1.
Electronic media
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Electronic media are media that use electronics or electromechanical audience to access the content. This is in contrast to media, which today are most often created electronically. The primary electronic media sources familiar to the public are video recordings, audio recordings, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, CD-ROM. Most new media are in the form of digital media, however, electronic media may be in either analogue electronics data or digital electronic data format. Although the term is associated with content recorded on a storage medium, recordings are not required for live broadcasting. Any equipment used in the communication process may also be considered electronic media. Electronic media are ubiquitous in most of the developed world, electronic media devices have found their way into all parts of modern life. The term is relevant to professional career development regarding related skill set
2.
Hard drive
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The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is accessed in a manner, meaning that individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order. HDDs are a type of storage, retaining stored data even when powered off. Introduced by IBM in 1956, HDDs became the dominant secondary storage device for computers by the early 1960s. Continuously improved, HDDs have maintained this position into the era of servers. More than 200 companies have produced HDDs historically, though after extensive industry consolidation most current units are manufactured by Seagate, Toshiba, as of 2016, HDD production is growing, although unit shipments and sales revenues are declining. While SSDs have higher cost per bit, SSDs are replacing HDDs where speed, power consumption, small size, the primary characteristics of an HDD are its capacity and performance. Capacity is specified in unit prefixes corresponding to powers of 1000, the two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3. 5-inch, for desktop computers, and 2. 5-inch, primarily for laptops. HDDs are connected to systems by standard interface cables such as PATA, SATA, Hard disk drives were introduced in 1956, as data storage for an IBM real-time transaction processing computer and were developed for use with general-purpose mainframe and minicomputers. The first IBM drive, the 350 RAMAC in 1956, was approximately the size of two medium-sized refrigerators and stored five million six-bit characters on a stack of 50 disks. In 1962 the IBM350 RAMAC disk storage unit was superseded by the IBM1301 disk storage unit, cylinder-mode read/write operations were supported, and the heads flew about 250 micro-inches above the platter surface. Motion of the head array depended upon a binary system of hydraulic actuators which assured repeatable positioning. The 1301 cabinet was about the size of three home refrigerators placed side by side, storing the equivalent of about 21 million eight-bit bytes, access time was about a quarter of a second. Also in 1962, IBM introduced the model 1311 disk drive, users could buy additional packs and interchange them as needed, much like reels of magnetic tape. Later models of removable pack drives, from IBM and others, became the norm in most computer installations, non-removable HDDs were called fixed disk drives. Some high-performance HDDs were manufactured with one head per track so that no time was lost physically moving the heads to a track, known as fixed-head or head-per-track disk drives they were very expensive and are no longer in production. In 1973, IBM introduced a new type of HDD code-named Winchester and its primary distinguishing feature was that the disk heads were not withdrawn completely from the stack of disk platters when the drive was powered down. Instead, the heads were allowed to land on an area of the disk surface upon spin-down
3.
Binary numeral system
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The base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Because of its implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates. Each digit is referred to as a bit, the modern binary number system was devised by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication de lArithmétique Binaire. Systems related to binary numbers have appeared earlier in multiple cultures including ancient Egypt, China, Leibniz was specifically inspired by the Chinese I Ching. The scribes of ancient Egypt used two different systems for their fractions, Egyptian fractions and Horus-Eye fractions, the method used for ancient Egyptian multiplication is also closely related to binary numbers. This method can be seen in use, for instance, in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, the I Ching dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary notation in the I Ching is used to interpret its quaternary divination technique and it is based on taoistic duality of yin and yang. Eight trigrams and a set of 64 hexagrams, analogous to the three-bit and six-bit binary numerals, were in use at least as early as the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China. The Song Dynasty scholar Shao Yong rearranged the hexagrams in a format that resembles modern binary numbers, the Indian scholar Pingala developed a binary system for describing prosody. He used binary numbers in the form of short and long syllables, Pingalas Hindu classic titled Chandaḥśāstra describes the formation of a matrix in order to give a unique value to each meter. The binary representations in Pingalas system increases towards the right, the residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450. Slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa, sets of binary combinations similar to the I Ching have also been used in traditional African divination systems such as Ifá as well as in medieval Western geomancy. The base-2 system utilized in geomancy had long been applied in sub-Saharan Africa. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz was first introduced to the I Ching through his contact with the French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet, who visited China in 1685 as a missionary. Leibniz saw the I Ching hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own beliefs as a Christian. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Is not easy to impart to the pagans, is the ex nihilo through Gods almighty power. In 1854, British mathematician George Boole published a paper detailing an algebraic system of logic that would become known as Boolean algebra
4.
Digital electronics
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Digital electronics or digital circuits are electronics that handle digital signals rather than by continuous ranges as used in analog electronics. All levels within a band of values represent the information state. In most cases, the number of states is two, and they are represented by two voltage bands, one near a reference value, and the other a value near the supply voltage. These correspond to the false and true values of the Boolean domain respectively, Digital techniques are useful because it is easier to get an electronic device to switch into one of a number of known states than to accurately reproduce a continuous range of values. Digital electronic circuits are made from large assemblies of logic gates. The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and he established that by using the binary system. Digital logic as we know it was the brain-child of George Boole, Boole died young, but his ideas lived on. In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits, eventually, vacuum tubes replaced relays for logic operations. Lee De Forests modification, in 1907, of the Fleming valve can be used as an AND logic gate, ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Walther Bothe, inventor of the circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics. Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic computers were developed. Originally they were the size of a room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers. The Z3 was a computer designed by Konrad Zuse, finished in 1941. It was the worlds first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer and its operation was facilitated by the invention of the vacuum tube in 1904 by John Ambrose Fleming. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, the bipolar junction transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the generation of computers
5.
Personal computing
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A personal computer is a multi-purpose electronic computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by a end-user, rather than by an expert or technician. In the 2010s, PCs are typically connected to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web, personal computers may be connected to a local area network, either by a cable or a wireless connection. In the 2010s, a PC may be, a multi-component desktop computer, designed for use in a location a laptop computer, designed for easy portability or a tablet computer. In the 2010s, PCs run using a system, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a program to load programs from external storage. Before long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal, in the 2010s, users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free software and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the computer market, first with MS-DOS. Alternatives to Microsofts Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry and these include Apples OS X and free open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution. Advanced Micro Devices provides the alternative to Intels processors. PC is an initialism for personal computer, some PCs, including the OLPC XOs, are equipped with x86 or x64 processors but not designed to run Microsoft Windows. PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer and this sense of the word is used in the Get a Mac advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, Im a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since Apples transition to Intel processors starting 2005, all Macintosh computers are now PCs, the “brain” may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far, in the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. Using the narrow definition of operated by one person, the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946 and it did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. An example of an early single-user computer was the LGP-30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and it came with a retail price of $47, 000—equivalent to about $414,000 today. Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a programmable calculator described in advertisements as a desktop computer. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, the Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov
6.
Disruptive innovation
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The term was defined and phenomenon analyzed by Clayton M. Christensen beginning in 1995. In the early 2000s, significant societal impact has also used as an aspect of disruptive innovation. Not all innovations are disruptive, even if they are revolutionary, the market for transportation essentially remained intact until the debut of the lower-priced Ford Model T in 1908. The mass-produced automobile was an innovation, because it changed the transportation market. Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and entrepreneurs, rather than existing market-leading companies, the term disruptive technologies was coined by Clayton M. Christensen and introduced in his 1995 article Disruptive Technologies, Catching the Wave, which he cowrote with Joseph Bower. The article is aimed at management executives who make the funding or purchasing decisions in companies and he describes the term further in his book The Innovators Dilemma. Innovators Dilemma explored the cases of the disk drive industry and the equipment industry. Rather, they are often combinations of existing off-the-shelf components, applied cleverly to a small. Christensen defines a disruptive innovation as a product or service designed for a new set of customers, generally, disruptive innovations were technologically straightforward, consisting of off-the-shelf components put together in a product architecture that was often simpler than prior approaches. They offered less of what customers in established markets wanted and so could rarely be initially employed there and they offered a different package of attributes valued only in emerging markets remote from, and unimportant to, the mainstream. Christensen argues that disruptive innovations can hurt successful, well-managed companies that are responsive to their customers and have excellent research, thus, disruptive technology provides an example of an instance when the common business-world advice to focus on the customer can be strategically counterproductive. Low-end disruption occurs when the rate at which products improve exceeds the rate at which customers can adopt the new performance, therefore, at some point the performance of the product overshoots the needs of certain customer segments. In low-end disruption, the disruptor is focused initially on serving the least profitable customer and this type of customer is not willing to pay premium for enhancements in product functionality. Once the disruptor has gained a foothold in this customer segment, to get higher profit margins, the disruptor needs to enter the segment where the customer is willing to pay a little more for higher quality. To ensure this quality in its product, the needs to innovate. The incumbent will not do much to retain its share in a not-so-profitable segment, after a number of such encounters, the incumbent is squeezed into smaller markets than it was previously serving. And then, finally, the disruptive technology meets the demands of the most profitable segment, New market disruption occurs when a product fits a new or emerging market segment that is not being served by existing incumbents in the industry. The extrapolation of the theory to all aspects of life has been challenged, jill Lepore points out that some companies identified by the theory as victims of disruption a decade or more ago, rather than being defunct, remain dominant in their industries today
7.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
8.
