1.
Glycerol
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Glycerol /ˈɡlɪsərɒl/ is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting, the glycerol backbone is found in all lipids known as triglycerides. It is widely used in the industry as a sweetener and humectant. Glycerol has three groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. Although achiral, glycerol is prochiral with respect to reactions of one of the two primary alcohols, thus, in substituted derivatives, the stereospecific numbering labels each carbon as either sn-1, sn-2, or sn-3. Glycerol is generally obtained from plant and animal sources where it occurs as triglycerides, triglycerides are esters of glycerol with long-chain carboxylic acids. Approximately 950,000 tons per year are produced in the United States and it was projected in 2006 that by the year 2020, production would be six times more than demand. Glycerol from triglycerides is produced on a scale, but the crude product is of variable quality. It can be purified, but the process is expensive, some glycerol is burned for energy, but its heat value is low. High purity glycerol is obtained by distillation, vacuum is helpful due to the high boiling point of glycerol. Although usually not cost-effective, glycerol can be produced by various routes from propylene and this epichlorohydrin is then hydrolyzed to give glycerol. Chlorine-free processes from propylene include the synthesis of glycerol from acrolein, because of the large-scale production of biodiesel from fats, where glycerol is a waste product, the market for glycerol is depressed. Thus, synthetic processes are not economical, owing to oversupply, efforts are being made to convert glycerol to synthetic precursors, such as acrolein and epichlorohydrin. In food and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant, solvent, and sweetener and it is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods, and as a thickening agent in liqueurs. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of plant leaves, as a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 kilocalories per teaspoon and is 60% as sweet as sucrose. It does not feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities, as a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E422. It is added to icing to prevent it from setting too hard, as used in foods, glycerol is categorized by the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics as a carbohydrate. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein, glycerol is used in medical, pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication, and as a humectant
2.
Vegetable
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
3.
Animal
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Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia. The animal kingdom emerged as a clade within Apoikozoa as the group to the choanoflagellates. Animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently at some point in their lives and their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in their lives. All animals are heterotrophs, they must ingest other organisms or their products for sustenance, most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals can be divided broadly into vertebrates and invertebrates, vertebrates have a backbone or spine, and amount to less than five percent of all described animal species. They include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, the remaining animals are the invertebrates, which lack a backbone. These include molluscs, arthropods, annelids, nematodes, flatworms, cnidarians, ctenophores, the study of animals is called zoology. The word animal comes from the Latin animalis, meaning having breath, the biological definition of the word refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, encompassing creatures as diverse as sponges, jellyfish, insects, and humans. Aristotle divided the world between animals and plants, and this was followed by Carl Linnaeus, in the first hierarchical classification. In Linnaeuss original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of Vermes, Insecta, Pisces, Amphibia, Aves, and Mammalia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, in 1874, Ernst Haeckel divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms, Metazoa and Protozoa. The protozoa were later moved to the kingdom Protista, leaving only the metazoa, thus Metazoa is now considered a synonym of Animalia. Animals have several characteristics that set apart from other living things. Animals are eukaryotic and multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and they are heterotrophic, generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking cell walls. All animals are motile, if only at life stages. In most animals, embryos pass through a stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals. With a few exceptions, most notably the sponges and Placozoa and these include muscles, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and nerve tissues, which send and process signals
4.
