1.
DV
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DV is a format for storing digital video. It was launched in 1995 with joint efforts of leading producers of video camera recorders, the original DV specification, known as Blue Book, was standardized within the IEC61834 family of standards. These standards define common features such as physical videocassettes, recording modulation method, magnetization, part 2 describes the specifics of 525-60 and 625-50 systems. The IEC standards are available as publications sold by IEC and ANSI, in 2003, DV was joined by a successor format HDV, which used the same tape format with a different video codec. Some cameras at the time had the ability to switch between DV and HDV recording modes, DV uses lossy compression of video while audio is stored uncompressed. An intraframe video compression scheme is used to video on a frame-by-frame basis with the discrete cosine transform. Closely following ITU-R Rec.601 standard, DV video employs interlaced scanning with the sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz. This results in 480 scanlines per complete frame for the 60 Hz system, in both systems the active area contains 720 pixels per scanline, with 704 pixels used for content and 16 pixels on the sides left for digital blanking. The same frame size is used for 4,3 and 16,9 frame aspect ratios, prior to the DCT compression stage, chroma subsampling is applied to the source video in order to reduce the amount of data to be compressed. Baseline DV uses 4,1,1 subsampling in its 60 Hz variant and 4,2,0 subsampling in the 50 Hz variant. Audio can be stored in either of two forms, 16-bit Linear PCM stereo at 48 kHz sampling rate, or four nonlinear 12-bit PCM channels at 32 kHz sampling rate. In addition, the DV specification also supports 16-bit audio at 44.1 kHz, in practice, the 48 kHz stereo mode is used almost exclusively. The audio, video, and metadata are packaged into 80-byte Digital Interface Format blocks which are multiplexed into a 150-block sequence. DIF blocks are the units of DV streams and can be stored as computer files in raw form or wrapped in such file formats as Audio Video Interleave, QuickTime. One video frame is formed from either 10 or 12 such sequences, depending on scanning rate, which results in a rate of about 25 Mbit/s for video. When written to tape, each corresponds to one complete track. This means that the sound may be +/- ⅓ frame out of sync with the video, however, this is the maximum drift of the audio/video synchronization, it is not compounded throughout the recording. Sony and Panasonic created their versions of DV, which use the same compression scheme
2.
Analog video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
3.
Motion picture film
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
4.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
5.
16 mm film
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16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as an amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm outfit consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen, rCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935. Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry, Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making movies, people could buy or rent films from the library. Intended for amateur use,16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base, Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952, the silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935. Used extensively in WW2, there was an expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a network of 16 mm professional filmmakers. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the less expensive 8 mm film. 16 mm has been used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use, nevertheless,16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio for low cost productions
6.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
7.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
8.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
9.
D1 (Sony)
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D-1 or 4,2,2 Component Digital is a SMPTE digital recording video standard, introduced in 1986 through efforts by SMPTE engineering committees. It started as a Sony and Bosch - BTS product and was the first major professional digital video format, SMPTE standardized the format within ITU-R601, also known as Rec. 601, which was derived from SMPTE 125M and EBU 3246-E standards, D-1 or 4,2,2 D-1 was a major feat in real time, broadcast quality digital video recording. The uncompressed component video used enormous bandwidth,173 Mbit/sec, for its time, the maximum record time on a D-1 tape is 94 minutes. Hard drives in the 1980s that stored broadcast-quality video would only hold 30 seconds to a few minutes of space. By contrast, the D-1 machine allowed 94 minutes of recording on a $200 cassette, D-1 resolution is 720 ×486 for NTSC systems and 720 ×576 for PAL systems, these resolutions come from Rec. The D1 units are switchable between NTSC and PAL, luma is sampled at 13.5 MHz and Chroma at 6.75 MHz with an overall data rate of 27 MHz. Sampling at 13.5 MHz was used as it is a multiple of NTSC/PAL line rate. The first input/output interface was a 25 pin parallel cable and later updated to serial digital interface on coaxial cable, ancillary data can be put in H/V blanking intervals. Color space for Y’ B’-Y’ R’-Y’ is also defined in ITU Rec.601 or Rec.709 color space, panasonics D-5 format has similar specifications, but sampled at 10-bits as opposed to D-1s 8-bits. It had the advantage of development time as it was introduced later than Sonys D-1. The D-2 format system from Sony and Ampex soon followed two years later, using video in order to lower the bandwidth needed. This reduced D-2s price tag to half that of D-1, since D-2 was composite digital as opposed to component, it could easily be dropped into the space and infrastructure of composite analog machines presently used at the time. Since less information was recorded on D-2 than on D-1, tape speed could be reduced, however, D-2 was still a compromise, being composite video. As broadcasters would later convert from analog to digital wiring, component digital infrastructure became feasible, Sonys popular component Digital Betacam would usher the transition of keeping the colors separated in component digital space rather than combined together in composite space. Digital Betacam could play previous analog Betacam/Betacam SP tapes – which by now – had built an archive for broadcasters using its 1/2-inch tape format. 1/2-inch Digital Betacam thus became the de facto standard-definition broadcast editing, delivery, even as HD broadcasting and delivery became more commonplace in the U. S. after 2008-2010, networks would often require standard definition copies on Digital Betacam. Television shows such as CBS The Rachael Ray Show was still recorded and archived on Digital Betacam as late as 2012, early D-1 operations were plagued with difficulties, though the format quickly stabilized and is still renowned for its superb standard definition image quality
10.
Component video
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Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with composite video in all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component-video cables do not carry audio and are paired with audio cables. When used without any qualifications the term component video usually refers to analog YPBPR component video with sync on luma. Reproducing a video signal on a device is a straightforward process complicated by the multitude of signal sources. DVD, VHS, computers and video game consoles all store, process and transmit video signals using different methods, one way of maintaining signal clarity is by separating the components of a video signal so that they do not interfere with each other. A signal separated in this way is called component video, S-Video, RGB and YPBPR signals comprise two or more separate signals, and thus are all component-video signals. In the past, for most consumer-level applications, analog component video was used, however, component video is capable of carrying various signals, such as 480i, 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p, 2160p and beyond. Many new high definition TVs support the use of component video up to their native resolution, most modern computers offer this signal via a VGA port. Many televisions, especially in Europe, utilize RGB via the SCART connector, all arcade games, other than early vector and black-and-white games, use RGB monitors. In addition to the red, green and blue color signals, sync on luma, where the Y signal from S-Video is used alongside the RGB signal only for the purposes of sync. Composite sync is common in the European SCART connection scheme, RGBS requires four wires – red, green, blue and sync. If separate cables are used, the cable is usually colored yellow or white. Separate sync is most common with VGA, used worldwide for analog computer monitors and this is sometimes known as RGBHV, as the horizontal and vertical synchronization pulses are sent in separate channels. If separate cables are used, the lines are usually yellow and white, yellow and black, or gray. Sync on Green is less common, and while some VGA monitors support it, sony is a big proponent of SoG, and most of their monitors use it. Like devices that use video or S-video, SoG devices require additional circuitry to remove the sync signal from the green line
11.