Open content
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Open content is a neologism coined by David Wiley in 1998 which describes a creative work that others can copy or modify. The term evokes the concept of open source software. It has since come to describe a class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. Unlike open source and free content, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content, in 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation, in 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses. Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, UK in 2004 as a global network to promote and share open content. In October 2014 with version 2, a distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility and the readability. Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 creative commons licenses. The OpenContent website once defined OpenContent as freely available for modification, use, however, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbade charging a fee for the itself, a right required by free and open source software licenses. The term since shifted in meaning, OpenContent is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, Open access refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, consisting mainly of published peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution, over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their rates are increasing. Open content allows a way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge. There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare Initiative, The Saylor Foundation, some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. The textbook industry is one of the industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum, there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks
9.
Information Age
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The onset of the Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the Industrial Revolution marked the onset of the Industrial Age. The Information Age formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances, library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs and he did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth, moores law, which was formulated around 1965, calculated that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. Connectivity between computers within companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access greater amounts of information. The worlds technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 15.8 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000 and it is estimated that the worlds capacity to store information has reached 5 zettabytes in 2014. This is the equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun. In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to, technology was developing so quickly that a computer costing $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance, the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored, the number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanitys general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second, estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage, eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were changed by ICT. Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book and his book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits. In essence, a copy of a made of bits can be made cheaply and quickly. The Information Age has affected the workforce in several ways and it has created a situation in which workers who perform easily automated tasks are forced to find work that is not easily automated. Workers are also being forced to compete in a job market. Lastly, workers are being replaced by computers that can do their jobs faster and this poses problems for workers in industrial societies, which are still to be solved. However, solutions that involve lowering the time are usually highly resisted
10.
Censorship
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Governments, private organizations and individuals may engage in censorship. When an individual such as an author or other creator engages in censorship of their own works or speech, Censorship could be direct or indirect, in which case it is referred to as soft censorship. Direct censorship may or may not be legal, depending on the type, location, there are no laws against self-censorship. In 399 BC, Greek philosopher, Socrates, defied attempts by the Greek state to censor his philosophical teachings and was sentenced to death by drinking a poison, hemlock. Socrates student, Plato, is said to have advocated censorship in his essay on The Republic, in contrast to Plato, Greek playwright Euripides defended the true liberty of freeborn men, including the right to speak freely. In 1766, Sweden became the first country to abolish censorship by law, the rationale for censorship is different for various types of information censored, Moral censorship is the removal of materials that are obscene or otherwise considered morally questionable. Pornography, for example, is often censored under this rationale, especially child pornography, Military censorship is the process of keeping military intelligence and tactics confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter espionage, which is the process of gleaning military information, political censorship occurs when governments hold back information from their citizens. This is often done to control over the populace and prevent free expression that might foment rebellion. Religious censorship is the means by which any material considered objectionable by a religion is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less prevalent ones, alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their religion. Strict censorship existed in the Eastern Bloc, throughout the bloc, the various ministries of culture held a tight rein on their writers. Cultural products there reflected the needs of the state. Party-approved censors exercised strict control in the early years, in the Stalinist period, even the weather forecasts were changed if they suggested that the sun might not shine on May Day. Under Nicolae Ceauşescu in Romania, weather reports were doctored so that the temperatures were not seen to rise above or fall below the levels which dictated that work must stop. Independent journalism did not exist in the Soviet Union until Mikhail Gorbachev became its leader, pravda, the predominant newspaper in the Soviet Union, had a monopoly. Foreign newspapers were available if they were published by Communist Parties sympathetic to the Soviet Union. Possession and use of copying machines was tightly controlled in order to hinder production and distribution of samizdat, illegal self-published books, possession of even a single samizdat manuscript such as a book by Andrei Sinyavsky was a serious crime which might involve a visit from the KGB
11.
Digital divide
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A digital divide is an economic and social inequality with regard to access to, use of, or impact of information and communication technologies. The divide within countries may refer to inequalities between individuals, households, businesses, or geographic areas, usually at different socioeconomic levels or other demographic categories, the term digital divide describes a gap in terms of access to and usage of information and communication technology. Which characteristics or attributes are distinguished to describe the divide, income, education, age, geographic location, motivation, reason not to use, how sophisticated is the usage, mere access, retrieval, interactivity, intensive and extensive in usage, innovative contributions, etc. To what does the subject connect, fixed or mobile, Internet or telephony, digital TV, broadband, different authors focus on different aspects, which leads to a large variety of definitions of the digital divide. Each one of them seems equally reasonable and depends on the objective pursued by the analyst, traditionally the nature of the divide has been measured in terms of the existing numbers of subscriptions and digital devices. Given the increasing number of devices, some have concluded that the digital divide among individuals has increasingly been closing as the result of a natural. Recent studies have measured the digital divide not in terms of technological devices, as shown in the Figure on the side, the digital divide in kbit/s is not monotonically decreasing, but re-opens up with each new innovation. This is because a new kind of connectivity is never introduced instantaneously and uniformly to society as a whole at once, as shown by the Figure, during the mid-2000s, communication capacity was more unequally distributed than during the late 1980s, when only fixed-line phones existed. The most recent increase in digital equality stems from the diffusion of the latest digital innovations. The upper graph of the Figure on the shows that the divide between developed and developing countries has been diminishing when measured in terms of subscriptions per capita. In 2001, fixed-line telecommunication penetration reached 70% of society in developed OECD countries and this resulted in a ratio of 7 to 1 or a difference of 60%. During the next decade, fixed-line penetration stayed almost constant in OECD countries, while the rest of the started a catch-up. The lower graph shows the divide not in terms of ICT devices, while the average member of developed countries counted with 29 kbit/s more than a person in developing countries in 2001, this difference got multiplied by a factor of one thousand. This shows the importance of measuring the divide in terms of kbit/s, the International Telecommunications Union concludes that the bit becomes a unifying variable enabling comparisons and aggregations across different kinds of communication technologies. However, research shows that the divide is more than just an access issue. There are at least three factors at play, information accessibility, information utilization and information receptiveness, more than just accessibility, individuals need to know how to make use of the information and communication tools once they exist within a community. Internet connectivity can be utilized at a variety of such as homes, offices, schools, libraries, public spaces, Internet cafe. There are also varying levels of connectivity in rural, suburban, the gap in a digital divide may exist for a number of reasons
12.
History of programming languages
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History of Programming Languages is an infrequent ACM SIGPLAN conference. Past conferences were held in 1978,1993, and 2007, HOPL I was held June 1–3,1978 in Los Angeles, California. Jean E. Sammet was both the General and Program Committee Chair, john A. N. Lee was the Administrative Chair. Richard L. Wexelblat was the Proceedings Chair, from Jean Sammets introduction, The HOPL Conference is intended to consider the technical factors which influenced the development of certain selected programming languages. The languages and presentations in the first HOPL were by invitation of the program committee, the invited languages must have been created and in use by 1967. They also must have remained in use in 1977, finally, they must have had considerable influence on the field of computing. The papers and presentations went through extensive review by the committee, far beyond the norm for conferences. The final proceedings, including transcripts of question and answer sessions, was published as a book in the ACM Monograph Series, History of Programming Languages, HOPL II was held April 20–23,1993 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. John A. N. Lee was the Conference Chair and Jean E. Sammet was the Program Chair, in contrast to HOPL I, HOPL II included both invited papers and papers submitted in response to an open call. The submitted and invited languages must have been documented by 1982 and they also must have been in use or taught by 1985. As in HOPL I, there was a rigorous multi-stage review, HOPL III was held June 9–10,2007 in San Diego, California. Brent Hailpern and Barbara G. Ryder were the Conference co-Chairs, HOPL III had an open call for participation and asked for papers on either the early history or the evolution of programming languages. The languages must have come into existence before 1996 and been used since 1998. Research languages that had a influence on subsequent programming languages were also candidates for submission. As with HOPL I and HOPL II, the papers were managed with a multiple stage review/revision process, each HOPL III paper describes the perspective of the creators of the language. Official HOPL III conference website HOPL, an interactive Roster of Programming Languages History of Programming Languages Conference Records 1972-1993, charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. A history of the history of programming languages by Thomas J. Bergin
13.