Ice cream
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Ice cream is a sweetened frozen food typically eaten as a snack or dessert. It is usually made from dairy products, such as milk and cream and it is typically sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes. Typically, flavourings and colourings are added in addition to stabilizers, the mixture is stirred to incorporate air spaces and cooled below the freezing point of water to prevent detectable ice crystals from forming. The result is a smooth, semi-solid foam that is solid at low temperatures. It becomes more malleable as its temperature increases, the meaning of the phrase ice cream varies from one country to another. Phrases such as frozen custard, frozen yogurt, sorbet, gelato, products that do not meet the criteria to be called ice cream are labelled frozen dairy dessert instead. In other countries, such as Italy and Argentina, one word is used for all variants, analogues made from dairy alternatives, such as goats or sheeps milk, or milk substitutes, are available for those who are lactose intolerant, allergic to dairy protein, or vegan. Ice cream may be served in dishes, for eating with a spoon, or in cones, Ice cream may be served with other desserts, such as apple pie. Ice cream is used to other desserts, including ice cream floats, sundaes, milkshakes, ice cream cakes and even baked items. During the 5th century BC, ancient Greeks ate snow mixed with honey, the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates, encouraged his Ancient Greek patients to eat ice as it livens the life-juices and increases the well-being. In 400 BC, the Persians invented a special chilled food, made of water and vermicelli. The ice was mixed with saffron, fruits, and various other flavours, a frozen mixture of milk and rice was used in China around 200 BC. The Roman Emperor Nero had ice brought from the mountains and combined it with fruit toppings to create chilled delicacies, in the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors used relays of horsemen to bring ice from the Hindu Kush to Delhi, where it was used in fruit sorbets. When Italian duchess Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orléans in 1533, there is no historical evidence to support these legends, which first appeared during the 19th century. The first recipe in French for flavoured ices appears in 1674, recipes for sorbetti saw publication in the 1694 edition of Antonio Latinis Lo Scalco alla Moderna. Recipes for flavoured ices begin to appear in François Massialots Nouvelle Instruction pour les Confitures, les Liqueurs, et les Fruits, Massialots recipes result in a coarse, pebbly texture. Latini claims that the results of his recipes should have the consistency of sugar. Ice cream recipes first appeared in England in the 18th century, the recipe for ice cream was published in Mrs. Mary Ealess Receipts in London in 1718
5.
Peanut butter
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Peanut butter is a food paste or spread made from ground dry roasted peanuts. It often contains ingredients that modify the taste or texture, such as salt. Peanut butter is popular in many countries, the United States is a leading exporter of peanut butter and itself consumes $800 million of peanut butter annually. Peanut butter is served as a spread on bread, toast or crackers and it is also used in a number of confections and packaged foods, such as Reeses Peanut Butter Cups, candy bars and peanut-flavoured granola bars. Comparable preparations are made by grinding other nuts, a variety of other nut butters are also sold, such as cashew butter and almond butter. The use of peanuts dates to the Aztecs and Incas, marcellus Gilmore Edson of Montreal, Quebec was the first to patent peanut butter in 1884. He mixed sugar into the paste to harden its consistency, kellogg served peanut butter to the patients at his Battle Creek Sanitarium. As the US National Peanut Board confirms, Contrary to popular belief, january 24 is National Peanut Butter Day in the United States. The two main types of butter are crunchy and smooth. In crunchy peanut butter, some coarsely-ground peanut fragments are included to give extra texture, the peanuts in smooth peanut butter are ground uniformly, creating a creamy texture. In the US, no product labelled as peanut butter can contain artificial sweeteners, chemical preservatives, some brands of peanut butter are sold without emulsifiers that bind the peanut oils with the peanut paste, and so require stirring after separation. Most major brands of peanut butter add white sugar, but there are others that use dried cane syrup, in 2012, organic peanut butter was available. Since the market for organic peanut butter is small, there is not enough demand to support manufacturers who produce only organic peanut butter, as a result, most organic peanut butter is produced in factories that also make non-organic peanut butter. A2012 article stated that China and India are the first and second largest producers, respectively, the United States of America. is the third largest producer of peanuts and more than half of the American peanut crop goes into making peanut butter. Peanut butter is an excellent source of protein, dietary fiber, vitamin E, pantothenic acid, also high in content are the dietary minerals manganese, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc and copper. Peanut butter is a source of thiamin, iron and potassium. Both crunchy/chunky and smooth peanut butter are sources of saturated and unsaturated fats, for people with a peanut allergy, peanut butter can cause a variety of possible allergic reactions, including life-threatening anaphylaxis. This potential effect has led to banning peanut butter, among other common foods, Peanut butters flavor combines well with other flavors, such as oatmeal, cheese, cured meats, savory sauces, and various types of breads and crackers
6.