Data compression
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In signal processing, data compression, source coding, or bit-rate reduction involves encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation. Compression can be lossy or lossless. Lossless compression reduces bits by identifying and eliminating statistical redundancy, no information is lost in lossless compression. Lossy compression reduces bits by removing unnecessary or less important information, the process of reducing the size of a data file is referred to as data compression. In the context of data transmission, it is called coding in opposition to channel coding. Compression is useful because it reduces resources required to store and transmit data, computational resources are consumed in the compression process and, usually, in the reversal of the process. Data compression is subject to a space–time complexity trade-off, Lossless data compression algorithms usually exploit statistical redundancy to represent data without losing any information, so that the process is reversible. Lossless compression is possible because most real-world data exhibits statistical redundancy, for example, an image may have areas of color that do not change over several pixels, instead of coding red pixel, red pixel. The data may be encoded as 279 red pixels and this is a basic example of run-length encoding, there are many schemes to reduce file size by eliminating redundancy. The Lempel–Ziv compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage, DEFLATE is a variation on LZ optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, but compression can be slow. DEFLATE is used in PKZIP, Gzip, and PNG, LZW is used in GIF images. LZ methods use a table-based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data, for most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input. The table itself is often Huffman encoded, current LZ-based coding schemes that perform well are Brotli and LZX. LZX is used in Microsofts CAB format, the best modern lossless compressors use probabilistic models, such as prediction by partial matching. The Burrows–Wheeler transform can also be viewed as a form of statistical modelling. The basic task of grammar-based codes is constructing a context-free grammar deriving a single string, sequitur and Re-Pair are practical grammar compression algorithms for which software is publicly available. In a further refinement of the use of probabilistic modelling. Arithmetic coding is a more modern coding technique that uses the mathematical calculations of a machine to produce a string of encoded bits from a series of input data symbols
12.
HDMI
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HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the EIA/CEA-861 standards, which video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed, uncompressed, and LPCM audio, auxiliary data. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the visual interface. No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The CEC capability allows HDMI devices to each other when necessary. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since initial release of the technology but all use the same cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTV camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 6,2015, over 4 billion HDMI devices have been sold, the HDMI founders are Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, RCA and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP for HDMI, HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI1.0 on April 16,2002, at the time, DVI-HDCP and DVI-HDTV were being used on HDTVs. HDMI1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a connector and adding audio capability and enhanced YCbCr capability. The first Authorized Testing Center, which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23,2003, in California, the first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1,2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25,2005, in Caen, the first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21,2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12,2008, the HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004,17.4 million in 2005,63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8,2008 there were over 850 consumer electronics, on January 7,2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices
13.
DisplayPort
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DisplayPort is a digital display interface developed by the Video Electronics Standards Association. The interface is used to connect a video source to a display device such as a computer monitor, though it can also be used to carry audio, USB. VESA designed it to replace VGA, DVI, and FPD-Link, DisplayPort is backwards compatible with VGA, DVI and HDMI through the use of passive and active adapters. DisplayPort is the first display interface to rely on packetized data transmission, a form of communication found in technologies including Ethernet, USB. The use of data packets also allows DisplayPort to be extensible, DisplayPort can be used to transmit audio and video simultaneously, but each one is optional and can be transmitted without the other. A bi-directional, half-duplex auxiliary channel carries device management and device control data for the Main Link, such as VESA EDID, MCCS, in addition, the interface is capable of carrying bi-directional USB signals. The DisplayPort LVDS signal protocol is not compatible with DVI or HDMI, analog VGA and dual-link DVI require powered active adapters to convert the protocol and signal levels and do not rely on dual mode. VGA adapters are powered by the DisplayPort connector, while dual-link DVI adapters may rely on a power source. The first version,1.0, was approved by VESA on 3 May 2006, version 1. 1a was ratified on 2 April 2007. DisplayPort 1.0 allows a maximum of 8.64 Gbit/s data rate over a 2-meter cable and it also includes HDCP in addition to DisplayPort Content Protection. The DisplayPort 1. 1a specification can be downloaded for free from the VESA website, DisplayPort version 1.2 was approved on 22 December 2009. Also Apple Inc. s Mini DisplayPort connector, which is smaller and designed for laptop computers. DisplayPort version 1. 2a may optionally include VESAs Adaptive Sync, aMDs FreeSync utilizes the DisplayPort Adaptive-Sync feature for operation. 2a. As it is a feature, support for Adaptive-Sync is not required for a display to be DisplayPort 1. 2a-compliant. DisplayPort version 1.3 was approved on 15 September 2014 and this bandwidth is enough for a 4K UHD display at 120 Hz, a 5K display at 60 Hz, or an 8K UHD display at 30 Hz, with 24-bit RGB color. Using Multi-Stream Transport, it can support two 4K UHD displays at 60 Hz, or up to four WQXGA displays at 60 Hz in 24-bit RGB mode. The new standard includes mandatory Dual-mode support for DVI and HDMI adapters, with support for the HDMI2.0 standard and HDCP2.2 content protection. The Thunderbolt 3 connection standard was originally to support for DisplayPort 1.3
14.
Digital Visual Interface
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Digital Visual Interface is a video display interface developed by the Digital Display Working Group. The digital interface is used to connect a source, such as a video display controller, to a display device. It was developed with the intention of creating a standard for the transfer of digital video content. The interface is designed to transmit uncompressed digital video and can be configured to support multiple modes such as DVI-A, featuring support for analog connections, the DVI specification is compatible with the VGA interface. This compatibility, along with other advantages, led to its widespread acceptance over competing digital display standards Plug and Display, although DVI is predominantly associated with computers, it is sometimes used in other consumer electronics such as television sets and DVD players. DVIs digital video format is based on panelLink, a serial format developed by Silicon Image that utilizes a high-speed serial link called transition minimized differential signaling. Like modern analog VGA connectors, the DVI connector includes pins for the data channel. A newer version of DDC called DDC2 allows the graphics adapter to read the monitors extended display identification data, if a display supports both analog and digital signals in one DVI-I input, each input method can host a distinct EDID. Since the DDC can only support one EDID, there can be a problem if both the digital and analog inputs in the DVI-I port detect activity and it is up to the display to choose which EDID to send. When a source and display are connected, the source first queries the displays capabilities by reading the monitor EDID block over an I²C link, the EDID block contains the displays identification, color characteristics, and table of supported video modes. The table can designate a preferred mode or native resolution, for backward compatibility with displays using analog VGA signals, some of the contacts in the DVI connector carry the analog VGA signals. To ensure a level of interoperability, DVI compliant devices are required to support one baseline video mode. Digitally encoded video pixel data is transported using multiple TMDS links, at the electrical level, these links are highly resistant to electrical noise and other forms of analog distortion. A single link DVI connection consists of four TMDS links, each link transmits data from the source to the device over one twisted wire pair. Three of the links represent the RGB components – red, green, the fourth link carries the pixel clock. The binary data is encoded using 8b10b encoding, DVI does not use packetization, but rather transmits the pixel data as if it were a rasterized analog video signal. As such, the frame is drawn during each vertical refresh period. The full active area of each frame is transmitted without compression
15.
