1.
Physical anthropology
–
It is a subfield of anthropology that provides a biological perspective to the systematic study of human beings. As a subfield of anthropology, biological anthropology itself is divided into several branches. All branches are united in their application of evolutionary theory to understanding human morphology. Primatology, the study of primate behavior, morphology. Reasons via homology and analogy to infer how and why similar human traits evolved, human behavioral ecology, the study of behavioral adaptations from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives. Human adaptation, the study of human responses to environmental stresses. Bioarchaeology, the study of past human cultures through examination of human remains recovered in an archaeological context, the examined human remains usually comprises bones, but may include preserved soft tissue. Researchers in bioarchaeology combine the skillsets of human osteology, paleopathology, and archaeology, paleopathology is the study of disease in antiquity. Scientific physical anthropology began in the 18th century with the study of racial classification, the first prominent physical anthropologist, the German physician Johann Friedrich Blumenbach of Göttingen, amassed a large collection of human skulls. In 1897 Columbia University appointed Franz Boas as a physical anthropologist for his expertise in measuring schoolchildren, from his German education and training, Boas emphasized the mutability of the human form and minimized race in favor of culture. Ales Hrdlicka, a physician, studied anthropology in France under Leonce Manouvrier before working at the Smithsonian Institution from 1902. Earnest Hooton, a Classics PhD from the University of Wisconsin, entered anthropology as an Oxford Rhodes Scholar under R. R. Marett, there was much intellectual continuity with Germans such as Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz and Erwin Baur. In 1951 Sherwood Washburn, a Hooton alumnus, introduced a new physical anthropology and he changed the focus from racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human evolution, moving away from classification towards evolutionary process. Anthropology expanded to comprehend paleoanthropology and primatology, in contrast to much of medical anthropology, it does not generally take a critical approach to biomedicine and Western medicine. Instead, it seeks to improve medical practice and biomedical science through the integration of cross-cultural or biocultural, behavioral. As an academic discipline, biomedical anthropology is closely related to human biology, currently, the only accredited degree program in biomedical anthropology is at Binghamton University. Other anthropology departments, such as that of the University of Washington, anthropometry, the measurement of the human individual Craniometry Ethology Evolutionary biology Evolutionary psychology Paleontology Physiognomy Primatology Sociobiology Michael A
Physical anthropology
–
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
Physical anthropology
–
Primate skulls. From left to right:
Human
Physical anthropology
–
Franz Boas
Physical anthropology
–
Aleš Hrdlička
2.
Phenotype
–
A phenotype is the composite of an organisms observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, behavior, and products of behavior. A phenotype results from the expression of a genetic code, its genotype, as well as the influence of environmental factors. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the population of a species, the species is called polymorphic. A well-documented polymorphism is Labrador Retriever coloring, while the color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black. This genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organisms heredity and what that heredity produces, the distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm and somatic cells. The term phenotype has sometimes incorrectly used as a shorthand for phenotypic difference from wild type. Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties and it may seem that anything dependent on the genotype is a phenotype, including molecules such as RNA and proteins. It may seem that this goes beyond the intentions of the concept with its focus on the organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes traits or characteristics that can be visible by some technical procedure. A notable extension to this idea is the presence of molecules or metabolites that are generated by organisms from chemical reactions of enzymes. Another extension adds behavior to the phenotype, since behaviors are also observable characteristics, behavioral phenotypes include cognitive, personality, and behavioral patterns. Some behavioral phenotypes may characterize psychiatric disorders or syndromes, phenotypic variation is a fundamental prerequisite for evolution by natural selection. It is the organism as a whole that contributes to the next generation. Without phenotypic variation, there would be no evolution by natural selection, the plant Hieracium umbellatum is found growing in two different habitats in Sweden. These habitats alternate along the coast of Sweden and the habitat that the seeds of Hieracium umbellatum land in, the concept of phenotype can be extended to variations below the level of the gene that affect an organisms fitness. For example, silent mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence of a gene may change the frequency of guanine-cytosine base pairs. The term extended phenotype refers to the idea that a phenotype is not restricted to biological processes, the concept generalized by Richard Dawkins explains that phenotype includes all the influence a gene has on the environment and other organisms. ”There are three types of extended phenotypes. The first describes an organism using architectural constructions to modify their environment for living, the most common example given by Dawkins is the beaver
Phenotype
–
The
shells of individuals within the
bivalve mollusk species
Donax variabilis show diverse coloration and patterning in their phenotypes
Phenotype
–
Biston betularia morpha typica, the standard light-colored Peppered Moth.
