an interest in astronomy and geophysics and wish to support the work of the society may become Friends of the RAS. One of the activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes two primary research journals, the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society in astronomy and the Geophysical Journal International in geophysics and it also publishes the magazine A&G which includes reviews and other articles of wide scientific interest in a glossy format. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society, as a result of the societys foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists, the society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Councils Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003, in 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits, ordinary meetings featuring lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics are normally held in Burlington House in London on the second Friday of every month from October through to May. Reports of the meetings appear in The Observatory magazine, scientific discussion meetings about particular research topics are held on the day of the ordinary meetings. These allow several speakers to present new research results and experts to present reviews of scientific fields, discussion meetings on two different topics within astronomy and geophysics frequently take place in parallel at different locations within Burlington House. The Society occasionally hosts meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, the Society also sponsors the National Astronomy Meeting, a week-long general conference of professional astronomers, normally held each spring at a university campus in the United Kingdom. The Society holds occasional lunchtime public lectures in Central London aimed at a general, non-specialist, the Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists. The society promotes astronomy to members of the public through their outreach pages for students, teachers. The RAS has a role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs
19.
Government of the United Kingdom
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Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
20.
Lady Byron
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Anne Isabella Noel Byron, 11th Baroness Wentworth and Baroness Byron, nicknamed Annabella, was the wife of poet George Gordon Byron, more commonly known as Lord Byron. A highly educated and strictly religious woman, she seemed an unlikely match for the amoral and agnostic poet, Lady Byron’s reminiscences, published after her death by Harriet Beecher Stowe, revealed her fears about an alleged incest Lord Byron had with his half-sister. The scandal about Lady Byrons suspicions accelerated Byrons intentions to leave England and their daughter Ada worked as a mathematician with Charles Babbage, precursor of computer science. Lady Byron had felt that an education in mathematics and logic would counteract any possible inherited tendency towards Lord Byrons insanity and romantic excess. She was born Anne Isabella Milbanke, the child of Sir Ralph Milbanke, 6th Baronet. When Lord Wentworth died, a few months after her marriage to Lord Byron, Lady Milbanke, the family subsequently took the surname Noel over Milbanke. Lord Wentworth had been both a viscount and a baron, upon his death the viscountcy became extinct, and the barony fell into abeyance between Lady Milbanke and Lord Scarsdale. After their deaths, the passed to Lady Byron, and she became Baroness Wentworth in her own right, however. She signed her letters A. I, Noel Byron and her will as Baroness Noel-Byron. The world knew her as Lady Byron, and her friends, to cultivate her obvious intelligence, her parents hired as tutor a former Cambridge University professor by the name of William Frend. This fascination led her husband to nickname her his princess of parallelograms, Annabella developed into a stiff, religious woman with strict morals. She was aware of her intellect and was not ashamed to demonstrate it in her social realm. Often described as cold and prim, she seemed an unlikely match for the man who would become her ultimate obsession and their first meeting occurred in March 1812. She later said to her mother though she would not venture to introduce herself to Lord Byron. Byrons popularity was soaring following the success of his work Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, Annabella met him on many social occasions as he began a relationship with Caroline Lamb, the wife of her cousin, William Lamb. However, Byron was attracted to her modesty and intellect and in October 1812 he proposed marriage through her aunt, in response, she wrote a summary of his character and three days later refused him. However, they were plagued with a persistent interest in each other, although well aware of Byrons shortcomings, telling her mother “He is a very bad, very good man, she decided it was her religious obligation to support him and improve his behavior. In August 1813, she contacted him in writing for the first time, the letters continued into the next year, some offering reassurance and support during times when public opinion of him was not favorable, others describing the imperfect attachment she felt for him
21.
Analytical Engine
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The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbages difference engine, in other words, the logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era. Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and it was not until the 1940s that the first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837. Construction of this machine was never completed, Babbage had conflicts with his engineer, Joseph Clement. During this project, he realized that a more general design. The work on the design of the Analytical Engine started in 1835, the input, consisting of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter, the machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic, there was to be a store capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. An arithmetical unit would be able to all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons. Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a circular layout. Later drawings depict a regularized grid layout, the programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing, there were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Babbage developed some two dozen programs for the Analytical Engine between 1837 and 1840, and one program later and these programs treat polynomials, iterative formulas, Gaussian elimination, and Bernoulli numbers. In 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea published a description of the based on a lecture by Babbage in French. In 1843, the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by Ada Lovelace, in recognition of her additions to Menabreas paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoulli numbers using the machine, she has been described as the first computer programmer. Late in his life, Babbage sought ways to build a version of the machine. In 1878, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the Analytical Engine as a marvel of mechanical ingenuity, but recommended against constructing it. The committee acknowledged the usefulness and value of the machine, but could not estimate the cost of building it, and were unsure whether the machine would function correctly after being built
22.