Cell (biology)
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The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, the study of cells is called cell biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many such as proteins. Organisms can be classified as unicellular or multicellular, while the number of cells in plants and animals varies from species to species, humans contain more than 10 trillion cells. Most plant and animal cells are only under a microscope. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named the unit for its resemblance to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago, Cells are of two types, eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular, prokaryotic cells were the first form of life on Earth, characterised by having vital biological processes including cell signaling and being self-sustaining. They are simpler and smaller than eukaryotic cells, and lack membrane-bound organelles such as the nucleus, prokaryotes include two of the domains of life, bacteria and archaea. The DNA of a prokaryotic cell consists of a chromosome that is in direct contact with the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in the cytoplasm is called the nucleoid, most prokaryotes are the smallest of all organisms ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 µm in diameter. Though most prokaryotes have both a cell membrane and a wall, there are exceptions such as Mycoplasma and Thermoplasma which only possess the cell membrane layer. The envelope gives rigidity to the cell and separates the interior of the cell from its environment, the cell wall consists of peptidoglycan in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from expanding and bursting from osmotic pressure due to a hypotonic environment, some eukaryotic cells also have a cell wall. Inside the cell is the region that contains the genome, ribosomes. The genetic material is found in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called plasmids, which are usually circular, linear bacterial plasmids have been identified in several species of spirochete bacteria, including members of the genus Borrelia notably Borrelia burgdorferi, which causes Lyme disease. Though not forming a nucleus, the DNA is condensed in a nucleoid, plasmids encode additional genes, such as antibiotic resistance genes
7.
Fatty acid metabolism
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Fatty acid metabolism consists of catabolic processes that generate energy, and anabolic processes that create biologically important molecules. Fatty acids are a family of molecules classified within the lipid macronutrient class, one role of fatty acids in animal metabolism is energy production, captured in the form of adenosine triphosphate. When compared to other macronutrient classes, fatty acids yield the most ATP on an energy per gram basis, when they are oxidized to CO2 and water by β-oxidation. Fatty acids are therefore the foremost storage form of fuel in most animals, in addition, fatty acids are important components of the phospholipids that form the phospholipid bilayers out of which all the membranes of the cell are constructed. The prostaglandins made from arachidonic acid stored in the membrane, are probably the most well known group of these local hormones. These lipases are activated by epinephrine and glucagon levels in the blood, caused by declining blood glucose levels after meals. Once freed from glycerol, the fatty acids enter the blood. Long chain free fatty acids enter the cells through specific transport proteins. Acyl-carnitine is shuttled inside by a carnitine-acylcarnitine translocase, as a carnitine is shuttled outside, acyl-carnitine is converted back to acyl-CoA by carnitine palmitoyltransferase II, located on the interior face of the inner mitochondrial membrane. The liberated carnitine is shuttled back to the cytosol, as an acyl-CoA is shuttled into the matrix, each β-oxidative cut of the acyl-CoA molecule yields 5 ATP molecules. The acetyl-CoA produced by β-oxidation enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrion by combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate and this results in the complete combustion of the acetyl-CoA to CO2 and water. The energy released in this process is captured in the form of 1 GTP and 11 ATP molecules per acetyl-CoA molecule oxidized and this is the fate of acetyl-CoA wherever β-oxidation of fatty acids occurs, except under certain circumstances in the liver. Under these circumstances acetyl-CoA is diverted to the formation of acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and their spontaneous breakdown product, acetone, are frequently, but confusingly, known as ketone bodies. The ketone bodies are released by the liver into the blood, the glycerol released by lipase action is phosphorylated by glycerol kinase in the liver, and the resulting glycerol 3-phosphate is oxidized to dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The glycolytic enzyme triose phosphate isomerase converts this compound to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, fatty acids, stored as triglycerides in an organism, are an important source of energy because they are both reduced and anhydrous. The energy yield from a gram of fatty acids is approximately 9 kcal, since the hydrocarbon portion of fatty acids is hydrophobic, these molecules can be stored in a relatively anhydrous environment. Carbohydrates, on the hand, are more highly hydrated. For example,1 g of glycogen can bind approximately 2 g of water and this means that fatty acids can hold more than six times the amount of energy per unit of storage mass
8.