History of computing hardware
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The history of computing hardware covers the developments from early simple devices to aid calculation to modern day computers. Before the 20th century, most calculations were done by humans, early mechanical tools to help humans with digital calculations, such as the abacus, were called calculating machines, by proprietary names, or even as they are now, calculators. The machine operator was called the computer, later, computers represented numbers in a continuous form, for instance distance along a scale, rotation of a shaft, or a voltage. Numbers could also be represented in the form of digits, automatically manipulated by a mechanical mechanism, although this approach generally required more complex mechanisms, it greatly increased the precision of results. A series of breakthroughs, such as miniaturized transistor computers, the cost of computers gradually became so low that by the 1990s, personal computers, and then, in the 2000s, mobile computers, became ubiquitous in industrialized countries. Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, the earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was early used for arithmetic tasks. What we now call the Roman abacus was used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC, since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, several analog computers were constructed in ancient and medieval times to perform astronomical calculations. These include the Antikythera mechanism and the astrolabe from ancient Greece, hero of Alexandria made many complex mechanical devices including automata and a programmable cart. Ramon Llull invented the Lullian Circle, a machine for calculating answers to philosophical questions via logical combinatorics. This idea was taken up by Leibniz centuries later, and is one of the founding elements in computing. While producing the first logarithmic tables, Napier needed to perform many tedious multiplications and it was at this point that he designed his Napiers bones, an abacus-like device that greatly simplified calculations that involved multiplication and division. Edmund Gunter built a device with a single logarithmic scale at the University of Oxford. His device greatly simplified arithmetic calculations, including multiplication and division, William Oughtred greatly improved this in 1630 with his circular slide rule. He followed this up with the slide rule in 1632. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically involved professional workers, Wilhelm Schickard, a German polymath, designed a calculating machine in 1623 which combined a mechanised form of Napiers rods with the worlds first mechanical adding machine built into the base
14.
Digital age
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The onset of the Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the Industrial Revolution marked the onset of the Industrial Age. The Information Age formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances, library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs and he did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth, moores law, which was formulated around 1965, calculated that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. Connectivity between computers within companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access greater amounts of information. The worlds technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 15.8 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000 and it is estimated that the worlds capacity to store information has reached 5 zettabytes in 2014. This is the equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun. In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to, technology was developing so quickly that a computer costing $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance, the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored, the number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanitys general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second, estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage, eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were changed by ICT. Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book and his book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits. In essence, a copy of a made of bits can be made cheaply and quickly. The Information Age has affected the workforce in several ways and it has created a situation in which workers who perform easily automated tasks are forced to find work that is not easily automated. Workers are also being forced to compete in a job market. Lastly, workers are being replaced by computers that can do their jobs faster and this poses problems for workers in industrial societies, which are still to be solved. However, solutions that involve lowering the time are usually highly resisted
15.
Charles Babbage
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Charles Babbage KH FRS was an English polymath. A mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer, Babbage is best remembered for originating the concept of a programmable computer. His varied work in other fields has led him to be described as pre-eminent among the many polymaths of his century, parts of Babbages uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the Science Museum in London. In 1991, a perfectly functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbages original plans, built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbages machine would have worked. Babbages birthplace is disputed, but according to the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, a blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. His date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792, the parish register of St. Marys Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791. Babbage was one of four children of Benjamin Babbage and Betsy Plumleigh Teape and his father was a banking partner of William Praed in founding Praeds & Co. of Fleet Street, London, in 1801. In 1808, the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East Teignmouth, around the age of eight, Babbage was sent to a country school in Alphington near Exeter to recover from a life-threatening fever. For a short time he attended King Edward VI Grammar School in Totnes, South Devon, Babbage then joined the 30-student Holmwood academy, in Baker Street, Enfield, Middlesex, under the Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a library that prompted Babbages love of mathematics and he studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. The first was a clergyman near Cambridge, through him Babbage encountered Charles Simeon and his evangelical followers and he was brought home, to study at the Totnes school, this was at age 16 or 17. The second was an Oxford tutor, under whom Babbage reached a level in Classics sufficient to be accepted by Cambridge, Babbage arrived at Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1810. He was already self-taught in some parts of mathematics, he had read in Robert Woodhouse, Joseph Louis Lagrange. As a result, he was disappointed in the standard mathematical instruction available at the university, Babbage, John Herschel, George Peacock, and several other friends formed the Analytical Society in 1812, they were also close to Edward Ryan. In 1812 Babbage transferred to Peterhouse, Cambridge and he was the top mathematician there, but did not graduate with honours. He instead received a degree without examination in 1814 and he had defended a thesis that was considered blasphemous in the preliminary public disputation, but it is not known whether this fact is related to his not sitting the examination. Considering his reputation, Babbage quickly made progress and he lectured to the Royal Institution on astronomy in 1815, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1816. After graduation, on the hand, he applied for positions unsuccessfully
16.
Difference Engine
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A difference engine is an automatic mechanical calculator designed to tabulate polynomial functions. The name derives from the method of divided differences, a way to interpolate or tabulate functions by using a set of polynomial coefficients. The historical difficulty in producing error-free tables by teams of mathematicians, J. H. Müller, an engineer in the Hessian army, conceived of the idea of a difference machine. This was described in a book published in 1786, but Müller was unable to obtain funding to progress with the idea and this machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The British government was interested, since producing tables was time-consuming and expensive, in 1823, the British government gave Babbage £1700 to start work on the project. Although Babbages design was feasible, the techniques of the era could not economically make parts in the precision. Thus the implementation proved to be more expensive and doubtful of success than the governments initial estimate. By the time the government abandoned the project in 1842, Babbage had received and spent over £17,000 on development, the government valued only the machines output, not the development of the machine itself. Babbage did not, or was unwilling to, recognize that predicament, meanwhile, Babbages attention had moved on to developing an analytical engine, further undermining the government’s confidence in the eventual success of the difference engine. By improving the concept as an engine, Babbage had made the difference engine concept obsolete. Babbage went on to design his much more general analytical engine, Babbage was able to take advantage of ideas developed for the analytical engine to make the new difference engine calculate more quickly while using fewer parts. Inspired by Babbages difference engine plans, Per Georg Scheutz built several difference engines from 1855 onwards, martin Wiberg improved Scheutzs construction but used his device only for producing and publishing printed logarithmic tables. This work led the Science Museum to construct a working difference engine No.2 from 1989 to 1991, under Doron Swade and this was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbages birth in 2001. In 2000, the printer which Babbage originally designed for the engine was also completed. The conversion of the design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers use revealed some minor errors in Babbages design. Once completed, both the engine and its printer worked flawlessly, and still do, the difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with 19th-century technology, resolving a long-standing debate as to whether Babbages design would actually have worked. The printers primary purpose is to produce plates for use in printing presses. The printers paper output is mainly a means of checking the Engines performance, in addition to funding the construction of the output mechanism for the Science Museums Difference Engine No
17.
Analytical Engine
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The Analytical Engine was a proposed mechanical general-purpose computer designed by English mathematician and computer pioneer Charles Babbage. It was first described in 1837 as the successor to Babbages difference engine, in other words, the logical structure of the Analytical Engine was essentially the same as that which has dominated computer design in the electronic era. Babbage was never able to complete construction of any of his machines due to conflicts with his chief engineer and it was not until the 1940s that the first general-purpose computers were actually built, more than a century after Babbage had proposed the pioneering Analytical Engine in 1837. Construction of this machine was never completed, Babbage had conflicts with his engineer, Joseph Clement. During this project, he realized that a more general design. The work on the design of the Analytical Engine started in 1835, the input, consisting of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter, the machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic, there was to be a store capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. An arithmetical unit would be able to all four arithmetic operations, plus comparisons. Initially it was conceived as a difference engine curved back upon itself, in a circular layout. Later drawings depict a regularized grid layout, the programming language to be employed by users was akin to modern day assembly languages. Loops and conditional branching were possible, and so the language as conceived would have been Turing-complete as later defined by Alan Turing, there were three separate readers for the three types of cards. Babbage developed some two dozen programs for the Analytical Engine between 1837 and 1840, and one program later and these programs treat polynomials, iterative formulas, Gaussian elimination, and Bernoulli numbers. In 1842, the Italian mathematician Luigi Federico Menabrea published a description of the based on a lecture by Babbage in French. In 1843, the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by Ada Lovelace, in recognition of her additions to Menabreas paper, which included a way to calculate Bernoulli numbers using the machine, she has been described as the first computer programmer. Late in his life, Babbage sought ways to build a version of the machine. In 1878, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science described the Analytical Engine as a marvel of mechanical ingenuity, but recommended against constructing it. The committee acknowledged the usefulness and value of the machine, but could not estimate the cost of building it, and were unsure whether the machine would function correctly after being built
18.