Per Georg Scheutz
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Pehr Georg Scheutz was a 19th-century Swedish lawyer, translator, and inventor, who is now best known for his pioneering work in computer technology. Scheutz studied law at Lund University, graduating in 1805 and he then worked as a legal expert and translator before turning predominantly to liberal politics and mechanical engineering. He is most known for his inventions, the best known of these is the Scheutzian calculation engine, invented in 1837 and this machine, which he constructed with his son Edvard Scheutz, was based on Charles Babbages difference engine. An improved model, roughly the size of a piano, was created in 1853, the machine was then sold to the British government in 1859. Scheutz created yet another machine in 1860, selling it to the United States, the devices were used for creating logarithmic tables. Scheutz was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1856, Difference engine Martin Wiberg Timeline of computing 750 BC-1949 Michael Lingren. Glory and Failure, The Difference Engines of Johann Müller, Charles Babbage and Georg, mario G. Losano, Scheutz, La macchina alle differenze. Un secolo di calcolo automatico, Etas Libri, Milano 1974, pp.164
23.
Exposition Universelle (1855)
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The Exposition Universelle of 1855 was an International Exhibition held on the Champs-Élysées in Paris from 15 May to 15 November 1855. Its full official title was the Exposition Universelle des produits de lAgriculture, today the expositions sole physical remnant is the Théâtre du Rond-Point des Champs-Élysées designed by architect Gabriel Davioud, which originally housed the Panorama National. The exposition was an event in France, then newly under the reign of Emperor Napoleon III. It followed Londons Great Exhibition of 1851 and attempted to surpass that fairs Crystal Palace with its own Palais de lIndustrie, the arts displayed were shown in a separate pavilion on Avenue Montaigne. There were works from artists from 29 countries, including French artists Francois Rude, Ingres, Delacroix and Henri Lehmann, and British artists William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais. According to its report,5,162,330 visitors attended the exposition. Expenses amounted to upward of $5,000,000, while receipts were scarcely one-tenth of that amount, the exposition covered 16 hectares with 34 countries participating. For the exposition, Napoleon III requested a system for Frances best Bordeaux wines which were to be on display for visitors from around the world. Brokers from the wine industry ranked the wines according to a reputation and trading price. The result was the important Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855, thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed
24.
Martin Wiberg
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Martin Wiberg was born in Viby, Scania, Sweden, enrolled at Lund University in 1845 and became a Doctor of Philosophy in 1850. He is known as a pioneer for his 1875 invention of a machine the size of a sewing machine that could print logarithmic tables. The tables were published in English, French and German. The device was investigated by the French academy of science which also wrote a report on it. The device was inspired by the work done by Per Georg Scheutz and has similarities with Charles Babbages difference engine. The device is preserved at Tekniska museet of Sweden in Stockholm, Wiberg failed to sell his machine, and also failed to sell the output tables due to their bad looks. Apart from this invention, Wiberg invented numerous devices and gadgets, among these a cream separator. None of these were commercially successful
25.
Burroughs Corporation
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The Burroughs Corporation was a major American manufacturer of business equipment. The company was founded in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company, the companys history paralleled many of the major developments in computing. At its start it produced mechanical adding machines, and later moved into programmable ledgers and it was one of the largest producers of mainframe computers in the world, also producing related equipment including typewriters and printers. In 1886, the American Arithmometer Company was established in St. Louis, Missouri to produce, in 1904, six years after Burroughs death, the company moved to Detroit and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company. It was soon the biggest adding machine company in America, the adding machine range began with the basic, hand-cranked P100 which was only capable of adding. The design included some features, foremost of which was the dashpot. The P200 offered a subtraction capability and the P300 provided a means of keeping 2 separate totals, the P400 provided a moveable carriage, and the P600 and top-of-the-range P612 offered some limited programmability based upon the position of the carriage. The range was extended by the inclusion of the J series which provided a single finger calculation facility. In the late 1960s, the Burroughs sponsored nixi-tube provided an electronic display calculator, Burroughs developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities, gradually increasing in their capabilities. A revolutionary adding machine was the Sensimatic, which was able to perform many business functions semi-automatically and it had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers. It could store 9,18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations, the Sensimatic developed into the Sensitronic which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card. This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage, the Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, E2000, E3000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000, which were computer systems supporting card reader/punches and a line printer. Later, Burroughs was selling more than adding machines, including typewriters, electroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. The first major product that came from this marriage was the B205 tube computer. In the late 1960s the L and TC series range was produced which had a golf ball printer and these were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 systems, and sold well in the banking sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes. In conjunction with these products, Burroughs also manufactured a range of cheque processing equipment. In terms of sales, Burroughs was always a distant second to IBM, in fact, IBMs market share was so much larger than all of the others that this group was often referred to as IBM and the Seven Dwarfs. By 1972 when GE and RCA were no longer in the business, the remaining five companies behind IBM became known as the BUNCH
26.