Margarine
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Margarine is an imitation butter spread used for spreading, baking, and cooking. Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès created it in France, in 1869 and he was responding to a challenge by Emperor Napoleon III to create a butter substitute for the armed forces and lower classes. Whereas butter is made from the butterfat of milk, modern margarine is made mainly of refined oil and water. In some places in the United States it is referred to as oleo. Margarine, like butter, consists of an emulsion, with tiny droplets of water dispersed uniformly throughout a fat phase in a stable crystalline form. In some jurisdictions margarine must have a fat content of 80% to be labelled as such. Colloquially in the United States, the term margarine is used to describe non-dairy spreads like Country Crock, Margarine can be used for spreading, baking, and cooking. It is also used as an ingredient in other food products, such as pastries, doughnuts and cookies. Margarine originated with the discovery by French chemist Michel Eugène Chevreul in 1813 of margaric acid, scientists at the time regarded margaric acid, like oleic acid and stearic acid, as one of the three fatty acids that, in combination, form most animal fats. In 1853, the German structural chemist Wilhelm Heinrich Heintz analyzed margaric acid as simply a combination of stearic acid, Emperor Napoleon III of France offered a prize to anyone who could make a satisfactory butter alternative, suitable for use by the armed forces and the lower classes. French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriès invented a substance he called oleomargarine, which shortened to the trade name margarine. Mège-Mouriès patented the concept in 1869 and expanded his initial manufacturing operation from France but had commercial success. In 1871, he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, in the same year a German pharmacist, Benedict Klein from Cologne, founded the first margarine factory Benedict Klein Margarinewerke, producing the brands Overstolz and Botteram. In John Steeles 1850 California gold miners journal, he wrote, I became acquainted with Mr. Dainels, from Baltimore, manufactured butter from tallow and lard, and it looked and tasted so much like real butter, that. I could not tell the difference, however, he deceived no one, but sold it for just what it was. He never explained the process of its manufacturer, and whether he was the originator of oleomargarine I do not know, the principal raw material in the original formulation of margarine was beef fat. In 1871, Henry W. Bradley of Binghamton, New York received U. S, patent 110,626 for a process of creating margarine that combined vegetable oils with animal fats. The depression of the 1930s, followed by the rationing of World War II, led to a reduction in supply of animal fat, while butter that cows produced had a slightly yellow color, margarine had a white color, making the margarine look more like lard
9.