Serial digital interface
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Serial digital interface is a family of digital video interfaces first standardized by SMPTE in 1989. For example, ITU-R BT.656 and SMPTE 259M define digital video interfaces used for broadcast-grade video, a related standard, known as high-definition serial digital interface, is standardized in SMPTE 292M, this provides a nominal data rate of 1.485 Gbit/s. Additional SDI standards have been introduced to support increasing video resolutions, frame rates, stereoscopic video, 3G-SDI consists of a single 2.970 Gbit/s serial link that allows replacing dual link HD-SDI. 6G-SDI and 12G-SDI standards were published on March 19,2015 and these standards are used for transmission of uncompressed, unencrypted digital video signals within television facilities, they can also be used for packetized data. Coaxial variants of the range in length but are typically less than 300 meters. Fiber optic variants of the such as 297M allow for long-distance transmission limited only by maximum fiber length or repeaters. Several professional video and HD-video capable DSLR cameras and all uncompressed video capable consumer cameras use the HDMI interface, there are various mod kits for existing DVD players and other devices, which allow a user to add a serial digital interface to these devices. The various serial digital interface standards all use coaxial cables with BNC connectors and this is the same type of cable used in analog video setups, which potentially makes for easier upgrades. The specified signal amplitude at the source is 800 mV peak-to-peak, using equalization at the receiver, it is possible to send 270 Mbit/s SDI over 300 meters without use of repeaters, but shorter lengths are preferred. The HD bitrates have a maximum run length, typically 100 meters. Uncompressed digital component signals are transmitted, data is encoded in NRZI format, and a linear feedback shift register is used to scramble the data to reduce the likelihood that long strings of zeroes or ones will be present on the interface. The interface is self-synchronizing and self-clocking, * Working group 32NF-70 is in the process of developing standard ST-2083 for 24Gbit/s SDI. 270 Mbit/s is by far the most commonly used, though the 360 Mbit/s interface is sometimes encountered, the 143 and 177 Mbit/s interfaces were intended for transmission of composite-encoded video digitally, and are now considered obsolete. For enhanced definition applications, there are several 540 Mbit/s interfaces defined, for HDTV applications, the serial digital interface is defined by SMPTE 292M. Two bit rates are defined,1.485 Gbit/s, and 1. 485/1.001 Gbit/s. The factor of 1/1.001 is provided to allow SMPTE 292M to support video formats with rates of 59.94 Hz,29.97 Hz. The 1.485 Gbit/s version of the standard supports other frame rates in widespread use, including 60 Hz,50 Hz,30 Hz,25 Hz and it is common to collectively refer to both standards as using a nominal bit rate of 1.5 Gbit/s. For very high-definition applications, requiring resolution, frame rate, or color fidelity than the HD-SDI interface can provide
16.
Blu-ray Disc
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Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs and quadruple layers are available for BD-XL re-writer drives, the name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as films and physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats, high-definition video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution, at up to 60 frames per second. DVD discs had been limited to a resolution of 480p or 576p. The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its release in June 2006. During the high definition disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the US were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales, Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and the continued sale of DVDs. As of January 2016, 44% of U. S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player, the information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, Sony started two projects in collaboration with Philips applying the new diodes, UDO, and DVR Blue, a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc. The core technologies of the formats are similar, the first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000 by Sony. A trademark for the Blue Disc logo was filed February 9,2001, on February 19,2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10,2003, the Sony BDZ-S77, but there was no standard for prerecorded video, and no movies were released for this player. On October 4,2004, the name Blu-ray Disc Founders was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association, the Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004
17.
Computer data storage
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Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, is a technology consisting of computer components and recording media used to retain digital data. It is a function and fundamental component of computers. The central processing unit of a computer is what manipulates data by performing computations, in practice, almost all computers use a storage hierarchy, which puts fast but expensive and small storage options close to the CPU and slower but larger and cheaper options farther away. In the Von Neumann architecture, the CPU consists of two parts, The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit. The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data, without a significant amount of memory, a computer would merely be able to perform fixed operations and immediately output the result. It would have to be reconfigured to change its behavior and this is acceptable for devices such as desk calculators, digital signal processors, and other specialized devices. Von Neumann machines differ in having a memory in which they store their operating instructions, most modern computers are von Neumann machines. A modern digital computer represents data using the numeral system. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any form of information can be converted into a string of bits, or binary digits. The most common unit of storage is the byte, equal to 8 bits, a piece of information can be handled by any computer or device whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the binary representation of the piece of information, or simply data. For example, the works of Shakespeare, about 1250 pages in print. Data is encoded by assigning a bit pattern to each character, digit, by adding bits to each encoded unit, redundancy allows the computer to both detect errors in coded data and correct them based on mathematical algorithms. A random bit flip is typically corrected upon detection, the cyclic redundancy check method is typically used in communications and storage for error detection. A detected error is then retried, data compression methods allow in many cases to represent a string of bits by a shorter bit string and reconstruct the original string when needed. This utilizes substantially less storage for many types of data at the cost of more computation, analysis of trade-off between storage cost saving and costs of related computations and possible delays in data availability is done before deciding whether to keep certain data compressed or not. For security reasons certain types of data may be encrypted in storage to prevent the possibility of unauthorized information reconstruction from chunks of storage snapshots. Generally, the lower a storage is in the hierarchy, the lesser its bandwidth and this traditional division of storage to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is also guided by cost per bit. In contemporary usage, memory is usually semiconductor storage read-write random-access memory, typically DRAM or other forms of fast but temporary storage
18.
Streaming video
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Streaming media is multimedia that is constantly received by and presented to an end-user while being delivered by a provider. A client end-user can use their player to begin to play the data file before the entire file has been transmitted. For example, in the 1930s, elevator music was among the earliest popularly available streaming media, the term streaming media can apply to media other than video and audio such as live closed captioning, ticker tape, and real-time text, which are all considered streaming text. As of 2017, streaming is generally taken to refer to cases where a user watches digital video content or listens to audio content on a computer screen. With streaming content, the user does not have to download the digital video or digital audio file before they start to watch/listen to it. There are challenges with streaming content on the Internet, as of 2016, two popular streaming services are the video sharing website YouTube, which contains video and audio files on a huge range of topics and Netflix, which streams movies and TV shows. Live streaming refers to Internet content delivered in real-time, as events happen, Live internet streaming requires a form of source media, an encoder to digitize the content, a media publisher, and a content delivery network to distribute and deliver the content. Live streaming does not need to be recorded at the origination point, in the early 1920s, George O. Attempts to display media on computers date back to the earliest days of computing in the mid-20th century, however, little progress was made for several decades, primarily due to the high cost and limited capabilities of computer hardware. From the late 1980s through the 1990s, consumer-grade personal computers became powerful enough to various media. These technological improvement facilitated the streaming of audio and video content to users in their homes and workplaces. The band Severe Tire Damage was the first group to live on the Internet. On June 24,1993, the band was playing a gig at Xerox PARC while elsewhere in the building, as proof of PARCs technology, the bands performance was broadcast and could be seen live in Australia and elsewhere. Microsoft Research developed a Microsoft TV application which was compiled under MS Windows Studio Suite, realNetworks was also a pioneer in the streaming media markets, when it broadcast a baseball game between the New York Yankees and the Seattle Mariners over the Internet in 1995. The first symphonic concert on the Internet took place at the Paramount Theater in Seattle, the concert was a collaboration between The Seattle Symphony and various guest musicians such as Slash, Matt Cameron, and Barrett Martin. When Word Magazine launched in 1995, they featured the first-ever streaming soundtracks on the Internet.4 in 1999, in June 1999 Apple also introduced a streaming media format in its QuickTime 4 application. It was later widely adopted on websites along with RealPlayer. In 2000 Industryview. com launched its worlds largest streaming video archive website to help promote themselves
19.