Ada Lovelace
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Augusta Ada King-Noel, Countess of Lovelace was an English mathematician and writer, chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbages proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine. She was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation, as a result, she is often regarded as the first to recognise the full potential of a computing machine and the first computer programmer. Ada Lovelace was the legitimate child of the poet George, Lord Byron. All Byrons other children were out of wedlock to other women. Byron separated from his wife a month after Ada was born and left England forever four months later, often ill, she spent most of her childhood sick. Ada married William King in 1835, King was made Earl of Lovelace in 1838, and she became Countess of Lovelace. Ada described her approach as poetical science and herself as an Analyst, Lovelace first met him in June 1833, through their mutual friend, and her private tutor, Mary Somerville. Between 1842 and 1843, Ada translated an article by Italian military engineer Luigi Menabrea on the engine and these notes contain what many consider to be the first computer program—that is, an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine. Lovelaces notes are important in the history of computers. She also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching, while others, including Babbage himself. Her mindset of poetical science led her to ask questions about the Analytical Engine examining how individuals and she died of uterine cancer in 1852 at the age of 36. Byron expected his baby to be a boy and was disappointed when his wife gave birth to a girl. Augusta was named after Byrons half-sister, Augusta Leigh, and was called Ada by Byron himself, on 16 January 1816 Adas mother, Annabella, at Byrons behest, left for her parents home at Kirkby Mallory taking one-month-old Ada with her. On 21 April Byron signed the Deed of Separation, although very reluctantly, aside from an acrimonious separation, Annabella continually made allegations about Byrons immoral behaviour throughout her life. This set of events made Ada famous in Victorian society, Byron did not have a relationship with his daughter, and never saw her again. He died in 1824 when she was eight years old and her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life. Ada was not shown the family portrait of her father until her twentieth birthday and her mother became Baroness Wentworth in her own right in 1856. Annabella did not have a relationship with the young Ada and often left her in the care of her own mother Judith
19.
Computer program
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A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function, and typically executes the programs instructions in a processing unit. A computer program is written by a computer programmer in a programming language. From the program in its form of source code, a compiler can derive machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer can directly execute. Alternatively, a program may be executed with the aid of an interpreter. A part of a program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of programs, libraries and related data are referred to as software. Computer programs may be categorized along functional lines, such as software or system software. The earliest programmable machines preceded the invention of the digital computer, in 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised a loom that would weave a pattern by following a series of perforated cards. Patterns could be weaved and repeated by arranging the cards, in 1837, Charles Babbage was inspired by Jacquards loom to attempt to build the Analytical Engine. The names of the components of the device were borrowed from the textile industry. In the textile industry, yarn was brought from the store to be milled, the device would have had a store—memory to hold 1,000 numbers of 40 decimal digits each. Numbers from the store would then have then transferred to the mill. It was programmed using two sets of perforated cards—one to direct the operation and the other for the input variables, however, after more than 17,000 pounds of the British governments money, the thousands of cogged wheels and gears never fully worked together. During a nine-month period in 1842–43, Ada Lovelace translated the memoir of Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea, the memoir covered the Analytical Engine. The translation contained Note G which completely detailed a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers using the Analytical Engine and this note is recognized by some historians as the worlds first written computer program. In 1936, Alan Turing introduced the Universal Turing machine—a theoretical device that can model every computation that can be performed on a Turing complete computing machine and it is a finite-state machine that has an infinitely long read/write tape. The machine can move the back and forth, changing its contents as it performs an algorithm
20.
Player piano
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The rise of the player piano grew with the rise of the mass-produced piano for the home in the late 19th and early 20th century. Sales peaked in 1924, then declined as the improvement in phonograph recordings due to electrical recording methods developed in the mid-1920s. The idea of musical devices can be traced back many centuries. These devices were later extended to operate musical boxes, which contain a set of tuned metal teeth plucked by the player mechanism, an early musical instrument to be automated was the organ, which is comparatively easy to operate automatically. The power for the notes is provided by air from a system. The playing task is performed by a pinned barrel. The piano is an instrument, requiring each note to be struck with a different force to control the dynamics of the performance. The entire force required to sound the note must be given by the hitting the keys. It proved to be difficult for a device to combine a variable percussive force. Barrels do not provide a force, but a relatively gentle switching motion. Early barrel pianos moved the back and forwards continuously as the operator turned the handle. The hammers hit repeatedly until the pin was removed and this played the note, but at a fixed dynamic and with a tremolo action quite unlike a pianist. The development of the piano was the gradual overcoming of the various difficulties of controlled percussive striking. The earliest practical piano playing device was probably the Forneaux Pianista and this bellows struck the piano key and so played the note. The acceleration of developments leading to the player device started in the 1840s. The start of the period can probably be seen as the Centennial Exposition of 1876 in Philadelphia. At this exhibition were a number of automatic devices, including the Pianista. The earliest description of a piano playing device using perforated paper rolls was Claude Seytres French patent of 1842, the concept was sound, but the device described was impractical in the way it read the roll and operated the piano
21.
Jacquard loom
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The Jacquard machine is a device fitted to a power loom that simplifies the process of manufacturing textiles with such complex patterns as brocade, damask and matelassé. It was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, the loom was controlled by a chain of cards, a number of punched cards, laced together into a continuous sequence. Multiple rows of holes were punched on each card, with one complete card corresponding to one row of the design, several such paper cards, generally white in color, can be seen in the images below. Chains, like Bouchons earlier use of tape, allowed sequences of any length to be constructed. It is based on earlier inventions by the Frenchmen Basile Bouchon, Jean Baptiste Falcon, a static display of a Jacquard loom is the centrepiece of the Musée des Tissus et des Arts décoratifs in Lyon. Live displays of a Jacquard loom are available at a few museums around Lyon and also twice a day at La Maison des Canuts. Both the Jacquard process and the necessary loom attachment are named after their inventor and this mechanism is probably one of the most important weaving inventions as Jacquard shedding made possible the automatic production of unlimited varieties of pattern weaving. The term Jacquard is not specific or limited to any particular loom, the process can also be used for patterned knitwear and machine-knitted textiles, such as jerseys. This use of punched cards to control a sequence of operations is considered an important step in the history of computing hardware. In former times, if figured designs were required, this was done on a drawloom, the heddles with warp ends to be pulled up were manually selected by a second operator, apart from the weaver. It was slow and labour-intensive, with limitations on the complexity of the pattern. The first important improvement of the draw took place in 1725. A continuous roll of paper was punched by hand, in sections, each of which represented one lash or tread, the Jacquard machine subsequently evolved from this. It is difficult to determine part of the Jacquard machine was designed by Jacquard himself. He may have combined the best mechanical elements of other inventors, Jacquards machine also contained eight rows of needles and uprights as compared with Vaucansons double row, of which modifications enabled him to increase the figuring capacity of the machine. In his first machine, he supported the harness by knotted cords, Jacquards invention had a deep influence on Charles Babbage. In that respect, he is viewed by some authors as a precursor of modern computing science. Each position in the card corresponds to a Bolus hook, which can either be raised or stopped dependent on whether the hole is punched out of the card or the card is solid
22.
Binary code
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A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or other data using any two-symbol system, but often the binary number systems 0 and 1. The binary code assigns a pattern of digits to each character, instruction. For example, a string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values. In computing and telecommunications, binary codes are used for methods of encoding data, such as character strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings, there are many character sets and many character encodings for them. A bit string, interpreted as a number, can be translated into a decimal number. For example, the case a, if represented by the bit string 01100001. The modern binary system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679. Leibnizs system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system, Leibniz saw the hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own religious beliefs. Binary numerals were central to Leibnizs theology and he believed that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing. Leibniz was trying to find a system that converts logic’s verbal statements into a mathematical one. After his ideas were ignored, he came across a classic Chinese text called I Ching or ‘Book of Changes’, the book had confirmed his theory that life could be simplified or reduced down to a series of straightforward propositions. He created a system consisting of rows of zeros and ones, during this time period, Leibniz had not yet found a use for this system. Binary systems predating Leibniz also existed in the ancient world, the aforementioned I Ching that Leibniz encountered dates from the 9th century BC in China. The binary system of the I Ching, a text for divination, is based on the duality of yin, slit drums with binary tones are used to encode messages across Africa and Asia. The Indian scholar Pingala developed a system for describing prosody in his Chandashutram. The residents of the island of Mangareva in French Polynesia were using a hybrid binary-decimal system before 1450, the ordering is also the lexicographical order on sextuples of elements chosen from a two-element set. Boole’s system was based on binary, a yes-no, on-off approach that consisted of the three most basic operations, AND, OR, and NOT. Shannon wrote his thesis in 1937, which implemented his findings
23.