Odhner Arithmometer
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The Odhner Arithmometer was a very successful pinwheel calculator invented in Russia in 1873 by W. T. Odhner, a Swedish immigrant. Its industrial production started in 1890 in Odhners Saint Petersburg workshop. Even though the machine was very popular, the production only lasted thirty years until the factory was nationalised and closed down during the Russian revolution of 1917. Odhner thought of his machine in 1871 while repairing a Thomas Arithmometer and decided to replace its heavy and this is why the two machines share the same name but look completely different. Odhner developed the first version of his calculator in 1873. In 1876, he agreed to build 14 machines for Ludvig Nobel, his employer at the time and he patented his original machine in several countries in 1878–1879 and an improved version of it in 1890. The serial production began with this machine in 1890. In 1891 Odhner opened a branch of his factory in Germany, unfortunately, he had to sell it in 1892 to Grimme, Natalis & Co. because of the difficulty of having two manufacturing facilities so far apart. Grimme, Natalis & Co. started production in Braunschweig and sold their machines under the Brunsviga brand name and this makes the Brunsviga arithmometer, with its 1892 start, the longest-lasting Odhner type calculator in production. Towards the end of 1917, the Odhner family went back to Sweden, in 1924, the Russian government moved the old production facility to Moscow and commercialized their calculator under the Felix Arithmometer name which went on well into the 1970s. In 1950, with millions of clones manufactured, the Odhner arithmometer was one of the most popular type of mechanical calculator ever made, the number of machines produced increased constantly until the appearance of the electronic calculators in the early 1970s. For instance, the production of one of them, the Felix arithmometer of Russia, Odhners arithmometer was copied, manufactured and sold by many other companies all over the world. In Germany there was Thales, Triumphator, Walther and Brunsviga, in England there was Britannic and Muldivo. In Sweden Multo and Original Odhner
27.
Allan G. Bromley
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Allan George Bromley was an Australian historian of computing who became a world authority on many aspects of early computing and was one of the most avid collectors of mechanical calculators. The work on understanding Charles Babbages calculating engines is Allan Bromleys greatest legacy, the October–December 2000 issue of the IEEE Annals of the History of Computing was dedicated to him for the quality of his research on this subject. His studies of the Antikythera mechanism, in collaboration with Michael T. Wright, Allan Bromley was an associate professor at the University of Sydney. His main academic interest was the history of computers, Allan George Bromley was born on 1 February 1947 and named after his uncle Allan, who was killed in New Guinea during World War II, and his father George, who died on 8 August 1962. He grew up on a 30-acre property at Freemans Reach, on the Hawkesbury River, New South Wales, Australia, in an historic home, Sunny Corner. He completed his schooling at Richmond High School and at 17 his academic ability earned him a scholarship and he was awarded the Nuclear Research Foundation Medal, University of Sydney, Summer Science School,1963. Allan graduated with first class honours in physics in 1967, stayed on for a degree in astrophysics. His doctoral work on maser emission from interstellar gas clouds required extensive computation with high-order polynomials and his philosophy was in many ways more suited to the contemplative style of the Oxbridge tradition, at odds with the market-driven ethos of his day and today. Bromley had an amateur interest in the history of mechanical inventions, what he found was overwhelming, notebooks containing over 6,000 pages of Babbages impenetrable scribblings,300 machine drawings, and several hundred notations. These were to occupy Bromley for the several years. His first marriage, to Jann Makepeace, was during this time, Bromley worked with and convinced the Science Museum in London that Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 2, designed between 1847 and 1849, could be built and subsequently it was in 1989–91, after Babbages engines, Bromley moved on to other historical computing artefacts. He made a study of the Antikythera Mechanism, originally made famous by the Yale historian Derek de Solla Price in the late 1950s. Price had speculated that the mechanism, dating from 50 BC, was a calculating device. In November 2000, Bromley was given a Distinguished Service Award and made an Honorary Associate of the Powerhouse Museum, in 1998, after a long spell of illness, he was diagnosed with Hodgkins lymphoma. He met Anne Mitchell at this time and on 15 April 2000 they married under the Jacaranda Tree in the Main Quadrangle at the University of Sydney and he died on 16 August 2002. Dr. Allan Bromley started collecting mechanical calculators in 1979, a year later he already had sixty pieces. Eventually he was responsible for a collection of old computers which used to be displayed in the foyer of the building containing the University of Sydney Computer Science Department
28.