Phenotype
–
Biston betularia morpha carbonaria, the melanic Peppered Moth, illustrating discontinuous variation.
3.
Central Europe
–
Central Europe lies between Eastern Europe and Western Europe. The concept of Central Europe is based on a historical, social and cultural identity. Central Europe is going through a phase of strategic awakening, with such as the CEI, Centrope. While the regions economy shows high disparities with regard to income, elements of unity for Western and Central Europe were Roman Catholicism and Latin. According to Hungarian historian Jenő Szűcs, foundations of Central European history at the first millennium were in connection with Western European development. The keyword of Western social development after millennium was the spread of liberties and autonomies in Western Europe and these phenomena appeared in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries. There were self-governments of towns, counties and parliaments, in 1335 under the rule of the King Charles I of Hungary, the castle of Visegrád, the seat of the Hungarian monarchs was the scene of the royal summit of the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary. They agreed to cooperate closely in the field of politics and commerce, in the Middle Ages, countries in Central Europe adopted Magdeburg rights. Before 1870, the industrialization that had developed in Western and Central Europe, even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained rural and agricultural. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, an example of that-time vision of Central Europe may be seen in J. Partsch’s book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany, another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic and cultural domination. The bible of the concept was Friedrich Naumann’s book Mitteleuropa in which he called for a federation to be established after the war. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I, the revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era. According to Emmanuel de Martonne, in 1927 the Central European countries included, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, italy and Yugoslavia are not considered by the author to be Central European because they are located mostly outside Central Europe. The author use both Human and Physical Geographical features to define Central Europe, the interwar period brought new geopolitical system and economic and political problems, and the concept of Central Europe took a different character. The centre of interest was moved to its eastern part – the countries that have appeared on the map of Europe, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, however, the conflict of interests was too big and neither Little Entente nor Intermarium ideas succeeded. The interwar period brought new elements to the concept of Central Europe, after the war, the Eastern part of Central Europe was placed at the centre of the concept
Central Europe
–
Certain and disputed borders of
Great Moravia under
Svatopluk I (AD 870–894)
Central Europe
–
Central Europe according to
The World Factbook (2009),
Encyclopædia Britannica, and
Brockhaus Enzyklopädie (1998)
Central Europe
–
Kingdom of Hungary in 1190
Central Europe
–
CE countries, Sourcebook of Central European Avant-Gardes 1910–1930 (L.A. County Museum of Art)
4.
Southeast Europe
–
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe is a geographical region of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkan peninsula. These boundaries can vary due to political, economic, historical, cultural. The first known use of the term Southeast Europe was by Austrian researcher Johann Georg von Hahn as a broader term than the traditional Balkans and this concept is based on the boundaries of the Balkan peninsula. The countries that have described as being entirely within the region are, Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Macedonia. Countries that are, at least partially, described to be within the region are, Croatia, Greece, east Thrace comprises Edirne Province, Kırklareli Province, Tekirdağ Province, and part of Istanbul Province. The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe was an institution aimed at strengthening peace, democracy, human rights and it was replaced by the Regional Cooperation Council in February 2008. It had 235.6 million euro of funding available from 2007–2013
Southeast Europe
–
Geographic features of southeast Europe
Southeast Europe
–
Political view of Balkans
Southeast Europe
–
Geographically fully located
5.