Internet
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The Internet is the global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol suite to link devices worldwide. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States federal government in the 1960s to build robust, the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, initially served as a backbone for interconnection of regional academic and military networks in the 1980s. Although the Internet was widely used by academia since the 1980s, Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s and from the late 1990s in the developing world. In the two decades since then, Internet use has grown 100-times, measured for the period of one year, newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging, web feeds and online news aggregators. The entertainment industry was initially the fastest growing segment on the Internet, the Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of personal interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries, the Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage, each constituent network sets its own policies. The term Internet, when used to refer to the global system of interconnected Internet Protocol networks, is a proper noun. In common use and the media, it is not capitalized. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, the Internet is also often referred to as the Net, as a short form of network. Historically, as early as 1849, the word internetted was used uncapitalized as an adjective, the designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech, however, the World Wide Web or the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks, the term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. The ARPANET project led to the development of protocols for internetworking, the third site was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics Center at the University of California, Santa Barbara, followed by the University of Utah Graphics Department. In an early sign of growth, fifteen sites were connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks, early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks, in December 1974, RFC675, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internetworking and later RFCs repeated this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation funded the Computer Science Network, in 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite was standardized, which permitted worldwide proliferation of interconnected networks.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers emerged in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990
20.
Desktop computer
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A desktop computer is a personal computer designed for regular use at a single location on or near a desk or table due to its size and power requirements. The most common configuration has a case that houses the power supply, motherboard, disk storage, a keyboard and mouse for input, and a monitor, and, often. The case may be oriented horizontally or vertically and placed either underneath, beside, an all-in-one desktop computer typically combines the case and monitor in one unit. Early computers took up the space of a whole room, minicomputers generally fit into one or a few refrigerator-sized racks. The very first programmable calculator/computer was marketed in the half of the 1960s. More desktop models were introduced in 1971, leading to a model programmable in BASIC in 1972 and this one used a smaller version of a minicomputer design based on read-only memory and had small one-line LED alphanumeric displays. They could draw computer graphics with a plotter, over the course of the 1990s, desktop cases gradually became less common than the more-accessible tower cases that may be located on the floor under or beside a desk rather than on a desk. Not only do these tower cases had more room for expansion, Desktop cases, particularly the compact form factors, remain popular for corporate computing environments and kiosks. Some computer cases can be positioned either horizontally or upright. While desktops have long been the most common configuration for PCs, notably, while desktops were mainly produced in the United States, laptops had long been produced by contract manufacturers based in Asia, such as Foxconn. This shift led to the closure of the many desktop assembly plants in the United States by 2010, battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986. However, laptops have become popular, both for business and personal use. Around 109 million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006, in 2008, it was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to 177.7 million. The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC shipments exceeded desktops, the change in sales of form factors is due to the desktop iMac moving from affordable to upscale and subsequent releases are considered premium all-in-ones. The decades of development means that most people already own desktop computers that meet their needs and have no need of buying a new one merely to keep pace with advancing technology. Recently, some analysts have suggested that Windows 8 has actually hurt sales of PCs in 2012, the post-PC trend has seen a decline in the sales of desktop and laptop PCs. The decline has been attributed to increased power and applications of computing devices, namely smartphones. Among PC form factors, desktops remain a staple in the market but have lost popularity among home buyers
21.
Smart TV
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A smart TV, sometimes referred to as connected TV or hybrid TV, is a television set with integrated Internet and interactive Web 2.0 features. Smart TV is a convergence between computers and flatscreen television sets and set-top boxes. Smart TV should not be confused with Internet TV, IPTV or with Web TV, Internet TV refers to receiving television content over the Internet instead of traditional systems. Internet Protocol television is one of the Internet television technology standards for use by television broadcasters, Web television is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. In smart TVs, the system is preloaded or is available through the set-top box. These devices allow viewers to search, find and play videos, movies, TV shows, photos and other content from the Web, on a cable TV channel, on a satellite TV channel, or on a local storage drive. A first patent was published in 1994 for an intelligent television system, linked with data processing systems, apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines, according to a users demand, and process their needs. The mass acceptance of digital television in late 2000s and early 2010s greatly improved smart TVs, major TV manufacturers have announced production of smart TVs only, for their middle-end to high-end TVs in 2015. Smart TVs are expected to become the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, at the beginning of 2016, Nielsen reported that 29 percent of those with incomes over $75,000 a year had a smart TV. Smart TVs run complete operating system or mobile operating system providing a platform for application developers. Smart TV enables access to movies, shows, video games, apps, some of those apps include Netflix, Spotify, YouTube, and Amazon. Smart TV devices also provide access to user-generated content and to services and Internet applications, such as YouTube. Smart TV devices facilitate the curation of traditional content by combining information from the Internet with content from TV Providers, services offer users a means to track and receive reminders about shows or sporting events, as well as the ability to change channels for immediate viewing. Smart TV develops new features to satisfy consumers and companies, such as new payment processes, LG and PaymentWall have collaborated to allow consumers to access purchased apps, movies, games, and more using a remote control, laptop, tablet, or smartphone. This is intended for an easier and more convenient way for checkout, Smart TV technology and software is still evolving, with both proprietary and open source software frameworks already available. These can run applications, interactive media, personalized communications. There are many Smart TV platforms used for individual purposes, Smart TV owners desire the most successful platform possible for their Smart TV. For this reason, platforms are ranked from best to worst, HbbTV, provided by the Hybrid Broadcast Broadband TV association, CE-HTML, part of Web4CE, OIPF, part of HbbTV, and Tru2way are framework platforms managed by technology businesses
22.