Hydrophobe
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In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water. In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water, Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents. Because water molecules are polar, hydrophobes do not dissolve well among them, Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together, forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle, examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, fat-loving. However, the two terms are not synonymous, while hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions—such as the silicones and fluorocarbons. The term hydrophobe comes from the Ancient Greek ὑδρόφοβος, having a horror of water, constructed from ὕδωρ, water, thus, the two immiscible phases will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation, Superhydrophobic surfaces, such as the leaves of the lotus plant, are those that are extremely difficult to wet. The contact angles of a water droplet exceeds 150° and the angle is less than 10°. This is referred to as the Lotus effect, and is primarily a physical property related to interfacial tension, in 1805, Thomas Young defined the contact angle θ by analyzing the forces acting on a fluid droplet resting on a solid surface surrounded by a gas. Wenzels equation shows that microstructuring a surface amplifies the natural tendency of the surface, a hydrophobic surface becomes more hydrophobic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes greater than the original. However, a hydrophilic surface becomes more hydrophilic when microstructured – its new contact angle less than the original. Liquid in the Cassie–Baxter state is more mobile than in the Wenzel state and we can predict whether the Wenzel or Cassie–Baxter state should exist by calculating the new contact angle with both equations. By a minimization of free energy argument, the relation that predicted the new contact angle is the state most likely to exist. Stated in mathematical terms, for the Cassie–Baxter state to exist, a new criterion for the switch between Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter states has been developed recently based on surface roughness and surface energy. Contact angle is a measure of static hydrophobicity, and contact angle hysteresis, contact angle hysteresis is a phenomenon that characterizes surface heterogeneity. When a pipette injects a liquid onto a solid, the liquid will form some contact angle, as the pipette injects more liquid, the droplet will increase in volume, the contact angle will increase, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly advances outward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before advancing outward is termed the advancing contact angle, the receding contact angle is now measured by pumping the liquid back out of the droplet
10.
Glycolysis
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Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP, glycolysis is a determined sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The intermediates provide entry points to glycolysis, for example, most monosaccharides, such as fructose and galactose, can be converted to one of these intermediates. The intermediates may also be directly useful, for example, the intermediate dihydroxyacetone phosphate is a source of the glycerol that combines with fatty acids to form fat. Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, meaning that it not use molecular oxygen for any of its reactions. However the products of glycolysis are sometimes metabolized using atmospheric oxygen, when molecular oxygen is used for the metabolism of the products of glycolysis the process is usually referred to as aerobic, whereas if no oxygen is used the process is said to be anaerobic. Thus, glycolysis occurs, with variations, in all organisms. The wide occurrence of glycolysis indicates that it is one of the most ancient metabolic pathways, glycolysis could thus have originated from chemical constraints of the prebiotic world. Glycolysis occurs in most organisms in the cytosol of the cell, the most common type of glycolysis is the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas, which was discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and Jakub Karol Parnas. Glycolysis also refers to other pathways, such as the Entner–Doudoroff pathway, however, the discussion here will be limited to the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway. The overall reaction of glycolysis is, The use of symbols in this equation makes it appear unbalanced with respect to oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, and charges. In the cellular environment, all three groups of ADP dissociate into −O− and H+, giving ADP3−, and this ion tends to exist in an ionic bond with Mg2+. ATP behaves identically except that it has four groups, giving ATPMg2−. When these differences along with the charges on the two phosphate groups are considered together, the net charges of −4 on each side are balanced. For simple fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP, most cells will then carry out further reactions to repay the used NAD+ and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid. Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD+, cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H+ from glycolysis, the pathway of glycolysis as it is known today took almost 100 years to fully discover. The combined results of many experiments were required in order to understand the pathway as a whole
11.