Caucasian race
–
Ancient and modern Caucasoid populations were thus held to have ranged in complexion from white to dark brown. In the United States, the root term Caucasian has also often used in a different. First introduced in early racial typologies and anthropometry, the term denoted one of three purported races of humankind. The appellation Caucasian for the grouping was popularized by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who named it after the categorys archetypal skull, the traditional anthropological term Caucasoid is a portmanteau of the demonym Caucasian and the Greek suffix eidos, implying a resemblance to the native inhabitants of the Caucasus. It etymologically contrasts with the terms Negroid, Mongoloid and Australoid, the term Caucasian race was coined by the German philosopher Christoph Meiners in his The Outline of History of Mankind. Meiners acknowledged two races, the Caucasian or beautiful, and the Mongolian or ugly, in his earlier racial typology, Meiners put forth that Caucasians had the whitest, most blooming and most delicate skin. In a series of articles, Meiners boasts about the superiority of Germans among Europeans, such views were typical of early scientific attempts at racial classification, where skin pigmentation was regarded as the main difference between races. This view was shared by the French naturalist Julien-Joseph Virey, who believed that the Caucasians were only the palest-skinned Europeans and it was Johann Friedrich Blumenbach who gave the term a wider audience, by grounding it in the new methods of craniometry and Linnean taxonomy. He established Caucasian as the race, Mongoloid as the yellow race, Malayan as the brown race, Ethiopian as the black race. He also noticed that darker skin of an olive-tinge was a feature of some European populations closer to the Mediterranean Sea. However, pragmatically, Blumenbach acknowledged that skin color of the Caucasian variety naturally ranged from white to brown tones. Thus, Carleton S. Coon and Franco Bragagna included the native to all of Central. For example, Thomas Henry Huxley classified all populations of Asian nations as Mongoloid, lothrop Stoddard in turn classified as brown most of the populations of the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Central Asia and South Asia. Coon used the term Caucasoid and White race synonymously, in 1962, Coon published The Origin of Races, wherein he proposed a polygenist view, that human races had evolved separately from local varieties of Homo erectus. Dividing humans into five races, and argued that each evolved in parallel but at different rates. He argued that the Caucasoid race had evolved 200,000 years prior to the Congoid race, drawing from Petrus Campers theory of facial angle, Blumenbach and Cuvier classified races, through their skull collections based on their cranial features and anthropometric measurements. Caucasoid traits were recognised as, thin nasal aperture, a mouth, facial angle of 100°–90°. They assert that they can identify a Caucasoid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%, however, Alan H. Goodman cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples
Caucasian race
–
For the peoples of the Caucasus Mountains, see
Peoples of the Caucasus. For other uses of the term "Caucasian", see
Caucasian (disambiguation).
Caucasian race
–
The
Georgian skull Blumenbach discovered in 1795, which he used to hypothesize origination of Europeans from the
Caucasus.
Caucasian race
Caucasian race
6.