University of Sydney
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The University of Sydney is an Australian public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is Australias first university and is regarded as one of the leading universities. The university comprises 16 faculties and schools, through which it offers bachelor, master, in 2011 it had 32,393 undergraduate and 16,627 graduate students. The university is known as one of Australias sandstone universities. Five Nobel and two Crafoord laureates have been affiliated with the university as graduates and faculty, the university has educated six prime ministers and 24 justices of the High Court of Australia, including four chief justices. Sydney has produced 24 Rhodes Scholars and several Gates Scholars and it would take two attempts on Wentworths behalf, however, before the plan was finally adopted. The university was established via the passage of the University of Sydney Act, two years later, the university was inaugurated on 11 October 1852 in the Big Schoolroom of what is now Sydney Grammar School. The first principal was John Woolley, the first professor of chemistry, by 1859, the university had moved to its current site in the Sydney suburb of Camperdown. Most of the estate of John Henry Challis was bequeathed to the university and this was thanks in part due to William Montagu Manning who argued against the claims by British Tax Commissioners. The following year seven professorships were created, anatomy, zoology, engineering, history, law, logic and mental philosophy, the New England University College was founded as part of the University of Sydney in 1938 and later separated in 1954 to become the University of New England. During the late 1960s, the University of Sydney was at the centre of rows to introduce courses on Marxism and feminism at the major Australian universities, prior to 1981, the Sydney Institute of Education was the Sydney Teachers College. In January 2005, the University of Sydney transferred the OAC to Charles Sturt University, in February 2007, the university agreed to acquire a portion of the land granted to St Johns College to develop the Sydney Institute of Health and Medical Research. This caused concern among some groups, who argued that it would interfere with scientific medical research, at the start of 2010, the university controversially adopted a new logo. It retains the same university arms, however it takes on a modern look. The original Coat of Arms from 1857 continues to be used for ceremonial and other formal purposes, concerns about public funding for higher education were reflected again in 2014 following the federal governments proposal to deregulate student fees. In order to enhance its competitiveness locally and internationally, the university has introduced plans to consolidate existing degrees to reduce the overall number of programs. In 2001, the University of Sydney chancellor, Dame Leonie Kramer, was forced to resign by the governing body. In 2005, the Public Service Association of New South Wales, action initiated by Spence to improve the financial sustainability of the university has alienated some students and staff
29.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
30.
Doron Swade
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Doron Swade MBE is a museum curator and author, specialising in the history of computing. He is especially known for his work on the computer pioneer Charles Babbage, Swade was originally from South Africa. He holds a BSc in physics and electronics engineering, an MSc in control engineering, and he has been a curator at the Science Museum in London, England, and the Computer History Museum in Silicon Valley, California, United States. At the Science Museum, he curated the computing and electronics collections and rose to be Assistant Director, in 1989, Swade was a co-founder of the Computer Conservation Society, a specialist group of the British Computer Society, with regular meetings at the Science Museum. He is a Fellow of the BCS and a Chartered Engineer, Swade is a Visiting Professor in the History of Computing at the University of Portsmouth, UK. He is also an Honorary Research Fellow in Computer Science at Royal Holloway and he appeared in the In Our Time program on Ada Lovelace, a collaborator with Charles Babbage, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in 2008. Swade was awarded an MBE for services to the history of computing in the UK New Year Honours 2009 list. Since 2010 he has been involved with the Plan 28 project to understand whether Babbages Analytical Engine was a computer based on Babbages work. Swade has written the books, The Dream Machine, Exploring the Computer Age,1991. Charles Babbage and his Calculating Engines, Science Museum, London,1998, the Difference Engine, Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer, Penguin Putnam,2001. Charles Babbage, Irascible Genius, and the First Computer http, //www. sigcis. org/. q=node/42 Charles Babbage Expert Doron Swade on Simplicity, YouTube Authors@Google, Doron Swade, YouTube
31.