Analog computers
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An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their values change. As an analog computer does not use values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomographs are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers, systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen, along with initial conditions—that is, starting values. Another essential was creating the network of interconnections between computing elements. Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of the problem so that the computer would function satisfactorily, no variables could be allowed to exceed the computers limits, and differentiation was to be avoided, typically by rearranging the network of interconnects, using integrators in a different sense. Running an electronic computer, assuming a satisfactory setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and permitted the problem to run, in some instances, the computer could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial-conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again. This is a list of examples of early computation devices which are considered to be precursors of the modern computers, some of them may even have been dubbed as computers by the press, although they may fail to fit the modern definitions. The south-pointing chariot can be considered the earliest analog computer and it was a mechanical-geared wheeled vehicle used for to discern the southern cardinal direction. The Antikythera mechanism was an orrery and is claimed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later, many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century, the astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy
24.
Digital computer
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A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out an arbitrary set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow a sequence of operations, called a program, such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. The Internet is run on computers and it millions of other computers. Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations, early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century, the first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then, conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit, and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing, peripheral devices include input devices, output devices, and input/output devices that perform both functions. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and this usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century, from the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the 1640s, one who calculates, the Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean calculating machine is from 1897. The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the use of the term. 1945 under this name, theoretical from 1937, as Turing machine, devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick, later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example, the abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, the Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog computer, according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC
25.
Boolean logic
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In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0 respectively. It is thus a formalism for describing logical relations in the way that ordinary algebra describes numeric relations. Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, according to Huntington, the term Boolean algebra was first suggested by Sheffer in 1913. Boolean algebra has been fundamental in the development of digital electronics and it is also used in set theory and statistics. Booles algebra predated the modern developments in algebra and mathematical logic. In an abstract setting, Boolean algebra was perfected in the late 19th century by Jevons, Schröder, Huntington, in fact, M. H. Stone proved in 1936 that every Boolean algebra is isomorphic to a field of sets. Shannon already had at his disposal the abstract mathematical apparatus, thus he cast his switching algebra as the two-element Boolean algebra, in circuit engineering settings today, there is little need to consider other Boolean algebras, thus switching algebra and Boolean algebra are often used interchangeably. Efficient implementation of Boolean functions is a problem in the design of combinational logic circuits. Logic sentences that can be expressed in classical propositional calculus have an equivalent expression in Boolean algebra, thus, Boolean logic is sometimes used to denote propositional calculus performed in this way. Boolean algebra is not sufficient to capture logic formulas using quantifiers, the closely related model of computation known as a Boolean circuit relates time complexity to circuit complexity. Whereas in elementary algebra expressions denote mainly numbers, in Boolean algebra they denote the truth values false and these values are represented with the bits, namely 0 and 1. Addition and multiplication then play the Boolean roles of XOR and AND respectively, Boolean algebra also deals with functions which have their values in the set. A sequence of bits is a commonly used such function, another common example is the subsets of a set E, to a subset F of E is associated the indicator function that takes the value 1 on F and 0 outside F. The most general example is the elements of a Boolean algebra, as with elementary algebra, the purely equational part of the theory may be developed without considering explicit values for the variables. The basic operations of Boolean calculus are as follows, AND, denoted x∧y, satisfies x∧y =1 if x = y =1 and x∧y =0 otherwise. OR, denoted x∨y, satisfies x∨y =0 if x = y =0, NOT, denoted ¬x, satisfies ¬x =0 if x =1 and ¬x =1 if x =0. Alternatively the values of x∧y, x∨y, and ¬x can be expressed by tabulating their values with truth tables as follows, the first operation, x → y, or Cxy, is called material implication. If x is then the value of x → y is taken to be that of y
26.
Manchester Mark 1
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The Manchester Mark 1 was one of the earliest stored-program computers, developed at the Victoria University of Manchester from the Small-Scale Experimental Machine or Baby. It was also called the Manchester Automatic Digital Machine, or MADM, work began in August 1948, and the first version was operational by April 1949, a program written to search for Mersenne primes ran error-free for nine hours on the night of 16/17 June 1949. The machines successful operation was reported in the British press. The chief designers, Frederic C. Williams and Tom Kilburn, in 1951, they started development work on Meg, the Mark 1s successor, which would include a floating point unit. In 1936, mathematician Alan Turing published a definition of a universal computing machine. Turing proved that such a machine was capable of solving any conceivable mathematical problem for which an algorithm could be written, the practical construction of a von Neumann computer depended on the availability of a suitable memory device. Early electronic computers were programmed by being rewired, or via plugs and patch panels, there was no separate program stored in memory. It could take days to reprogram ENIAC, for instance. Stored-program computers were also being developed by researchers, notably the National Physical Laboratorys Pilot ACE, Cambridge Universitys EDSAC. The SSEM and the Mark 1 differed primarily in their use of Williams tubes as memory devices, from about August 1948, the SSEM was intensively developed as a prototype for the Manchester Mark 1, initially with the aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility. In October 1948, UK Government Chief Scientist Ben Lockspeiser was given a demonstration of the prototype Mark 1 while on a visit to the University of Manchester. Lockspeiser was so impressed by what he saw that he initiated a government contract with the local firm of Ferranti to make a commercial version of the machine. From that point on, development of the Mark 1 had the purpose of supplying Ferranti with a design on which to base their commercial machine. The governments contract with Ferranti ran for five years from November 1948, the SSEM had been designed by the team of Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, to develop the Mark 1 they were joined by two research students, D. B. G. Edwards and G. E. Thomas, work began in earnest in August 1948. The first of the two versions of the Manchester Mark 1 – known as the Intermediary Version – was operational by April 1949 and these missing features were incorporated in the Final Specification version, which was fully working by October 1949. The machine contained 4,050 valves and had a consumption of 25 kilowatts. To increase reliability, purpose-built CRTs made by GEC were used in the machine instead of the devices used in the SSEM
27.
EDSAC
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Electronic delay storage automatic calculator was an early British computer. EDSAC was the electronic digital stored-program computer to go into regular service. Later the project was supported by J. Lyons & Co. Ltd. a British firm, work on EDSAC started during 1947, and it ran its first programs on 6 May 1949, when it calculated a table of squares and a list of prime numbers. EDSAC1 was finally shut down on 11 July 1958, having been superseded by EDSAC2, as soon as EDSAC was operational, it began serving the Universitys research needs. It used mercury delay lines for memory, and derated vacuum tubes for logic, cycle time was 1.5 ms for all ordinary instructions,6 ms for multiplication. Input was via five-hole punched tape and output was via a teleprinter, initially registers were limited to an accumulator and a multiplier register. In 1953, David Wheeler, returning from a stay at the University of Illinois, a magnetic tape drive was added in 1952 but never worked sufficiently well to be of real use. Until 1952, the main memory was only 512 18-bit words. The delay lines were arranged in two batteries providing 512 words each, the second battery came into operation in 1952. The full 1024-word delay line store was not available until 1955 or early 1956, the EDSACs main memory consisted of 1024 locations, though only 512 locations were initially installed. Each contained 18 bits, but the topmost bit was always due to timing problems. An instruction consisted of a five-bit instruction code, one bit, a ten bit operand. Numbers were either 17 bits or 35 bits long, unusually, the multiplier was designed to treat numbers as fixed-point fractions in the range −1 ≤ x <1, i. e. the binary point was immediately to the right of the sign. The accumulator could hold 71 bits, including the sign, allowing two long numbers to be multiplied without losing any precision, there was no division instruction and no way to directly load a number into the accumulator. There was no unconditional jump instruction, nor was there a call instruction - it had not yet been invented. The initial orders were hard-wired on a set of uniselector switches, by May 1949, the initial orders provided a primitive relocating assembler taking advantage of the mnemonic design described above, all in 31 words. This was the worlds first assembler, and arguably the start of the software industry. There is a simulation of EDSAC available and a description of the initial orders
28.
Logical operation
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The most common logical connectives are binary connectives which join two sentences which can be thought of as the functions operands. Also commonly, negation is considered to be a unary connective, logical connectives along with quantifiers are the two main types of logical constants used in formal systems such as propositional logic and predicate logic. Semantics of a logical connective is often, but not always, a logical connective is similar to but not equivalent to a conditional operator. In the grammar of natural languages two sentences may be joined by a grammatical conjunction to form a compound sentence. Some but not all such grammatical conjunctions are truth functions, for example, consider the following sentences, A, Jack went up the hill. B, Jill went up the hill, C, Jack went up the hill and Jill went up the hill. D, Jack went up the hill so Jill went up the hill, the words and and so are grammatical conjunctions joining the sentences and to form the compound sentences and. The and in is a connective, since the truth of is completely determined by and, it would make no sense to affirm. Various English words and word pairs express logical connectives, and some of them are synonymous, examples are, In formal languages, truth functions are represented by unambiguous symbols. These symbols are called logical connectives, logical operators, propositional operators, or, in classical logic, see well-formed formula for the rules which allow new well-formed formulas to be constructed by joining other well-formed formulas using truth-functional connectives. Logical connectives can be used to more than two statements, so one can speak about n-ary logical connective. For example, the meaning of the statements it is raining, comes from Booles interpretation of logic as an elementary algebra. True, the symbol 1 comes from Booles interpretation of logic as an algebra over the two-element Boolean algebra. False, the symbol 0 comes also from Booles interpretation of logic as a ring, some authors used letters for connectives at some time of the history, u. for conjunction and o. Such a logical connective as converse implication ← is actually the same as material conditional with swapped arguments, thus, in some logical calculi certain essentially different compound statements are logically equivalent. A less trivial example of a redundancy is the equivalence between ¬P ∨ Q and P → Q. There are sixteen Boolean functions associating the input truth values P and Q with four-digit binary outputs and these correspond to possible choices of binary logical connectives for classical logic. Different implementations of classical logic can choose different functionally complete subsets of connectives, One approach is to choose a minimal set, and define other connectives by some logical form, as in the example with the material conditional above
29.