Joseph Deniker
–
Joseph Deniker was a French naturalist and anthropologist, known primarily for his attempts to develop highly detailed maps of race in Europe. Deniker was born in 1852 to French parents in Astrakhan, Russian Empire, settling at Paris, France in 1876, he studied at the Sorbonne, where he received a doctorate in natural science in 1886. In 1888 he was appointed librarian of the Natural History Museum in Paris. Deniker became one of the editors of the Dictionnaire de geographie universelle. In 1904 he was invited by the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain to give the Huxley Memorial Lecture and he died in Paris in 1918. Denikers complicated maps of European races, of which he sometimes counted upwards of twenty, were referenced in his day. Deniker had a debate with another racial cartographer, William Z. Ripley, over the nature of race. At the time, Ripley maintained that the peoples of Europe were composed of three main racial stocks, while Deniker held there were six primary European races. The six primary races are, Nordic, in the Germanic core territory in Scandinavia, Northern Germany and Frisia, the British Isles, ibero-Insular in the Iberian Peninsula, western France, southern Italy and the Mediterranean islands. Denikers most lasting contribution to the field of theory was the designation of one of his races as la race nordique. Grant adopted Ripleys three-race model for Europeans, but disliked Ripleys use of the Teuton for one of the races, grant transliterated la race nordique into Nordic, and promoted it to the top of his racial hierarchy in his own popular racial theory of the 1910s and 1920s. Ripley argued that Denikers idea of a race should be called a type. Haddon, Obituary, Dr. Joseph Deniker Man 18, 65-67, ashley Montagu, The Concept of Race, American Anthropologist 64,5, 919-928. The races of man, an outline of anthropology and ethnography at the Internet Archive Les Ghiliaks at Gallica
Joseph Deniker
–
Joseph Deniker
Joseph Deniker
–
Deniker's "Races de l'Europe" from 1899, listing as "principal races": Nordic, Littoral, Oriental, Dinaric, Iberic, Occidental and as "secondary races": Subnordic, Nord-Occidental, Vistulian, Subadriatic. Towards the north and east, boundaries to the territory settled by non-European races are shown: the
Sami (Lap) (north),
Eastern Finns (Finno-Ugrians) (east) and
Turco-Mongols (east and south-east)
7.
Carleton S. Coon
–
Carleton Coon was born in Wakefield, Massachusetts to a Cornish American family. He developed an interest in prehistory, and attended Phillips Academy, Coon matriculated to Harvard University, where he was attracted to the relatively new field of anthropology by Earnest Hooton and he graduated magna cum laude in 1925. He became the Curator of Ethnology at the University Museum of Philadelphia, Coon continued with coursework at Harvard. He conducted fieldwork in the Rif area of Morocco in 1925 and he earned his Ph. D. in 1928 and returned to Harvard as a lecturer and later a professor. Coons interest was in attempting to use Darwins theory of selection to explain the differing physical characteristics of races. Coon rewrote William Z. Ripleys 1899 The Races of Europe in 1939, Coon wrote widely for a general audience like his mentor Earnest Hooton. Coon published The Riffians, Flesh of the Wild Ox, Measuring Ethiopia, during that time, Coon was affiliated with the United States Office of Strategic Services, the forerunner to the Central Intelligence Agency. Coon left Harvard to take up a position as Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1948, throughout the 1950s he produced academic papers, as well as many popular books for the general reader, the most notable being The Story of Man. Coon did photography work for the United States Air Force from 1954-1957 and he photographed areas where US planes might be attacked. This led him to travel throughout Korea, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Sikkim, Coon published The Origin of Races in 1962. In its Introduction he described the book as part of the outcome of his project he conceived around the end of 1956, for a work to be titled along the lines of Races of the World. He said that since 1959 he had proceeded with the intention to follow The Origin of Races with a sequel, the book asserted that the human species divided into five races before it had evolved into Homo sapiens. Further, he suggested that the races evolved into Homo sapiens at different times, one of his harshest critics, Theodore Dobzhansky, scorned it as providing grist for racist mills. He continued to write and defend his work, publishing two volumes of memoirs in 1980 and 1981 and he died on June 3,1981, in Gloucester, Massachusetts. Coon concluded that sometimes different racial types annihilated other types, while in other instances warfare and/or settlement led to the displacement of racial types. He asserted that Europe was the product of a long history of racial progression. Coon suggested that the survival of the European racial type was increased by the replacement of the indigenous peoples of the New World. He stated the history of the White race to have involved racial survivals of White subraces
Carleton S. Coon
–
Carleton S. Coon
8.