Printer (computing)
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In computing, a printer is a peripheral which makes a persistent human-readable representation of graphics or text on paper or similar physical media. The worlds first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by Charles Babbage for his difference engine, the plotter was used for those requiring high quality line art like blueprints. Laser printers using PostScript mixed text and graphics, like dot-matrix printers, by 1990, most simple printing tasks like fliers and brochures were now created on personal computers and then laser printed, expensive offset printing systems were being dumped as scrap. The HP Deskjet of 1988 offered the same advantages as laser printer in terms of flexibility, inkjet systems rapidly displaced dot matrix and daisy wheel printers from the market. By the 2000s high-quality printers of this sort had fallen under the price point. Even the desire for printed output for offline reading while on mass transit or aircraft has been displaced by e-book readers, today, traditional printers are being used more for special purposes, like printing photographs or artwork, and are no longer a must-have peripheral. Starting around 2010, 3D printing became an area of intense interest and these devices are in their earliest stages of development and have not yet become commonplace. Personal printers are designed to support individual users, and may be connected to only a single computer. These printers are designed for low-volume, short-turnaround print jobs, requiring minimal setup time to produce a copy of a given document. However, they are generally slow devices ranging from 6 to around 25 pages per minute, however, this is offset by the on-demand convenience. Some printers can print documents stored on cards or from digital cameras. Networked or shared printers are designed for high-volume, high-speed printing and they are usually shared by many users on a network and can print at speeds of 45 to around 100 ppm. The Xerox 9700 could achieve 120 ppm, a virtual printer is a piece of computer software whose user interface and API resembles that of a printer driver, but which is not connected with a physical computer printer. It is called a printer by analogy with a printer which produces a two-dimensional document by a similar process of depositing a layer of ink on paper. The choice of print technology has an effect on the cost of the printer and cost of operation, speed, quality and permanence of documents. Some printer technologies dont work with certain types of physical media, cheques can be printed with liquid ink or on special cheque paper with toner anchorage so that alterations may be detected. The machine-readable lower portion of a cheque must be printed using MICR toner or ink, banks and other clearing houses employ automation equipment that relies on the magnetic flux from these specially printed characters to function properly. The following printing technologies are found in modern printers, A laser printer rapidly produces high quality text
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Stereotype (printing)
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The composition of individual cast metal types into lines with leading and furniture, tightly locked into a forme, was labor-intensive and costly. The printer would incur further expense through loss of the type for other uses while held in formes, publishers who did not accurately predict sales were forced into the expense of paying for the type to be reset for subsequent editions. English sources often describe the process as having been invented in 1725 by William Ged, however, Count Canstein had been publishing stereotyped Bibles in Germany since 1712 and an earlier form of stereotyping from flong was described in Germany in 1702. It is even possible that the process was used as early as the century by Johannes Gutenberg or his heirs for the Mainz Catholicon. Wide application of the technique, with improvements, is attributed to Charles Stanhope in the early 1800s, printing plates for the Bible were stereotyped in the US in 1814. Over time, stereotype became a metaphor for any set of ideas repeated identically or with minor changes. In fact, cliché and stereotype were both originally printers words, and in their printing senses became synonymous, the term stereotype derives from Greek στερεός solid, firm and τύπος blow, impression, engraved mark and in its modern sense was coined in 1798. The Era of Charles Mahon, Third Earl of Stanhope, Stereotyper, wet Mat Stereotyping in Germany in 1690. Historical Treatises, Abstracts, and Papers on Stereotyping
33.
Typesetting
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Typesetting is the composition of text by means of arranging physical types or the digital equivalents. Stored letters and other symbols are retrieved and ordered according to a languages orthography for visual display, typesetting requires the prior process of designing a font. One significant effect of typesetting was that authorship of works could be spotted more easily, during much of the letterpress era, movable type was composed by hand for each page. The form was placed in a press, inked, and an impression made on paper. During typesetting, individual sorts are picked from a case with the right hand, and set into a composing stick held in the left hand from left to right. This is reputed to be the origin of the expression mind your ps and it might just as easily have been “mind your bs and ds”. The diagram at right illustrates a cast metal sort, a face, b body or shank, wooden printing sorts were in use for centuries in combination with metal type. Not shown, and more the concern of the casterman, is the “set”, set width, like body size, is measured in points. This was particularly prevalent in book and newspaper work where rotary presses required type forms to wrap an impression cylinder rather than set in the bed of a press, advances such as the typewriter and computer would push the state of the art even farther ahead. Still, hand composition and letterpress printing have not fallen out of use. However, it is a small niche within the larger typesetting market. The time and effort required to compose the text led to several efforts in the 19th century to produce mechanical typesetting. Most of the systems involved the in-house casting of the type to be used. The Linotype machine, invented in 1884, used a keyboard to assemble the casting matrices, in the Monotype System, a keyboard was used to punch a paper tape, which was then fed to control a casting machine. The Ludlow Typograph involved hand-set matrices, but otherwise used hot metal, by the early 20th century, the various systems were nearly universal in large newspapers and publishing houses. Phototypesetting or cold type systems first appeared in the early 1960s and these devices consisted of glass disks that spun in front of a light source to selectively expose characters onto light-sensitive paper. Originally they were driven by pre-punched paper tapes, later they were hooked up to computer front ends. One of the earliest electronic photocomposition systems was introduced by Fairchild Semiconductor, the typesetter typed a line of text on a Fairchild keyboard that had no display
34.
