1.
Glycerol
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Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
2.
Vegetable
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
3.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
4.
Ice cream
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Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
5.
Peanut butter
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Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt. Peanut butter is popular in many countries, the United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers and it is also used in a number of confections and packaged foods, such as Reeses Peanut Butter Cups, candy bars and peanut-flavoured granola bars. Comparable preparations are made by grinding other nuts, a variety of other nut butters are also sold, such as cashew butter and almond butter. The use of peanuts dates to the Aztecs and Incas, marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal, Quebec was the first to patent peanut butter in 1884. He mixed sugar into the paste to harden its consistency, kellogg served peanut butter to the patients at his Battle Creek Sanitarium. As the US National Peanut Board confirms, Contrary to popular belief, january 24 is National Peanut Butter Day in the United States. The two main types of butter are crunchy and smooth. In crunchy peanut butter, some coarsely-ground peanut fragments are included to give extra texture, the peanuts in smooth peanut butter are ground uniformly, creating a creamy texture. In the US, no product labelled as peanut butter can contain artificial sweeteners, chemical preservatives, some brands of peanut butter are sold without emulsifiers that bind the peanut oils with the peanut paste, and so require stirring after separation. Most major brands of peanut butter add white sugar, but there are others that use dried cane syrup, in 2012, organic peanut butter was available. Since the market for organic peanut butter is small, there is not enough demand to support manufacturers who produce only organic peanut butter, as a result, most organic peanut butter is produced in factories that also make non-organic peanut butter. A2012 article stated that China and India are the first and second largest producers, respectively, the United States of America. is the third largest producer of peanuts and more than half of the American peanut crop goes into making peanut butter. Peanut butter is an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, also high in content are the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc and copper. Peanut butter is a source of thiamin, iron and potassium. Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated and unsaturated fats, for people with a peanut allergy, peanut butter can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. This potential effect has led to banning peanut butter, among other common foods, Peanut butters flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers
6.
Cell (biology)
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The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
. PMID 20376053.