Nazi Eugenics
–
Eugenics research in Germany before and during the Nazi period was similar to that in the United States, by which it had been partly inspired. However, its prominence rose sharply under Adolf Hitlers leadership when wealthy Nazi supporters started heavily investing in it, the programs were subsequently shaped to complement Nazi racial policies. More than 400,000 people were sterilized against their will, while more than 70,000 were killed under Action T4, the early German eugenics movement was led by Wilhelm Schallmayer and Alfred Ploetz. Unlike the American movement, one publication and one society, the German Society for Racial Hygiene represented all eugenicists, edwin Black wrote that after the eugenics movement was well established in the United States, it was spread to Germany. California eugenicists began producing literature promoting eugenics and sterilization and sending it overseas to German scientists, by 1933, California had subjected more people to forceful sterilization than all other U. S. states combined. The forced sterilization program engineered by the Nazis was partly inspired by Californias, German professor of medicine, anthropology and eugenics, Eugen Fischer, was the director of this organization, a man whose work helped provide the scientific basis for the Nazis eugenic policies. The Rockefeller Foundation even funded some of the conducted by Josef Mengele before he went to Auschwitz. Upon returning from Germany in 1934, where more than 5,000 people per month were being forcibly sterilized, everywhere I sensed that their opinions have been tremendously stimulated by American thought. I want you, my friend, to carry this thought with you for the rest of your life. Eugenics researcher Harry H. Laughlin often bragged that his Model Eugenic Sterilization laws had been implemented in the 1935 Nuremberg racial hygiene laws. In 1936, Laughlin was invited to a ceremony at Heidelberg University in Germany. Due to financial limitations, Laughlin was unable to attend the ceremony and had to pick it up from the Rockefeller Institute. Afterwards, he shared the award with his colleagues, remarking that he felt that it symbolized the common understanding of German and American scientists of the nature of eugenics. Adolf Hitler read about racial hygiene during his imprisonment in Landsberg Prison, Hitler believed the nation had become weak, corrupted by dysgenics, the infusion of degenerate elements into its bloodstream. The racialism and idea of competition, termed social Darwinism in 1944, were discussed by European scientists, where Hitler picked up the ideas is uncertain. The theory of evolution had been accepted in Germany at the time. In his Second Book, which was unpublished during the Nazi era, Hitler praised Sparta and he endorsed what he perceived to be an early eugenics treatment of deformed children, Sparta must be regarded as the first Völkisch State. In organizing their eugenics program the Nazis were inspired by the United States programs of forced sterilization, Physicians could be fined for failing to comply
Nazi Eugenics
–
An "Information Poster" from the exhibition wonders of life in Berlin in 1935
Nazi Eugenics
–
Hitler's order for Action T4
Nazi Eugenics
–
Propaganda for Nazi Germany's
T-4 Euthanasia Program: "This person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community 60,000 Reichsmark during his lifetime. Fellow German, that is your money, too." from the
Office of Racial Policy 's
Neues Volk.
Nazi Eugenics
–
Collection bus for killing patients
9.