Vannevar Bush
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He is also known in engineering for his work on analog computers, for founding Raytheon, and for the memex, a hypothetical adjustable microfilm viewer with a structure analogous to that of hypertext. The memex influenced generations of scientists, who drew inspiration from its vision of the future. He was chiefly responsible for the movement that led to the creation of the National Science Foundation, for his masters thesis, Bush invented and patented a profile tracer, a mapping device for assisting surveyors. It was the first of a string of inventions and he joined the Department of Electrical Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1919, and founded the company now known as Raytheon in 1922. Starting in 1927, Bush constructed a differential analyzer, a computer with some digital components that could solve differential equations with as many as 18 independent variables. An offshoot of the work at MIT by Bush and others was the beginning of digital circuit design theory, Bush became vice president of MIT and dean of the MIT School of Engineering in 1932, and president of the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1938. Bush was appointed to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in 1938, Bush was a well-known policymaker and public intellectual during World War II, when he was in effect the first presidential science advisor. As head of NDRC and OSRD, he initiated the Manhattan Project, Vannevar Bush was born in Everett, Massachusetts, on March 11,1890, the third child and only son of Perry Bush, the local Universalist pastor, and his wife Emma Linwood née Paine. He had two sisters, Edith and Reba. He was named after John Vannevar, an old friend of the family who had attended Tufts College with Perry, the family moved to Chelsea, Massachusetts, in 1892, and Bush graduated from Chelsea High School in 1909. He then attended Tufts, like his father before him, a popular student, he was vice president of his sophomore class, and president of his junior class. During his senior year, he managed the football team and he became a member of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity, and dated Phoebe Clara Davis, who also came from Chelsea. Tufts allowed students to gain a degree in four years simultaneously with a bachelors degree, so for his masters thesis. This was a device for assisting surveyors that looked like a lawn mower and it had two bicycle wheels, and a pen that plotted the terrain over which it traveled. It was the first of a string of inventions, on graduation in 1913 he received both bachelor of science and master of science degrees. After graduation, Bush worked at General Electric in Schenectady, New York, as a test man, his job was to assess equipment to ensure that it was safe. He transferred to GEs plant in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, to work on high voltage transformers, but after a fire out at the plant, Bush. He returned to Tufts in October 1914 to teach mathematics, and he was awarded a $1,500 scholarship to study at Clark University as a doctoral student of Arthur Gordon Webster, but Webster wanted Bush to study acoustics
30.
The Atlantic Monthly
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The Atlantic is an American magazine, founded in 1857 as The Atlantic Monthly in Boston, Massachusetts. Since 2006, the magazine is based in Washington, D. C, created as a literary and cultural commentary magazine, it has grown to achieve a national reputation as a high-quality review organ with a moderate worldview. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and poets. It has published leading writers commentary on abolition, education, the periodical has won more National Magazine Awards than any other monthly magazine. The first issue of the magazine was published on November 1,1857, the magazines initiator and founder was Francis H. Underwood, an assistant to the publisher, who received less recognition than his partners because he was neither a humbug nor a Harvard man. After experiencing financial hardship and a series of changes, the magazine was reformatted as a general editorial magazine. Focusing on foreign affairs, politics, and the cultural trends, it is now primarily aimed at a target audience of serious national readers. In 2010, The Atlantic posted its first profit in a decade, in profiling the publication at the time, The New York Times noted the accomplishment was the result of a cultural transfusion, a dose of counterintuition and a lot of digital advertising revenue. The magazine, subscribed to by over 425,000 readers, the Atlantic features articles in the fields of the arts, the economy, foreign affairs, political science, and technology. The Atlantics president is Bob Cohn, in April 2005, The Atlantics editors decided to cease publishing fiction in regular issues in favor of a newsstand-only annual fiction issue edited by longtime staffer C. Michael Curtis. They have since re-instituted the practice, on January 22,2008, TheAtlantic. com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. TheAtlantic. com covers politics, business, entertainment, technology, health, international affairs, and more. In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic. com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as related to the mind, body, sex, family. TheAtlantic. com has expanded to visual storytelling with the addition of the In Focus photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor. A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published significant works. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe, for example, Emily Dickinson, after reading an article in The Atlantic by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, asked him to become her mentor. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction, the magazine also published many of the works of Mark Twain, including one that was lost until 2001. Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements, for example, the magazine has also published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies
31.
Digital scholarship
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Digital scholarship is the use of digital evidence, methods of inquiry, research, publication and preservation to achieve scholarly and research goals. Digital scholarship can encompass both scholarly communication using digital media and research on digital media, an important aspect of digital scholarship is the effort to establish digital media and social media as credible, professional and legitimate means of research and communication. Digital scholarship has an association with digital humanities, though the relationship between these terms is unclear. Combined with open access, digital scholarship is offered as a more affordable, according to scholars, discovery, integration, application, and teaching are the four main aspects of scholarship. The growth of digital media means that the areas of scholarship can each benefit from expansions in their own way thanks to the infinite sharability of digital content. In education, the areas of relevance are science, technology, engineering. It is said that students learn best in a classroom when they are actively engaged, the emergence of digital scholarship and digital media allows for another means for students to become engaged. Key areas of academia that digital media is used on are to illustrate concepts, model displays, critics cite concerns about the legitimacy, accessibility and verifiability of digital scholarship and the erosion of authors rights as reasons to be concerned about digital scholarship. As scholarly communication evolves, controversy over the definition and value of the digital scholarship is likely to continue. Concerns with how to regulate digital scholarship have arisen across universities across the world, the explosion in availability and creation of scholarly works has led many universities to adjust their policies on how they will manage scholarship in the future. These universities feel pressured to take action because digital technologies have led to the reproduction and commodification of these creations. Many universities are unclear how to address the copyrighting of online classes, current law does not cover these specific areas of media produced in the academic world. In the past any printed work done by professors was considered their intellectual property, one of the main concerns of faculty is that universities will soon take ownership of this digital media. In order to stay on top of others academically, universities have sought to keep the intellectual property created within the university away from others schools, not only are universities using digital scholarship to make money and stay ahead, but they also have interests in protecting their brand. While universities attempt to protect digital scholarship, it is in many professors best interests for their creations to be seen by the world as to grow their brand, professors argue that it took time and serious effort to make the presentations, slides, media. Change over the ability of professors to bring digital scholarship with them is expected as universities have begun to take notice, professors will argue that since they are the creators and authors of the product they are the owners according to law. As of now most copyright laws in America indicate that the author or creator holds the copyright, the law explicitly states that if the work is within the scope of his or her employment then the work is the property of the employer. Since the employer here would be the university, professors are technically creating work for hire
32.
World Wide Web
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The World Wide Web is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by Uniform Resource Locators, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. English scientist Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web in 1989 and he wrote the first web browser computer program in 1990 while employed at CERN in Switzerland. The Web browser was released outside of CERN in 1991, first to research institutions starting in January 1991. The World Wide Web has been central to the development of the Information Age and is the primary tool billions of people use to interact on the Internet, Web pages are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with Hypertext Markup Language. In addition to formatted text, web pages may contain images, video, audio, embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. Multiple web pages with a theme, a common domain name. Website content can largely be provided by the publisher, or interactive where users contribute content or the content depends upon the user or their actions, websites may be mostly informative, primarily for entertainment, or largely for commercial, governmental, or non-governmental organisational purposes. In the 2006 Great British Design Quest organised by the BBC and the Design Museum, Tim Berners-Lees vision of a global hyperlinked information system became a possibility by the second half of the 1980s. By 1985, the global Internet began to proliferate in Europe, in 1988 the first direct IP connection between Europe and North America was made and Berners-Lee began to openly discuss the possibility of a web-like system at CERN. Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the meanings of the word hypertext. At this point HTML and HTTP had already been in development for two months and the first Web server was about a month from completing its first successful test. While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0. The proposal was modelled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the worlds first web server and also to write the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the necessary for a working Web, the first web browser. The first web site, which described the project itself, was published on 20 December 1990, jones stored it on a magneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt. hypertext. This date is confused with the public availability of the first web servers. The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in Palo Alto, California, accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event
33.