Movie
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A film, also called a movie, motion picture, theatrical film or photoplay, is a series of still images which, when shown on a screen, creates the illusion of moving images due to the phi phenomenon. This optical illusion causes the audience to perceive continuous motion between separate objects viewed rapidly in succession, the process of filmmaking is both an art and an industry. The word cinema, short for cinematography, is used to refer to the industry of films. Films were originally recorded onto plastic film through a photochemical process, the adoption of CGI-based special effects led to the use of digital intermediates. Most contemporary films are now fully digital through the process of production, distribution. Films recorded in a form traditionally included an analogous optical soundtrack. It runs along a portion of the film exclusively reserved for it and is not projected, Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures. They reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them, Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment, and a powerful medium for educating—or indoctrinating—citizens. The visual basis of film gives it a power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using dubbing or subtitles to translate the dialog into the language of the viewer, some have criticized the film industrys glorification of violence and its potentially negative treatment of women. The individual images that make up a film are called frames, the perception of motion is due to a psychological effect called phi phenomenon. The name film originates from the fact that film has historically been the medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms exist for a motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photoplay. The most common term in the United States is movie, while in Europe film is preferred. Terms for the field, in general, include the big screen, the screen, the movies, and cinema. In early years, the sheet was sometimes used instead of screen. Preceding film in origin by thousands of years, early plays and dances had elements common to film, scripts, sets, costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, much terminology later used in film theory and criticism apply, such as mise en scène. Owing to the lack of any technology for doing so, the moving images, the magic lantern, probably created by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s, could be used to project animation, which was achieved by various types of mechanical slides
23.
Digital audio
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Digital audio is technology that can be used to record, store, generate, manipulate, and reproduce sound using audio signals that have been encoded in digital form. A microphone converts sound to an electrical signal, then an analog-to-digital converter —typically using pulse-code modulation—converts the analog signal into a digital signal. This digital signal can then be recorded, edited and modified using digital audio tools, digital audio systems may include compression, storage, processing and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission, modern online music distribution depends on digital recording and data compression. The availability of music as data files, rather than as objects, has significantly reduced the costs of distribution. Before digital audio, the music industry distributed and sold music by selling copies in the form of records. With digital audio and online distribution systems such as iTunes, companies sell digital files to consumers. This digital audio/Internet distribution model is less expensive than producing physical copies of recordings, packaging them. An analog audio system captures sounds, and converts their physical waveforms into electrical representations of those waveforms by use of a transducer, the sounds are then stored, as on tape, or transmitted. The process is reversed for playback, the signal is amplified. Analog audio retains its fundamental wave-like characteristics throughout its storage, transformation, duplication, analog audio signals are susceptible to noise and distortion, due to the innate characteristics of electronic circuits and associated devices. Disturbances in a system do not result in error unless the disturbance is so large as to result in a symbol being misinterpreted as another symbol or disturb the sequence of symbols. A digital audio signal may be encoded for correction of any errors that occur in the storage or transmission of the signal. This technique, known as channel coding, is essential for broadcast or recorded digital systems to maintain bit accuracy, the discrete time and level of the binary signal allow a decoder to recreate the analog signal upon replay. Eight to Fourteen Bit Modulation is a code used in the audio Compact Disc. A digital audio system starts with an ADC that converts a signal to a digital signal. The ADC runs at a sampling rate and converts at a known bit resolution. CD audio, for example, has a rate of 44.1 kHz
24.
Video production
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Video production is the process of creating video by capturing moving images, and creating combinations and reductions of parts of this video in live production and post-production. In most cases the captured video will be recorded on the most current electronic media such as SD cards, in the past footage was captured on video tape, hard disk, or solid state storage. Video tape capture is now obsolete and solid state storage is reserved for just that and it is now distributed digitally in formats such as the Moving Picture Experts Group format, QuickTime, Audio Video Interleave, Windows Media Video, and DivX. It is the equivalent of filmmaking, but with images recorded digitally instead of on film stock, practically, video production is the art and service of creating content and delivering a finished video product. This can include production of programs, television commercials, corporate videos, event videos, wedding videos. A video production can range in size, corporate video production covers a wide range of purposes from corporate Communication, Training and Education, videotaping conferences and conventions, products and services, and sales. An on-site editor then creates a video presentation that is shown before the close of the convention. Many associations take advantage of the venue to gather interviews of their principals. Video productions video tape or memory-based recording device or a version from a website video, optical disc, magnetic tape. Two styles of producing video are ENG - Electronic news-gathering and EFP - Electronic field production, Television broadcast productions include television commercials, infomercials, newscasts, entertainment shows, documentaries, news magazines, sitcom and reality shows. They may be distributed by broadcast syndication, Video production can be used at sporting, school, stage, wedding, church, and similar events to provide recordings of the events. Event video production can also be used to broadcast events live to viewers at home such as a conference or concert. Video of live events can be sent by microwave or a truck from the event location to a television studio in order to be broadcast. It differs from types of video production in three ways,1. It augments traditional teaching tools used in educational programs. It may incorporate motion video with sound, computer animations, stills, capture of content may include use of cell phone integrated cameras and extend to commercial high-definition Broadcast quality cameras. The primary purpose of using video in distance education is to improve understanding, webcasting is also being used in education for distance learning projects, one innovative use was the DiveLive programs. For the first time ever, live video and audio was broadcast from an archaeological site to the World Wide Web
25.
Composite video
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Composite video is an analog video transmission that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution. Video information is encoded on one channel, unlike the higher-quality S-video, Composite video is usually in standard formats such as NTSC, PAL, and SECAM and is often designated by the CVBS initialism, for color, video, blanking and sync, or simply as video. A composite video signal combines on one wire the video information required to recreate a picture, as well as line. The color video signal is a combination of the luminance of the picture, and a modulated subcarrier carries the chrominance or color information. Details of the process vary between the NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems. The burst signal is inverted in phase from the reference subcarrier, Composite video can easily be directed to any broadcast channel simply by modulating the proper RF carrier wave with it. On playback, these devices often give the user the option to output the signal or to modulate it onto a VHF or UHF frequency compatible with a TV tuner. In home applications, the video signal is typically connected using an RCA connector. It is often accompanied with red and white connectors for right, BNC connectors and higher quality coaxial cable are often used in professional television studios and post-production applications. BNC connectors were used for composite video connections on early home VCRs. The BNC connector, in turn post dated the PL-259 connector which featured on first generation VCRs. In Europe, SCART connections are used instead of RCA jacks, so where available, RGB is used instead of composite video with computers, video game consoles. Video cables are 75 ohm impedance, low in capacitance, typical values run from 52 pF/m for an HDPE-foamed dielectric precision video cable to 69 pF/m for a solid PE dielectric cable. Some devices that connect to a TV, such as VCRs, older video game consoles and home computers of the 1980s and this may then be converted to RF with an external box known as an RF modulator that generates the proper carrier. Sometimes this modulator was built into the product and sometimes it was a unit powered by the computer or with an independent power supply. In the United States, using an external RF modulator frees the manufacturer from obtaining FCC approval for each variation of a device, Video game consoles on the other hand were less of an issue with FCC approval because the circuitry was inexpensive enough to allow for channel 3/4 outputs. Modern day devices with analog outputs have typically omitted channel 3 and 4 outputs in favor of composite and S-video outputs as composite, in addition, many TV sets sold these days no longer have analog television tuners and cannot accept channel 3/4. The process of modulating RF with the video signal, and then demodulating the original signal again in the TV
26.
Video
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Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
27.