Dinaric Alps
–
The Dinaric Alps or Dinarides is a mountain chain which spans from Italy in the northwest, over Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Albania to Kosovo in the southeast. They extend for 645 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, where the mountain direction changes to north-south. The highest mountain of the Dinaric Alps is Mount Triglav, a located in Julian Alps in north west Slovenia. The Dinaric Alps are the fifth most rugged and extensively mountainous area of Europe after the Caucasus Mountains, Alps, Pyrenees and Scandinavian Mountains. They are formed largely of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks of dolomite, limestone, sand and conglomerates formed by seas and lakes that had once covered the area. During the Alpine earth movements that occurred 50–100 million years ago, immense lateral pressures folded, the Dinarides are named after Mount Dinara, a prominent peak in the center of the mountain range on the border of Croatia and Bosnia. The Mesozoic limestone forms a distinctive region of the Balkans, notable for features such as the Karst. The Quaternary ice ages had relatively little direct influence on the Balkans. No permanent ice caps existed, and there is evidence of extensive glaciation. Only the highest summits of Durmitor, Orjen and Prenj have glacial valleys, however, in the Prokletije, a range on the northern Albanian border that runs east to west, there is evidence of major glaciation. One geological feature of great importance to the landscape of the Dinarides must be considered in more detail. They are hard and slow to erode, and often persist as steep jagged escarpments, through which steep-sided gorges, the partially submerged western Dinaric Alps form the numerous islands and harbors along the Croatian coast. The most extensive example of limestone mountains in Europe are those of the Karst of the Dinaric Alps, here, all the characteristic features are encountered again and again as one travels through this wild and underpopulated country. Limestone is a porous rock, yet very hard and resistant to erosion. Water is the most important corrosive force, dissolving the limestone by chemical action of its natural acidity, as it percolates down through cracks in the limestone it opens up fissures and channels, often of considerable depth, so that whole systems of underground drainage develop. During subsequent millennia these work deeper, leaving in their wake enormous waterless caverns, sinkholes and grottoes and forming underground labyrinths of channels, the roofs of some of these caverns may eventually fall in, to produce great perpendicular-sided gorges, exposing the water to the surface once more. The Dinaric rivers carved many canyons characteristic for Dinaric Alps, only along the Dinaric gorges is communication possible across the Karst, and roads and railways tunnel through precipitous cliffs and traverse narrow ledges above roaring torrents. A number of springs and rivers rise in the Dinaric range, at the same time, the purity of these rocks is such that the rivers are crystal clear, and there is little soil-making residue
Dinaric Alps
–
Orjen at the
Bay of Kotor is the most heavily karstified range of the Dinarides
Dinaric Alps
–
Valbona Pass, northern
Albania
Dinaric Alps
–
Mount
Mučanj, lower Dinarides, western
Serbia
10.
Southeastern Europe
–
Southeast Europe or Southeastern Europe is a geographical region of Europe, consisting primarily of the Balkan peninsula. These boundaries can vary due to political, economic, historical, cultural. The first known use of the term Southeast Europe was by Austrian researcher Johann Georg von Hahn as a broader term than the traditional Balkans and this concept is based on the boundaries of the Balkan peninsula. The countries that have described as being entirely within the region are, Albania, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Macedonia. Countries that are, at least partially, described to be within the region are, Croatia, Greece, east Thrace comprises Edirne Province, Kırklareli Province, Tekirdağ Province, and part of Istanbul Province. The Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe was an institution aimed at strengthening peace, democracy, human rights and it was replaced by the Regional Cooperation Council in February 2008. It had 235.6 million euro of funding available from 2007–2013
Southeastern Europe
–
Geographic features of southeast Europe
Southeastern Europe
–
Political view of Balkans
Southeastern Europe
–
Geographically fully located
11.