Cottonseed oil
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Cottonseed oil is a cooking oil extracted from the seeds of cotton plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil. Cotton seed has a structure to other oilseeds such as sunflower seed, having an oil-bearing kernel surrounded by a hard outer hull, in processing. Cottonseed oil is used for oil, mayonnaise, salad dressing. Its fatty acid profile generally consists of 70% unsaturated fatty acids, when it is fully hydrogenated, its profile is 94% saturated fat and 2% unsaturated fatty acids. According to the oil industry, cottonseed oil does not need to be hydrogenated as much as other polyunsaturated oils to achieve similar results. Gossypol is a toxic, yellow, polyphenolic compound produced by cotton and other members of the order Malvaceae and this naturally occurring coloured compound is found in tiny glands in the seed, leaf, stem, tap root bark, and root of the cotton plant. The adaptive function of the compound facilitates natural insect resistance, the three key steps of refining, bleaching, and deodorization in producing finished oil act to eliminate the gossypol level. Ferric chloride is used to decolorize cotton seed oil. Once processed, cottonseed oil has a taste and appears generally clear with a light golden color. It has a high smoke point as a frying medium. Density ranges from 0.917 g/cm3 to 0.933 g/cm3, the by-product of cotton processing, cottonseed was considered virtually worthless before the late 19th century. While cotton production expanded throughout the 17th, 18th, and mid 19th centuries, although some of the seed was used for planting, fertilizer, and animal feed, the majority was left to rot or was illegally dumped into rivers. The increased demand for fats and oils, coupled with a decreasing supply caused prices to rise sharply, consequently, many Europeans could not afford to buy the fats and oils they had used for cooking and for lighting. Many United States entrepreneurs tried to take advantage of the increasing European demand for oils, but separating the seed hull from the seed meat proved difficult and most of these ventures failed within a few years. This problem was resolved in 1857, when William Fee invented a huller, with this new invention, cottonseed oil began to be used for illumination purposes in lamps to supplement increasingly expensive whale oil and lard. But by 1859, this use came to end as the petroleum industry emerged, cottonseed oil then began to be used illegally to fortify animal fats and lards. Initially, meat packers secretly added cottonseed oil to the pure fats, a congressional investigation followed, and legislation was passed that required products fortified with cottonseed oil to be labeled as ‘‘lard compound. ”Similarly, cottonseed oil was often blended with olive oil. Once the practice was exposed, many countries put import tariffs on American olive oil, both of these regulatory schemes depressed cottonseed oil sales and exports, once again creating an oversupply of cottonseed oil, which decreased its value
12.
Chewing gum
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Chewing gum is a soft, cohesive substance designed to be chewed without being swallowed. Modern chewing gum is composed of gum base, sweeteners, softeners/ plasticizers, flavors, colors, and, typically, a hard or powdered polyol coating. The cultural tradition of chewing gum seems to have developed through a convergent evolution process, each of the early precursors to chewing gum were derived from natural growths local to the region and were chewed purely out the instinctual desire to masticate. Early chewers did not necessarily desire to derive benefits from their chewable substances. Chewing gum in many forms has existed since the Neolithic period,6, 000-year-old chewing gum made from birch bark tar, with tooth imprints, has been found in Kierikki in Finland. The tar from which the gums were made is believed to have antiseptic properties and it is chemically similar to petroleum tar and is in this way different from most other early gum. The Aztecs, as the ancient Mayans before them, used chicle, forms of chewing gums were also chewed in Ancient Greece. The Ancient Greeks chewed mastic gum, made from the resin of the mastic tree, mastic gum, like birch bark tar, has antiseptic properties and is believed to have been used to maintain oral health. Both chicle and mastic are tree resins, many other cultures have chewed gum-like substances made from plants, grasses, and resins. Although chewing gum can be traced back to civilizations around the world, the American Indians chewed resin made from the sap of spruce trees. The New England settlers picked up this practice, and in 1848, John B. Curtis developed, in this way, the industrializing West, having forgotten about tree gums, rediscovered chewing gum through the First Americans. Around 1850 a gum made from wax, which is a petroleum product, was developed. To sweeten these early gums the chewer would often use of a plate of powdered sugar. William Semple filed a patent on chewing gum, patent number 98,304. The first flavored chewing gum was created in the 1860s by John Colgan, Colgan mixed with powdered sugar the aromatic flavoring tolu, a powder obtained from an extract of the balsam tree, creating small sticks of flavored chewing gum he named Taffy Tolu. Colgan also lead the way in the manufacturing and packaging of chicle-based chewing gum, derived from Manilkara chicle, chicle did not succeed as a replacement for rubber, but as a gum, which was cut into strips and marketed as Adams New York Chewing Gum in 1871. Black Jack, which is flavored with licorice, Chiclets, Chewing gum gained worldwide popularity through American GIs in WWII, who were supplied chewing gum as a ration and traded it with locals. Synthetic gums were first introduced to the U. S. after chicle no longer satisfied the needs of making chewing gum
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