Robert Bosch GmbH
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Robert Bosch GmbH, or Bosch, is a German multinational engineering and electronics company headquartered in Gerlingen, near Stuttgart, Germany. It is the worlds largest supplier of automotive components measured by 2011 revenues, the company was founded by Robert Bosch in Stuttgart in 1886. Bosch is 92% owned by Robert Bosch Stiftung, Boschs core products are automotive components, industrial products and building products. The history of the started in a backyard in Stuttgart-West as the Werkstätte für Feinmechanik und Elektrotechnik on November 15,1886. One year later, Bosch presented the first low voltage magneto for gas engines, twenty years later, the first magneto for automobiles followed. The first factory was opened by Bosch in Stuttgart in 1901, in 1906, the company produced its 100, 000-th magneto. In the same year, Bosch introduced the 8-hours day for workers, in 1910, the Feuerbach plant was founded and built close to Stuttgart. In this factory, Bosch started to produce headlights in 1913, in 1917, Bosch was transformed into a corporation. In 1926, Bosch started to produce windscreen wipers, and in 1927, Bosch bought the gas appliances production from Junkers & Co. in 1932. In the same year, the company developed its first power drill, in 1937, Bosch was transformed into a limited liability company. Boschs subsidiary, Dreilinden Maschinenbau GmbH was a manufacturer in Kleinmachnow. This subsidiary employed forced laborers, prisoners of war and concentration camp detainees, there are two books published by Angela Martin and Hanna Sjöberg that report about Boschs use of slave labor. Since 2006, there is a commemoration in the forced labor camp. On March 12,1942, the founder, Robert Bosch. After the second war, Bosch established a partnership with the Japanese company Denso. In 1964, the Robert Bosch Stiftung was founded, Bosch founded a new development center in Schwieberdingen in 1968, and headquarters moved to Gerlingen in 1970. In 1981, the company participated on an equity basis in the Telefonbau & Normalzeit GmbH that was renamed Telenorma in 1985, in 1994, this part of the company was renamed as Bosch Telecom GmbH. In 2000, Bosch sold the Private Networks area, in 2001, Bosch acquired the Mannesmann Rexroth AG which was later renamed to Bosch Rexroth AG
28.
Fernseh
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The Fernseh AG television company was registered in Berlin on July 3,1929 by John Logie Baird, Robert Bosch and other partners with an initial capital of 100,000 Reichsmark. Fernseh AG did research and manufacturing of television equipment, the word Fernseh is a short form of the German word Fernsehapparat meaning television. In German, fern means far, seh means see, the company was mainly known by its German abbreviation FESE. In 1929 Fernseh AGs original board of directors included, Emanuel Goldberg, Oliver George Hutchinson, David Ludwig Loewe, Carl Zeisss company worked alongside the early Bosch company. Much of the work was in the area of research. Along with early TV sets Fernseh AG made the first Remote Truck/OB van and this was a film camera that had its film developed in the truck and a telecine then transmitted the signal almost live. In 1939 Robert Bosch GmbH took complete ownership of Fernseh AG when Zeiss Ikon AG sold its share of Fernseh AG, in 1952 Fernseh moved to Darmstadt, Germany and increase its Broadcast product line. In 1967 Fernseh, by then commonly called Bosch Fernseh, introduced color TV products, Fernseh offered a full line of video and film equipment, professional video cameras, VTRs and telecine devices. On August 27,1967 the first color TV program in Germany aired, the networks ZDF, NDR and WDR each acquired a new color OB van from Bosch Fernseh to begin broadcasting in color. In 1972 Robert Bosch renamed its TV division, Fernsehanlagen GmbH, the company supplied almost all the studio equipment for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. In October 1979 Bell and Howells TeleMation Inc. Division located in Salt Lake City, Utah, entered a joint venture with Robert Bosch GmbH, the new joint venture was call Fernseh Inc. This new Company was called Broadcast Television Systems or BTS inc, Philips had been in the Broadcast market for many years with a line of PC- and LDK- Norelco professional video cameras and other video products. In 1995 Philips Electronics North America Corp. fully acquired BTS Inc. renaming it Philips Broadcast-Philips Digital Video Systems, in March 2001 this division was sold to Thomson SA, the Division was call Thomson Multimedia. In 2002, the French electronics giant Thomson SA also acquired the Grass Valley Group from an investor that had acquired it three years earlier from Tektronix in Beaverton, Oregon, USA. The current name of division of Thomson is Grass Valley. The Fernsehs Darmstadt factory, near the Darmstadt Train Station and European Space Operations Centre was moved a distance to Weiterstadt. The sale was made public on Sept.9,2008, the new Headquarters was still in Weiterstadt, the former Bosch Fernseh — BTS factory. Parter Capital Group continued to have offices to support products from Weiterstadt
29.
RCA
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RCA Corporation, founded as the Radio Corporation of America, was an American electronics company in existence from 1919 to 1986. General Electric took over the company in late 1985 and split it up the following year, after World War I began in August 1914, radio traffic across the Atlantic Ocean increased dramatically after the western Allies cut the German transatlantic telegraph cables. In 1917 the government of the United States took charge of the owned by the major companies involved in radio manufacture in the United States to devote radio technology to the war effort. All production of equipment was allocated to the U. S. Army, U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps. The War Department and the Navy Department sought to maintain a monopoly of all uses of radio technology. The wartime takeover of all radio systems ended late in 1918, the war ended in November of that year. The ending of the governments monopoly in radio communications did not prevent the War. On 8 April 1919, naval Admiral W. H. G. Bullard, the proposal presented by the government was that if GE created an American-owned radio company, then the Army and Navy would effect a monopoly of long-distance radio communications via this company. This marked the beginning of a series of negotiations through which GE would buy the American Marconi company, the Army and the Navy granted RCA the former American Marconi radio terminals that had been confiscated during the War. Admiral Bullard received a seat on the Board of Directors of RCA for his efforts in establishing RCA, the result was federally-created monopolies in radio for GE and the Westinghouse Corporation and in telephone systems for the American Telephone & Telegraph Company. The first chief officer of RCA was Owen D. Young. RCAs incorporation papers required that a majority of its stock be held by American citizens, as the years went on, RCA either took over, or produced for itself, a large number of patents, including that of the superheterodyne receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong. Over the years, RCA continued to operate international services, under its subsidiary RCA Communications, Inc. GE used RCA as its retail arm for radio sales from 1919, Westinghouse also marketed home radios through RCA until 1930. In 1929, RCA purchased the Victor Talking Machine Company, then the worlds largest manufacturer of phonographs and this included a majority ownership of the Victor Company of Japan. The new subsidiary then became RCA Victor, with Victor, RCA acquired New World rights to the Nipper His Masters Voice trademark. This trademark is used by the British music & entertainment company HMV. RCA began selling the first electronic turntable in 1930, in 1931, RCA Victor began selling 33⅓ rpm records
30.