Jan Czekanowski
–
Jan Czekanowski was a Polish anthropologist, statistician and linguist. Czekanowski is known for having played an important role in saving the Polish-Lithuanian branch of the Karaim people from Holocaust extermination, in 1942 he managed to convince a German race scientists that the Karaim were of Turkic origin although professing Judaism and using Hebrew as a liturgical language. This helped the Karaim people escape the tragic destiny of other European Jews, Czekanowski attended school in Warsaw but was transferred to Latvia, where he finished his education in 1901. In 1907 Czekanowski defended his PhD. dissertation, for the dissertations research he traveled to the Royal Museum in Berlin and to Middle Africa from 1906-1907. While in Africa, he led a team into the Congo to collect ethnographic materials, while working on studying the societies of Africa, he developed various statistical methods and contributed to the field of taxonomy. The research he made in Africa has since been published in five volumes and he then became a professor at the University of Lwów and University of Poznań. While working he introduced a take on mathematical statistics. He worked in these universities from 1913 to 1945 and in the period 1923-1924 he was a president of Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists, in addition, he worked at the University of Poznań from 1937-1946, where he researched the dynamics of evolution in human populations. He played numerous roles at the University of Poznań, including vice-chairman of the Polish Social Statistic Company. Czekanowski classified Europe into four pure races, the four pure races were the Nordic, Mediterranean, Lapponoid and Armenoid. The Lapponoid included the central and eastern Europeans along Europe longitudely as well as the Sami people of Northern Europe, Czekanowski classified six subraces in Europe which were mixed types of the pure races. The six mixed racial subraces were, the Northwestern, the Subnordic, Alpine, the Littoral, Sublapponoid, the Sublapponoid subrace lived around the Swiss lakes. The Greek letters which symbolise races and types could be capital or lower case, Czekanowski introduced numerical taxonomy into comparative linguistics, thus founding the discipline of computational linguistics. He developed a still much-used index of similarity between two samples and he applied it to phonemes and words in text corpora of different languages. It was later introduced in analysis of ecological communities, zwischengebiet Zarys metod statystycznych w zastosowaniu do antropologii. Warszawa, Towarzystwo Naukowe Warszawskie Zarys antropologii Polski Człowiek w czasie i przestrzeni Polska - Słowiańszczyzna, perspektywy antropologiczne Wstęp do historii Słowian, Poznań1957 Człowiek w czasie i przestrzeni List of Poles Czekanowskis Diagram, a Method of Multidimensional Clustering
Jan Czekanowski
–
Jan Czekanowski's grave in Warsaw
Powązki Cemetery
Jan Czekanowski
–
The monument of Jan Czekanowski at General
Władysław Anders Square in
Szczecin
Jan Czekanowski
–
This map shows the racial classification scheme of the anthropologist Jan Czekanowski in his book AAnz, vol. 5 (1928).
12.
Nordic race
–
The Nordic race was one of the putative sub-races into which some late 19th to mid 20th century anthropologists divided the Caucasian race. People of the Nordic type were to be found in the Nordic countries. The psychological traits of Nordics were described as truthful, equitable, competitive, naïve, reserved, other supposed sub-races were the Alpine race, Dinaric race, East Baltic race, and the Mediterranean race. Nordicism was an ideology of racial separatism which viewed Nordics as a racial group. This ideology was popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in some Northwestern, Central, the Nazis claimed that the Nordic race was the most superior of the Aryan race and constituted a master race. In the mid-19th century, scientific racism developed the theory of Aryanism, holding that Europeans were an innately superior branch of humanity, Aryanism was derived from the idea that the original speakers of the Indo-European languages constituted a distinctive race or subrace of the larger Caucasian race. Its principal proponent was Arthur de Gobineau in his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races, though Gobineau did not equate Nordic peoples with Aryans, he argued that Germanic people were the best modern representatives of the Aryan race. Adapting the comments of Tacitus and other Roman writers, he argued that pure Northerners regenerated Europe after the Roman Empire declined due to dilution of its leadership. By the 1880s a number of linguists and anthropologists argued that the Aryans themselves had originated somewhere in northern Europe, the biologist Thomas Henry Huxley agreed with him, coining the term Xanthochroi to refer to fair-skinned Europeans, as opposed to darker Mediterranean peoples, whom Huxley called Melanochroi. It was Huxley who also concluded that the Melanochroi, who he described as dark whites, are of a mixture of the Xanthochroi, the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche also referred in his writings to blond beasts, amoral adventurers who were supposed to be the progenitors of creative cultures. In On the Genealogy of Morals, he wrote, In Latin malus and it was the Russian-born French anthropologist Joseph Deniker that initially proposed nordique as an ethnic group. He defined nordique by a set of characteristics, The concurrence of fair, somewhat wavy hair, light eyes, reddish skin, tall stature. American economist William Z. Ripley purported to define scientifically a Teutonic race in his book The Races of Europe and he divided Europeans into three main subcategories, Teutonic, Alpine and Mediterranean. Georges Vacher de Lapouge had called this race Homo Europaeus, Madison Grant, in his book The Passing of the Great Race, took up Ripleys classification. He described a Nordic or Baltic type, long skulled, very tall, fair skinned, with blond or brown hair and light coloured eyes. By 1902 the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna identified the original Aryans with the north German Corded Ware culture and he placed the Indo-European Urheimat in Schleswig-Holstein, arguing that they had expanded across Europe from there. By the early 20th century this theory was established, though far from universally accepted. Sociologists were soon using the concept of a race to model the migrations of the supposedly more entrepreneurial
Nordic race
–
Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (
Leipzig, 1932) shows
German war hero
Karl von Müller as an example of the Nordic type
Nordic race
–
Henry Keane's Man, Past and Present (1899) shows a
Dane as an example of the Nordic type
Nordic race
–
"Expansion of the Pre-Teutonic Nordics"—From Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History (1916); Grant's conception of Nordic influence distribution in Europe in ancient times.