Nathan Myhrvold
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Nathan Paul Myhrvold, formerly Chief Technology Officer at Microsoft, is co-founder of Intellectual Ventures and the principal author of Modernist Cuisine. Myhrvold was listed as co-inventor on 17 patents at Microsoft and has since co-sponsored applications for over 500 other patents for which his corporation is funding the patent monetization effort, Myhrvold was born in Seattle, Washington. He attended Mirman School, and began college at age 14 and he studied mathematics, geophysics, and space physics at UCLA. He also attended Santa Monica College, for one year, he held a postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Cambridge working under Stephen Hawking. Myhrvold left Cambridge to co-found a computer startup in Oakland, California, the company, Dynamical Systems Research Inc. sought to produce Mondrian, a clone of IBMs TopView multitasking environment for DOS. Microsoft purchased DSR in 1986 for $1. 5M, Myhrvold worked at Microsoft for 13 years. At Microsoft he founded Microsoft Research in 1991, after Microsoft, in 2000 Myhrvold co-founded Intellectual Ventures, a patent portfolio developer and broker in the areas of technology and energy, which has acquired over 30,000 patents. Myhrvold allegedly owns approximately 40% of Intellectual Ventures Management Company, generating $20M-$40M annually in management fees for Myhrvold, Intellectual Ventures exploits the market for inventions and patents, buying patents from inventors under the assumption the patents will be more valuable in the future. It also buys patents from companies and inventors, in certain, limited, circumstances, IV reduces these inventions to practice. However, in most cases, IVs inventions are limited to the descriptions cited in their patent applications, IV then licenses the patents in patent-portfolios. IV purports to be assisting in the creation of a market for patent-backed securities, the business practices of Intellectual Ventures have caused controversy and the company has been widely criticized for being a patent troll. Myhrvold has publicly defended his firms practices, arguing that they foster innovation by serving as a marketplace for intellectual property. He noted in 2012 that many of the largest companies in Silicon Valley, including Microsoft, Apple, and Facebook, have also bought large patent portfolios to further their strategic game. TerraPower, a subsidiary of Intellectual Ventures, aims to develop a reactor that is safe. Gates unveiled this plan at the TED2010, the plant will run on natural or depleted uranium with the potential for 30 years without refuelling. Myhrvold is a nature and wildlife photographer and a member of the USA Science. He has also involved with paleontological research on expeditions with the Museum of the Rockies. He and Peter Rinearson helped Bill Gates write The Road Ahead, in addition to his business and scientific interests, he is a chef, earning his culinary diploma from École de Cuisine La Varenne in France
35.
Computer History Museum
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The Computer History Museum is a museum established in 1996 in Mountain View, California, US. The Museum is dedicated to preserving and presenting the stories and artifacts of the information age, the museums origins date to 1968 when Gordon Bell began a quest for a historical collection and, at that same time, others were looking to preserve the Whirlwind computer. The resulting Museum Project had its first exhibit in 1975, located in a coat closet in a DEC lobby. In 1978, the museum, now The Digital Computer Museum, moved to a larger DEC lobby in Marlborough, maurice Wilkes presented the first lecture at TDCM in 1979 – the presentation of such lectures has continued to the present time. TDCM incorporated as The Computer Museum in 1982, in 1984, TCM moved to Boston, locating on Museum Wharf. In 1996/1997, The TCM History Center in Silicon Valley was established, a site at Moffett Field was provided by NASA, in 1999, TCMHC incorporated and TCM ceased operation, shipping its remaining artifacts to TCMHC in 2000. The name TCM had been retained by the Boston Museum of Science so, in 2000, in 2003, CHM opened its new building, at 1401 N. Shoreline Blvd in Mountain View, California, to the public. The facility was heavily renovated and underwent a two-year $19 million makeover before reopening on January 2011. The Computer History Museum claims to house the largest and most significant collection of computing artifacts in the world, the collection comprises nearly 90,000 objects, photographs and films, as well as 4,000 feet of cataloged documentation and several hundred gigabytes of software. The CHM oral history program conducts video interviews around the history of computing and networking, the museums 25, 000-square-foot exhibit Revolution, The First 2000 Years of Computing, opened to the public on January 13,2011. It covers the history of computing in 20 galleries, from the abacus to the Internet, the entire exhibition is also available online. The museum features a Liquid Galaxy in the “Going Places, A History of Silicon Valley” exhibit, the exhibit features 20 preselected locations that visitors can fly to on the Liquid Galaxy. An operating Difference Engine designed by Charles Babbage in the 1840s and it had been on loan since 2008 from its owner, Nathan Myhrvold, a former Microsoft executive. Former media executive John Hollar was appointed CEO of The Computer History Museum in July 2008, in 2012 the APL programming language followed. In February 2013 Adobe Systems, Inc. donated the Photoshop 1.0.1 source code to the collection, on October 21,2014, Xerox Altos source code and other resources followed. The CHM Fellows are exceptional men and women whose ideas have changed the world, the first fellow was Rear Admiral Grace Hopper in 1987. The fellows program has grown to 70 members as of 2015, vintage Computer Festival held annually at The Computer History Museum Computer museums History of computing History of computer science Bell, Gordon. Out of a Closet, The Early Years of the Computer * Museum, official website Computer History Museums channel on YouTube The Computer Museum Archive
36.