Wiki
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A wiki is a website that provides collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from the web browser. In a typical wiki, text is written using a markup language. A wiki is run using wiki software, otherwise known as a wiki engine, there are dozens of different wiki engines in use, both standalone and part of other software, such as bug tracking systems. Some wiki engines are open source, whereas others are proprietary, some permit control over different functions, for example, editing rights may permit changing, adding or removing material. Others may permit access without enforcing access control, other rules may also be imposed to organize content. Wikipedia is not a wiki but rather a collection of hundreds of wikis. There are at least tens of thousands of other wikis in use, both public and private, including functioning as knowledge management resources, notetaking tools, community websites. The English-language Wikipedia has the largest collection of articles, as of September 2016, ward Cunningham, the developer of the first wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, originally described it as the simplest online database that could possibly work. Wiki is a Hawaiian word meaning quick, Wiki promotes meaningful topic associations between different pages by making page link creation intuitively easy and showing whether an intended target page exists or not. A wiki is not a carefully crafted site created by experts and professional writers, instead, it seeks to involve the typical visitor/user in an ongoing process of creation and collaboration that constantly changes the website landscape. A wiki enables communities of editors and contributors to write documents collaboratively, all that people require to contribute is a computer, Internet access, a web browser and a basic understanding of a simple markup language. A single page in a website is referred to as a wiki page, while the entire collection of pages. A wiki is essentially a database for creating, browsing, a wiki allows non-linear, evolving, complex and networked text, while also allowing for editor argument, debate and interaction regarding the content and formatting. A defining characteristic of wiki technology is the ease with which pages can be created and updated, generally, there is no review by a moderator or gatekeeper before modifications are accepted and thus lead to changes on the website. Many wikis are open to alteration by the public without requiring registration of user accounts. Many edits can be made in real-time and appear almost instantly online, however, this feature facilitates abuse of the system. Private wiki servers require user authentication to edit pages, and sometimes even to read them, maged N. Kamel Boulos, Cito Maramba and Steve Wheeler write that the open wikis produce a process of Social Darwinism. Unfit sentences and sections are ruthlessly culled, edited and replaced if they are not considered fit, while such openness may invite vandalism and the posting of untrue information, this same openness also makes it possible to rapidly correct or restore a quality wiki page
34.
Social media
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Social media are computer-mediated technologies that facilitate the creation and sharing of information, ideas, career interests and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks. User-generated content, such as posts or comments, digital photos or videos. Users create service-specific profiles for the website or app that are designed and maintained by the media organization. Social media facilitate the development of social networks by connecting a users profile with those of other individuals or groups. They introduce substantial and pervasive changes to communication between businesses, organizations, communities and individuals, Social media changes the way individuals and large organizations communicate. These changes are the focus of the field of technoself studies. In America, a reported that 84 percent of adolescents in America have a Facebook account. Over 60% of 13 to 17-year-olds have at least one profile on social media, according to Nielsen, Internet users continue to spend more time on social media sites than on any other type of site. For content contributors, the benefits of participating in social media have gone beyond simply social sharing to building a reputation and bringing in career opportunities and monetary income. Social media differ from paper-based or traditional media such as TV broadcasting in many ways, including quality, reach, frequency, usability, immediacy. Social media operate in a Dialogic transmission system and this is in contrast to traditional media which operates under a monologic transmission model, such as a paper newspaper which is delivered to many subscribers. Some of the most popular social media websites are Baidu Tieba, Facebook, Gab, Google+, Instagram, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Reddit, Snapchat, Tumblr, Twitter, Viber, WeChat, Weibo, WhatsApp, and YouTube. These social media websites have more than 100,000,000 registered users, observers have noted a range of positive and negative impacts of social media use. At the same time, concerns have been raised about possible links between social media use and depression, and even the issues of cyberbullying, online harassment. Currently, about half of adults have been cyberbullied and of those,20 percent said that they have been cyberbullied on a regular basis. Another survey was carried out among 7th grade students in America which is known as the Precaution Process Adoption Model, according to this study,69 percent of 7th grade students claim to have experienced cyberbullying and they also said that it is worse than face to face bullying. The variety and evolving stand-alone and built-in social media services introduces a challenge of definition, the terminology is unclear, with some referring to social media as social networks. A2015 paper reviewed the prominent literature in the area and identified four commonalities unique to then-current social media services, in 2016, Merriam-Webster defined social media as Forms of electronic communication through which people create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, etc
35.
Digital Revolution
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Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. Central to this revolution is the production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone. The motor of this incessant force of destruction is technological change. Each one of those so-called long waves has been characterized by a period of social modernization. The Agricultural Revolution led to cities in the ancient world in the Middle East, Mesoamerica, China. Then the Industrial Revolution led to cities in the 19th century such as Manchester, Newcastle Upon Tyne. In the 20th century the rise of the economy caused people to leave the industrial cities. In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the worlds technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, the year 2002 is estimated to be the year when human kind was able to store more information in digital, than in analog format. It is estimated that the capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 exabytes in 1986. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer, claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format, by doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal, of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely. The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music, during the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice. In 1947 the transistor was invented, leading the way to more advanced digital computers, in the 1950s and 1960s the military, governments and other organizations had computer systems. From 1969 to 1971, Intel developed the Intel 4004, a microprocessor that laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s. The public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, the ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks
36.
Personal computer
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A personal computer is a multi-purpose electronic computer whose size, capabilities, and price make it feasible for individual use. PCs are intended to be operated directly by a end-user, rather than by an expert or technician. In the 2010s, PCs are typically connected to the Internet, allowing access to the World Wide Web, personal computers may be connected to a local area network, either by a cable or a wireless connection. In the 2010s, a PC may be, a multi-component desktop computer, designed for use in a location a laptop computer, designed for easy portability or a tablet computer. In the 2010s, PCs run using a system, such as Microsoft Windows, Linux. The very earliest microcomputers, equipped with a front panel, required hand-loading of a program to load programs from external storage. Before long, automatic booting from permanent read-only memory became universal, in the 2010s, users have access to a wide range of commercial software, free software and free and open-source software, which are provided in ready-to-run or ready-to-compile form. Since the early 1990s, Microsoft operating systems and Intel hardware have dominated much of the computer market, first with MS-DOS. Alternatives to Microsofts Windows operating systems occupy a minority share of the industry and these include Apples OS X and free open-source Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and Berkeley Software Distribution. Advanced Micro Devices provides the alternative to Intels processors. PC is an initialism for personal computer, some PCs, including the OLPC XOs, are equipped with x86 or x64 processors but not designed to run Microsoft Windows. PC is used in contrast with Mac, an Apple Macintosh computer and this sense of the word is used in the Get a Mac advertisement campaign that ran between 2006 and 2009, as well as its rival, Im a PC campaign, that appeared in 2008. Since Apples transition to Intel processors starting 2005, all Macintosh computers are now PCs, the “brain” may one day come down to our level and help with our income-tax and book-keeping calculations. But this is speculation and there is no sign of it so far, in the history of computing there were many examples of computers designed to be used by one person, as opposed to terminals connected to mainframe computers. Using the narrow definition of operated by one person, the first personal computer was the ENIAC which became operational in 1946 and it did not meet further definitions of affordable or easy to use. An example of an early single-user computer was the LGP-30, created in 1956 by Stan Frankel and used for science and it came with a retail price of $47, 000—equivalent to about $414,000 today. Introduced at the 1965 New York Worlds Fair, the Programma 101 was a programmable calculator described in advertisements as a desktop computer. It was manufactured by the Italian company Olivetti and invented by the Italian engineer Pier Giorgio Perotto, the Soviet MIR series of computers was developed from 1965 to 1969 in a group headed by Victor Glushkov
37.
Smartphone
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
38.
Digital camera
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A digital camera or digicam is a camera that produces digital images that can be stored in a computer, displayed on a screen and printed. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs, Digital and movie cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film, however, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound, some digital cameras can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. The history of the camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts position, unfortunately, as with Texas Instruments employee Willis Adcocks filmless camera in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept. Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975, earlier ones used a camera tube, later ones digitized the signal. Early uses were military and scientific, followed by medical. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers, by the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s, almost all smartphones had a digital camera. The two major types of image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own amplifier, compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a back-side-illuminated CMOS sensor, overall final image quality is more dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type. The resolution of a camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into that discrete signals. The brighter the image at a point on the sensor. Depending on the structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used. The number of pixels in the sensor determines the cameras pixel count, in a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor would have 1,000,000 pixels, final quality of an image depends on all optical transformations in the chain of producing the image
39.