Ampex
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Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff. The name AMPEX is an acronym, created by its founder, at one time public, the remaining ongoing business unit was acquired by Delta Information Systems in October 2014, with the original parent, Ampex Corporation, ceasing operations in October 2014. Ampexs first great success was a line of tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, Ampexs tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products. They never managed to become a player in this field, russian inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The name came from his initials plus ex to avoid using the name AMP already in use, during World War II, Ampex was a small manufacturer of high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampexs first offices were at 1313 Laurel St. San Carlos California, near the end of the war, while serving in the U. S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt, the device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America and he demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16,1946. Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs and he disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. This may have been what Crosby was hoping to avoid, as that was the argument Crosby used with the network when he asked to use transcription disc recordings of his show. Those recordings were made directly from the live east coast show, in June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullins tape recorders, he saw the potential of the new technology. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, after a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes. Crosby Enterprises was Ampexs West Coast representative until 1957, the companys first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200A, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record the Bing Crosby Show
31.
Videotape recorder
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A video tape recorder is a tape recorder designed to record video material on magnetic tape. The first practical tape recorder, using transverse tape head scanning, was developed by Ampex Corporation in 1956. The early VTRs were reel to reel devices which recorded on reels of 2 inch wide magnetic tape. They were used in studios, serving as a replacement for motion picture film stock. Beginning in 1963, videotape machines made instant replay during televised sporting events possible, improved formats, in which the tape was contained inside a videocassette, were introduced around 1969, the machines which play them are called videocassette recorders. The first efforts at recording, using recorders similar to audio recorders with fixed heads, were unsuccessful. The problem was that a signal has a much wider bandwidth than an audio signal. One of the first efforts was the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus and this machine used a thin steel tape on a 21-inch reel traveling at over 200 inches per second. Despite 10 years of research and improvements, it was never used due to the immense length of tape required for each minute of recorded video. Many other fixed-head recording systems were tried but all required impractically high tape speed and it became clear that practical video recording technology depended on finding some way of recording the wide-bandwidth video signal without the high tape speed required by linear-scan machines. The Ampex VRX-1000 became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder in 1956 and it used the 2 Quadruplex format, using two-inch tape. Because of its US$50,000 price, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks and the largest individual stations. In 1963, Philips introduced its EL34001 helical scan recorder and Sony marketed the 2 PV-100, its first reel-to-reel VTR intended for business, medical, airline and educational use. The Telcan, produced by the Nottingham Electronic Valve Company and demonstrated on June 24,1963, was the first home video recorder and it could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60. However, there were drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to put together. The Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was its first VTR intended for use and was based on half-inch tape. Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with its own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US $1,000 for the consumer market. Prerecorded movies for home replay became available in 1967, the EIAJ format was a standard half-inch format used by various manufacturers
32.
Research and development
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Research and development, also known in Europe as research and technical development, is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is situated at the front end of the life cycle. R&D differs from the vast majority of activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk. New product design and development is more often not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and this is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, a system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed, if the development is technology driven R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet need. Statistics on organizations devoted to R&D may express the state of an industry, some common measures include, budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are maintained, public. In the United States, a ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3. 5% of revenues. A high technolog company, such as a manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co.14. 1% or Novartis 15. 1%. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and they often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows, president Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012. Much of this spending was devoted to research on the mechanisms of disease
33.
1 inch type B videotape
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1 inch type B VTR is a reel-to-reel analog recording video tape format developed by the Bosch Fernseh division of Bosch in Germany in 1976. Video is recorded on an FM signal with a bandwidth of 5.5 MHz, three longitudinal audio tracks are recorded on the tape as well, two audio and one Linear timecode track. BCN50 VTRs were used at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, the picture quality was excellent, and standard R/P machines, digital frame store machines, reel-to-reel portables, random access cart machines, and portable cart versions were marketed. Echo Science Corporation, a United States company, made units like a BCN1 for the U. S. military for a time in the 1970s. Echo Science models were Pilot 1, Echo 460, Pilot 260. BCR was a pre BCN VTR, made with Philips, the large scanner made it not useful, BCN40 BCN50 BCN20 BCWQ Effects control option for digital framestore, for freeze frame, quad split and mirror effects. BNC51 BCN5 BCN100 BCN52 BCN21 BCN53 HR-400, RCA also sold the BCN50 as an HR-400, Ruxton Video in Burbank used modified BCNs for 24 Frame playback to TVs used on movie studio sets. Thus the TVs had no flicker when seen on film, due to the frame rate. Bill Hogan of Ruxton Ltd received in 1981 an Academy Award for Technical Achievement for his 24frame TV work, Image Transform in Universal City, co-founded by Ken Holland, in 1970, used specially modified BCNs to record 24-frame video also, but for their Image Vision system. The BCN would record and play back 24-frame video at 10 MHz bandwidth, with twice the standard 525-line NTSC resolution, to record this the headwheel and capstan ran at twice normal speed. Modified 24 frame/s 10 MHz Bosch Fernseh KCK-40 professional video cameras were used on the set and this was a custom pre-HDTV video system. This Image Vision recording could then be recorded to film on a modified 3M Electron Beam film recorder, Image Transform had modified other gear for this process. At its peak, this system was used to make Monty Python Live at the Hollywood Bowl in 1982 and this was the first major use of early electronic cinema technology using a film recorder for Film out. Electronovision was also a pre-process like Image Vision, merlin Engineering also worked on the BCNs Wide bandwidth,10 MHZ, BCN modification. Bell and Howell used special BCNs for mass VHS duplication and these specially-modified BCN VTRs could play back movies at two times the normal speed. In addition, the signals were also were at two times speed as well. For proper playback, the headwheel and capstan ran at twice normal speed. Specially modified VHS recorders could record this video, in doing this, the duplication plant could output twice the product than normal videocassette duplicating systems
34.
CCIR 601
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It includes methods of encoding 525-line 60 Hz and 625-line 50 Hz signals, both with an active region covering 720 luminance samples and 360 chrominance samples per line. The color encoding system is known as YCbCr 4,2,2, the standard has been revised several times in its history. Its edition 7, referred to as BT. 601-7, was approved in March 2011 and was published in October 2011. The Rec.601 signal can be regarded as if it is a digitally encoded analog component video signal, regardless of the frame rate, the luminance sampling frequency is 13.5 MHz. The samples are uniformly quantized using 8 or 10 bit PCM codes in the YCbCr domain, for each 8 bit luminance sample, the nominal value to represent black is 16 and the value for white is 235. Eight-bit code values from 1 through 15 provide footroom, and can be used to accommodate transient signal content such as filter undershoots, similarly, code values 236 through 254 provide headroom and can be used to accommodate transient signal content such as filter overshoots. The values 0 and 255 are used to encode the sync pulses and are forbidden within the picture area. The Cb and Cr samples are unsigned and use the value 128 to encode the neutral color difference value, as used when encoding a white, slightly different primaries are specified for the 625 line and 525 line systems. Rec.601 defines a nonlinear transfer function which is linear near 0 and then transfers to a gamma curve for the rest of the light intensity range. E = {4.500 L L <0.0181.099 L0.45 −0.099 L ≥0.018 The CCIR received a 1982–83 Technology,709, the corresponding standard for high-definition television Rec. 2020, ITU-R Recommendation for ultra-high-definition television ITU-R BT.656, ITU-R Recommendation for parallel and serial transmission formats for BT.601 video Pixel aspect ratio
35.