Mountain View, California
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Mountain View is a city located in Santa Clara County, California, United States, named for its views of the Santa Cruz Mountains. From its origins as a stop, it grew to a large suburb with a pedestrian-friendly downtown, free wi-fi. The city borders Palo Alto and the San Francisco Bay to the north, Los Altos to the south, situated in the southern end of the San Francisco Peninsula in the San Francisco Bay Area, Mountain View is home to many high technology companies. In 1956, Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, the first company to develop silicon semiconductor devices in what came to be known as Silicon Valley, was established in the city by William Shockley. Today, many of the largest technology companies in the world are headquartered in the city, including Google, Mozilla Foundation, Symantec, and Intuit. The original Byte Shop computer store was opened at 1063 El Camino Real, Mountain View by Paul Terrell, the Santa Clara Valley Transportation Authority integrates the city with the neighboring cities of Palo Alto, Los Altos, and Sunnyvale. The Mexican land grant of Rancho Pastoria de las Borregas was given in 1842 by Alta California Governor Juan Alvarado to Francisco Estrada. This grant was passed on to Mariano Castro, who sold half of the land to Martin Murphy, Jr. Eventually. First known as the center of Fremont Twp. before the first California 1852 census. Which meant that it was a predecessor to Mayfield and Palo Alto, Mountain View Station, officially named in 1864, had its beginnings earlier as a stagecoach stop on the route between San Francisco and San Jose, including the Butterfield Overland Mail. & El Camino Real of today, was closer to what was once the town center. The early pioneers were buried at the old cemetery between Mercy & Church, off Castro Street, now the present city Library and park. Reverend Henry Merrill Henderson, born in Maryland, age 35, arrived in Spring of 1852, with his family to meet with relatives Ricketts and he was the first Baptist minister in town and soon was going by horse to Half-Moon Bay, and McCartersville for services. His next-door neighbor arrived later that year, Seligman Weilheimer and brother Samuel from Dossenheim, Baden, Germany, who built at that property, the Fremont twp. population was about 560 by 1860, less Mayfield Post office section, which began north of present San Antonio Road. The towns early growth was due to agriculture, William Bubb later being a figure, buying 80 acres to farm in October 1851. His heirs expanded and intermarried in the area, agriculture remained the primary industry into the middle of the 20th century. The U. S. Navys adjacent 1000 acre Moffet Field Complex began after 1931, after World War II, the population grew significantly with the development of the aerospace and electronics industries. Between 1950 and 1960, the population grew from 6,563 to 30,889, today, high technology is the foundation of the local economy, and there exist few remnants of the citys agricultural past
37.
Seattle
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Seattle is a seaport city on the west coast of the United States and the seat of King County, Washington. With an estimated 684,451 residents as of 2015, Seattle is the largest city in both the state of Washington and the Pacific Northwest region of North America. In July 2013, it was the major city in the United States. The city is situated on an isthmus between Puget Sound and Lake Washington, about 100 miles south of the Canada–United States border, a major gateway for trade with Asia, Seattle is the fourth-largest port in North America in terms of container handling as of 2015. The Seattle area was inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent European settlers. Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived from Illinois via Portland, the settlement was moved to the eastern shore of Elliott Bay and named Seattle in 1852, after Chief Siahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. Logging was Seattles first major industry, but by the late-19th century, growth after World War II was partially due to the local Boeing company, which established Seattle as a center for aircraft manufacturing. The Seattle area developed as a technology center beginning in the 1980s, in 1994, Internet retailer Amazon was founded in Seattle. The stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet companies led to an economic revival, Seattle has a noteworthy musical history. From 1918 to 1951, nearly two dozen jazz nightclubs existed along Jackson Street, from the current Chinatown/International District, to the Central District, the jazz scene developed the early careers of Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Ernestine Anderson, and others. Seattle is also the birthplace of rock musician Jimi Hendrix and the alternative rock subgenre grunge, archaeological excavations suggest that Native Americans have inhabited the Seattle area for at least 4,000 years. By the time the first European settlers arrived, the people occupied at least seventeen villages in the areas around Elliott Bay, the first European to visit the Seattle area was George Vancouver, in May 1792 during his 1791–95 expedition to chart the Pacific Northwest. In 1851, a party led by Luther Collins made a location on land at the mouth of the Duwamish River. Thirteen days later, members of the Collins Party on the way to their claim passed three scouts of the Denny Party, members of the Denny Party claimed land on Alki Point on September 28,1851. The rest of the Denny Party set sail from Portland, Oregon, after a difficult winter, most of the Denny Party relocated across Elliott Bay and claimed land a second time at the site of present-day Pioneer Square, naming this new settlement Duwamps. For the next few years, New York Alki and Duwamps competed for dominance, david Swinson Doc Maynard, one of the founders of Duwamps, was the primary advocate to name the settlement after Chief Sealth of the Duwamish and Suquamish tribes. The name Seattle appears on official Washington Territory papers dated May 23,1853, in 1855, nominal land settlements were established. On January 14,1865, the Legislature of Territorial Washington incorporated the Town of Seattle with a board of managing the city
38.