Unmanned aerial vehicle
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An unmanned aerial vehicle, commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft without a human pilot aboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system, which include a UAV, a controller. The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under control by a human operator, or fully or intermittently autonomously. Compared to manned aircraft, UAVs are often preferred for missions too dull, civilian drones now vastly outnumber military drones, with estimates of over a million sold by 2015. Multiple terms are used for unmanned vehicles, which generally refer to the same concept. The term drone, more used by the public, was coined in reference to the resemblance of navigation. The term has encountered opposition from aviation professionals and government regulators. This term emphasizes the importance of other than the aircraft. It includes elements such as ground stations, data links. A similar term is a vehicle system remotely piloted aerial vehicle. Many similar terms are in use, therefore, missiles are not considered UAVs because the vehicle itself is a weapon that is not reused, though it is also unmanned and in some cases remotely guided. The relation of UAVs to remote controlled model aircraft is unclear, UAVs may or may not include model aircraft. Some jurisdictions base their definition on size or weight, however, a radio-controlled aircraft becomes a drone with the addition of an autopilot artificial intelligence, and ceases to be a drone when an AI is removed. In 1849 Austria sent unmanned, bomb-filled balloons to attack Venice, UAV innovations started in the early 1900s and originally focused on providing practice targets for training military personnel. UAV development continued during World War I, when the Dayton-Wright Airplane Company invented a pilotless aerial torpedo that would explode at a preset time, the earliest attempt at a powered UAV was A. M. Lows Aerial Target in 1916. Nikola Tesla described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles in 1915. Advances followed during and after World War I, including the Hewitt-Sperry Automatic Airplane, the first scaled remote piloted vehicle was developed by film star and model-airplane enthusiast Reginald Denny in 1935. More emerged during World War II – used both to train gunners and to fly attack missions
40.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
41.
Printing press
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A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print medium, thereby transferring the ink. The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, the printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced more than twenty million volumes, in the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to a new branch of media. The sharp rise of learning and literacy amongst the middle class led to an increased demand for books which the time-consuming hand-copying method fell far short of accommodating. Technologies preceding the press led to the presss invention included, manufacturing of paper, development of ink, woodblock printing. At the same time, a number of products and technological processes had reached a level of maturity which allowed their potential use for printing purposes. The device was used from very early on in urban contexts as a cloth press for printing patterns. Gutenberg may have also inspired by the paper presses which had spread through the German lands since the late 14th century. Gutenberg adopted the design, thereby mechanizing the printing process. Printing, however, put a demand on the quite different from pressing. Gutenberg adapted the construction so that the power exerted by the platen on the paper was now applied both evenly and with the required sudden elasticity. To speed up the process, he introduced a movable undertable with a plane surface on which the sheets could be swiftly changed. The known examples range from Germany to England to Italy, however, the various techniques employed did not have the refinement and efficiency needed to become widely accepted. Gutenberg greatly improved the process by treating typesetting and printing as two separate work steps, a goldsmith by profession, he created his type pieces from a lead-based alloy which suited printing purposes so well that it is still used today. The mass production of metal letters was achieved by his key invention of a hand mould. Another factor conducive to printing arose from the existing in the format of the codex. Considered the most important advance in the history of the prior to printing itself
42.
Digital revolution
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Implicitly, the term also refers to the sweeping changes brought about by digital computing and communication technology during the latter half of the 20th century. Analogous to the Agricultural Revolution and Industrial Revolution, the Digital Revolution marked the beginning of the Information Age. Central to this revolution is the production and widespread use of digital logic circuits, and its derived technologies, including the computer, digital cellular phone. The motor of this incessant force of destruction is technological change. Each one of those so-called long waves has been characterized by a period of social modernization. The Agricultural Revolution led to cities in the ancient world in the Middle East, Mesoamerica, China. Then the Industrial Revolution led to cities in the 19th century such as Manchester, Newcastle Upon Tyne. In the 20th century the rise of the economy caused people to leave the industrial cities. In the late 1980s, less than 1% of the worlds technologically stored information was in digital format, while it was 94% in 2007, the year 2002 is estimated to be the year when human kind was able to store more information in digital, than in analog format. It is estimated that the capacity to store information has increased from 2.6 exabytes in 1986. Digital communication became economical for widespread adoption after the invention of the personal computer, claude Shannon, a Bell Labs mathematician, is credited for having laid out the foundations of digitalization in his pioneering 1948 article, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. The digital revolution converted technology that had been analog into a digital format, by doing this, it became possible to make copies that were identical to the original. In digital communications, for example, repeating hardware was able to amplify the digital signal, of equal importance to the revolution was the ability to easily move the digital information between media, and to access or distribute it remotely. The turning point of the revolution was the change from analogue to digitally recorded music, during the 1980s the digital format of optical compact discs gradually replaced analog formats, such as vinyl records and cassette tapes, as the popular medium of choice. In 1947 the transistor was invented, leading the way to more advanced digital computers, in the 1950s and 1960s the military, governments and other organizations had computer systems. From 1969 to 1971, Intel developed the Intel 4004, a microprocessor that laid the foundations for the microcomputer revolution that began in the 1970s. The public was first introduced to the concepts that would lead to the Internet when a message was sent over the ARPANET in 1969. Packet switched networks such as ARPANET, Mark I, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, the ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internetworking, in which multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks
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New media
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New media most commonly refers to content available on-demand through the Internet, accessible on any digital device, usually containing interactive user feedback and creative participation. Common examples of new media websites such as online newspapers, blogs, wikis, video games. A defining characteristic of new media is dialogue, New Media transmit content through connection and conversation. It enables people around the world to share, comment on, unlike any of past technologies, New Media is grounded on an interactive community. Most technologies described as new media are digital, often having characteristics of being manipulated, networkable, dense, compressible, some examples may be the Internet, websites, computer multimedia, video games, virtual reality, augmented reality, CD-ROMS, and DVDs. New media does not include television programs, feature films, magazines, books, Facebook is an example of the social media model, in which most users are also participants. Wikitude is an example for augmented reality and it displays information about the users surroundings in a mobile camera view, including image recognition, 3D modeling and location-based approach to augmented reality. In the 1950s, connections between computing and radical art began to grow stronger, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, we seem to witness a different kind of parallel relationship between social changes and computer design. Although causally unrelated, conceptually it makes sense that the Cold War, writers and philosophers such as Marshall McLuhan were instrumental in the development of media theory during this period. Until the 1980s media relied primarily upon print and analog broadcast models, such as those of television, the last twenty-five years have seen the rapid transformation into media which are predicated upon the use of digital technologies, such as the Internet and video games. However, these examples are only a representation of new media. The use of computers has transformed the remaining old media, as suggested by the advent of digital television. Andrew L. Shapiro argues that the emergence of new, digital technologies signals a potentially radical shift of who is in control of information, experience and resources. W. Russell Neuman suggests that whilst the new media have technical capabilities to pull in one direction, economic, Neuman argues that new media will, Alter the meaning of geographic distance. Allow for an increase in the volume of communication. Provide the possibility of increasing the speed of communication, allow forms of communication that were previously separate to overlap and interconnect. Scholars, such as Lister et al, New Media as Computer Technology Used as a Distribution Platform – New Media are the cultural objects which use digital computer technology for distribution and exhibition. E. g. Internet, Web sites, computer multimedia, the problem with this is that the definition must be revised every few years
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Multimedia
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Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images, animations, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material, Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is distinguished from mixed media in art, for example. The term rich media is synonymous with interactive multimedia, the term multimedia was coined by singer and artist Bob Goldstein to promote the July 1966 opening of his LightWorks at LOursin show at Southampton, Long Island. Goldstein was perhaps aware of an American artist named Dick Higgins, two years later, in 1968, the term multimedia was re-appropriated to describe the work of a political consultant, David Sawyer, the husband of Iris Sawyer—one of Goldsteins producers at LOursin. In the intervening forty years, the word has taken on different meanings, in the late 1970s, the term referred to presentations consisting of multi-projector slide shows timed to an audio track. However, by the 1990s multimedia took on its current meaning, in the 1993 first edition of Multimedia, Making It Work, Tay Vaughan declared Multimedia is any combination of text, graphic art, sound, animation, and video that is delivered by computer. When you allow the user – the viewer of the project – to control what, when you provide a structure of linked elements through which the user can navigate, interactive multimedia becomes hypermedia. The German language society Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache recognized the words significance, the institute summed up its rationale by stating has become a central word in the wonderful new media world. In common usage, multimedia refers to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, much of the content on the web today falls within this definition as understood by millions. That era saw also a boost in the production of educational multimedia CD-ROMs, the term video, if not used exclusively to describe motion photography, is ambiguous in multimedia terminology. Video is often used to describe the format, delivery format. Multiple forms of content are often not considered modern forms of presentation such as audio or video. Likewise, single forms of content with single methods of information processing are often called multimedia. Performing arts may also be considered multimedia considering that performers and props are multiple forms of content and media. Multimedia presentations may be viewed by person on stage, projected, transmitted, a broadcast may be a live or recorded multimedia presentation. Broadcasts and recordings can be analog or digital electronic media technology. Digital online multimedia may be downloaded or streamed, streaming multimedia may be live or on-demand