Quadruplex videotape
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2-inch quadruplex videotape is the first practical and commercially successful analog recording videotape format. It was developed and released for the broadcast television industry in 1956 by Ampex, the first videotape recorder using this format was built and created in the same year. Broadcasters also sought a medium that was not as costly or time-consuming to edit. Faced with these challenges, broadcasters sought to adapt magnetic tape recording technology for use with television as well and this method was called quadrature scanning, as opposed to the helical scan transport used by later videotape formats. The cue track was used either as an audio track. A typical 4,800 ft reel of 2 in quad tape holds approximately one hour of recorded material at 15 inches per second, the quadruplex format employs segmented recording, each transversely recorded video track on a 2-inch quad videotape holds one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a field of video. This meant that 2-inch quad did not support trick-play functions, such as still, shuttle, most quad machines made later in the 1960s and 1970s by Ampex could play back both low and high-band 2-inch quad tape. Time-shifting of television programming for the West Coast of the United States by the networks in the 1950s using kinescope films was quite a rushed and this usually meant the kinescope was aired almost immediately after it came straight out of the developing equipment, still warm from the film dryer. These were referred to by the networks as hot kines, by 1954, the networks used more raw film stock for kinescopes than all of the Hollywood film studios combined, spending up to $4,000 per half hour. They were desperate to obtain a quicker, less expensive, in the early 1950s, Ampex and several other companies such as Bing Crosby Enterprises and RCA were competing to release a videotape format. RCA and BCE did release working prototypes of their recorders, but their downfall was that all used a longitudinal method of recording. At the same time, the BBC developed a similar stationary-head video tape recorder system that saw some on-air use, starting in 1952, Ampex built the Mark I prototype VTR, using 2 in -wide tape. Ampex decided that instead of having the tape move fast across the head to record enough bandwidth for video and this resulted in the Mark I using arcuate scanning, which consisted of a spinning disk with a face which contacted the tape. This resulted in a track being recorded across the width of the tape. Ampex continued through the mid-1950s with the Mark II and Mark III prototype recorders, the Mark II used frequency modulation for recording video to tape, resulting in a much-improved, but still noisy, video image. The Mark III had improved signal-processing and servo electronics, resulting in much better video reproduction, the Mark III worked well, but its appearance was quite that of a prototype, and not a finished, saleable product. It was in a wooden case, with several parts of its chassis externally mounted in partially filled racks. Ampex then built the Mark IV by putting Mark III components into a sleek metal console, the Mark IV was the machine first publicly demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters convention in Chicago on April 14,1956
36.
YPbPr
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YPBPR is a color space used in video electronics, in particular in reference to component video cables. YPBPR is the version of the YCBCR color space, the two are numerically equivalent, but YPBPR is designed for use in analog systems whereas YCBCR is intended for digital video. YPBPR cables are commonly referred to as Yipper cables. YPBPR is commonly called component video by manufacturers, but this is imprecise, as there are other types of component video. Some video cards come with video-in video-out ports for connecting to component video devices, YPBPR is converted from the RGB video signal, which is split into three components, Y, PB, and PR. Y carries luma and synchronization information, Y =0.2126 R +0.7152 G +0.0722 B. Before the advent of television, the Y axis on an oscilloscope display of a video waveform represented the intensity of the scan line. With color, Y still represents intensity but it is a composite of the component colors, PB carries the difference between blue and luma. PR carries the difference between red and luma, to send a green signal as a fourth component is redundant, as it can be derived using the blue, red and luma information. When color signals were first added to the NTSC-encoded black and white video standard, P for phase information or phase shift has carried through to represent color information even in the case where there is no longer a phase shift used to represent hue. Thus, the Y PB PR nomenclature derives from engineering metrics developed for the NTSC color standard, the same cables can be used for YPBPR and composite video. Signals that use YPBPR offer enough separation that no color multiplexing is needed and it is possible for their multiplexed counterparts to interfere with each other. Among consumer analog interfaces, only YPBPR and analog RGB component video are capable of carrying non-interlaced video and resolutions higher than 480i or 576i, Color FAQ, Charles Poynton Color formats for image and video processing - Color conversion between RGB, YUV, YCbCr and YPbPr
37.
Television
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Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
38.
Serial Digital Interface
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Serial digital interface is a family of digital video interfaces first standardized by SMPTE in 1989. For example, ITU-R BT.656 and SMPTE 259M define digital video interfaces used for broadcast-grade video, a related standard, known as high-definition serial digital interface, is standardized in SMPTE 292M, this provides a nominal data rate of 1.485 Gbit/s. Additional SDI standards have been introduced to support increasing video resolutions, frame rates, stereoscopic video, 3G-SDI consists of a single 2.970 Gbit/s serial link that allows replacing dual link HD-SDI. 6G-SDI and 12G-SDI standards were published on March 19,2015 and these standards are used for transmission of uncompressed, unencrypted digital video signals within television facilities, they can also be used for packetized data. Coaxial variants of the range in length but are typically less than 300 meters. Fiber optic variants of the such as 297M allow for long-distance transmission limited only by maximum fiber length or repeaters. Several professional video and HD-video capable DSLR cameras and all uncompressed video capable consumer cameras use the HDMI interface, there are various mod kits for existing DVD players and other devices, which allow a user to add a serial digital interface to these devices. The various serial digital interface standards all use coaxial cables with BNC connectors and this is the same type of cable used in analog video setups, which potentially makes for easier upgrades. The specified signal amplitude at the source is 800 mV peak-to-peak, using equalization at the receiver, it is possible to send 270 Mbit/s SDI over 300 meters without use of repeaters, but shorter lengths are preferred. The HD bitrates have a maximum run length, typically 100 meters. Uncompressed digital component signals are transmitted, data is encoded in NRZI format, and a linear feedback shift register is used to scramble the data to reduce the likelihood that long strings of zeroes or ones will be present on the interface. The interface is self-synchronizing and self-clocking, * Working group 32NF-70 is in the process of developing standard ST-2083 for 24Gbit/s SDI. 270 Mbit/s is by far the most commonly used, though the 360 Mbit/s interface is sometimes encountered, the 143 and 177 Mbit/s interfaces were intended for transmission of composite-encoded video digitally, and are now considered obsolete. For enhanced definition applications, there are several 540 Mbit/s interfaces defined, for HDTV applications, the serial digital interface is defined by SMPTE 292M. Two bit rates are defined,1.485 Gbit/s, and 1. 485/1.001 Gbit/s. The factor of 1/1.001 is provided to allow SMPTE 292M to support video formats with rates of 59.94 Hz,29.97 Hz. The 1.485 Gbit/s version of the standard supports other frame rates in widespread use, including 60 Hz,50 Hz,30 Hz,25 Hz and it is common to collectively refer to both standards as using a nominal bit rate of 1.5 Gbit/s. For very high-definition applications, requiring resolution, frame rate, or color fidelity than the HD-SDI interface can provide