Iteration
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Iteration is the act of repeating a process, either to generate an unbounded sequence of outcomes, or with the aim of approaching a desired goal, target or result. Each repetition of the process is called an iteration. In the context of mathematics or computer science, iteration is a building block of algorithms. Iteration in mathematics may refer to the process of iterating a function i. e. applying a function repeatedly, iteration of apparently simple functions can produce complex behaviours and difficult problems - for examples, see the Collatz conjecture and juggler sequences. Another use of iteration in mathematics is in iterative methods which are used to produce approximate solutions to certain mathematical problems. Newtons method is an example of an iterative method, manual calculation of a numbers square root is a common use and a well-known example. Iteration in computing is the marking out of a block of statements within a computer program for a defined number of repetitions. That block of statements is said to be iterated, a computer scientist might also refer to block of statements as an iteration. In the example above, the line of code is using the value of i as it increments and this idea is found in the old adage, Practice makes perfect. Unlike computing and math, educational iterations are not predetermined, instead, in algorithmic situations, recursion and iteration can be employed to the same effect. Some types of programming languages, known as functional programming languages, are designed such that they do not set up block of statements for explicit repetition as with the for loop, instead, those programming languages exclusively use recursion. Each piece of work will be divided repeatedly until the amount of work is as small as it can possibly be, the algorithm then reverses and reassembles the pieces into a complete whole. The classic example of recursion is in list-sorting algorithms such as Merge Sort, the code below is an example of a recursive algorithm in the Scheme programming language that will output the same result as the pseudocode under the previous heading. In Object-Oriented Programming, an iterator is an object that ensures iteration is executed in the way for a range of different data structures, saving time. An iteratee is an abstraction which accepts or rejects data during an iteration, recursion Fractal Iterated function Infinite compositions of analytic functions
39.
Derivative
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The derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value with respect to a change in its argument. Derivatives are a tool of calculus. For example, the derivative of the position of an object with respect to time is the objects velocity. The derivative of a function of a variable at a chosen input value. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value, for this reason, the derivative is often described as the instantaneous rate of change, the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable. Derivatives may be generalized to functions of real variables. In this generalization, the derivative is reinterpreted as a transformation whose graph is the best linear approximation to the graph of the original function. The Jacobian matrix is the matrix that represents this linear transformation with respect to the basis given by the choice of independent and dependent variables and it can be calculated in terms of the partial derivatives with respect to the independent variables. For a real-valued function of variables, the Jacobian matrix reduces to the gradient vector. The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation, the reverse process is called antidifferentiation. The fundamental theorem of calculus states that antidifferentiation is the same as integration, differentiation and integration constitute the two fundamental operations in single-variable calculus. Differentiation is the action of computing a derivative, the derivative of a function y = f of a variable x is a measure of the rate at which the value y of the function changes with respect to the change of the variable x. It is called the derivative of f with respect to x, If x and y are real numbers, and if the graph of f is plotted against x, the derivative is the slope of this graph at each point. The simplest case, apart from the case of a constant function, is when y is a linear function of x. This formula is true because y + Δ y = f = m + b = m x + m Δ x + b = y + m Δ x. Thus, since y + Δ y = y + m Δ x and this gives an exact value for the slope of a line. If the function f is not linear, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies, differentiation is a method to find an exact value for this rate of change at any given value of x. The idea, illustrated by Figures 1 to 3, is to compute the rate of change as the value of the ratio of the differences Δy / Δx as Δx becomes infinitely small