Nordic race
–
Hans F. K. Günther 's map, from 1922, with the Nordic race shown in bright red; light brown indicates the
Dinaric race; yellow, the
Mongolian race.
13.
Mediterranean race
–
The Mediterranean race is one of the sub-races into which the Caucasian race was categorised by most anthropologists in the late 19th to mid-20th centuries. These differentiations occurred following long-standing claims about the differences between the Nordic and the Mediterranean people. Such debates arose from responses to ancient writers who had commented on differences between northern and southern Europeans, the Greek and Roman people considered the Germanic and Celtic peoples wild, red haired barbarians. Aristotle argued that the Greeks were a people because they possessed a medium skin-tone. By the 19th century, long-standing cultural and religious differences between Protestant northwestern Europe and the Roman Catholic south were being reinterpreted in racial terms, in the 19th century, the division of humanity into distinct races became a matter for scientific debate. In 1870, Thomas Huxley argued that there were four basic racial categories, the Xanthochroic race were the fair whites of north and central Europe. According to Huxley, On the south and west this type comes into contact and mixes with the Melanochroi and it is to the Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, taken together, that the absurd denomination of Caucasian is usually applied. By the late 19th century, Huxleys Xanthochroi group had been redefined as the Nordic race, as such, Huxleys Melanochroi eventually also comprised various other dark Caucasoid populations, including the Hamites and Moors. William Z. Ripleys The Races of Europe created a tripartite model and it divided Europeans into three main subcategories, Teutonic, Alpine and Mediterranean. Ripley noted that although the European Caucasoid populations largely spoke Aryan languages and he also acknowledged the existence of non-European Caucasoids, including various populations that did not speak Aryan languages, such as Hamito-Semitic and Turkish groups. Southern/Eastern Europeans were deemed to be inferior, an argument that dated back to Arthur de Gobineaus Nordicist claims that mixing was responsible for the decline of the Roman Empire. The notion that Mediterranean peoples were responsible for the most important of ancient civilisations was a problem for the promoters of Nordic superiority, the four great branches of the Mediterranean stock were the Libyans, the Ligurians, the Pelasgians and the Iberians. Ancient Egyptians, Ethiopians and Somalis were considered by Sergi as Hamites, themselves constituting a Mediterranean variety, to Sergi, the Semites were a branch of the Eurafricans who were closely related to the Mediterraneans. He also asserted that the light-skinned Nordic race descended from the Eurafricans, according to Robert Ranulph Marett, it is in North Africa that we must probably place the original hotbed of that Mediterranean race. These writers subscribed to Sergis depigmentation theory that the Nordic race was the variety of Mediterraneans that lost pigmentation through natural selection due to the environment. According to Coon, the homeland and cradle of the Mediterranean race was in North Africa and Southwest Asia and he further stated that Mediterraneans formed the major population element in Pakistan and North India. Coon also argued that smaller Mediterraneans had travelled by land from the Mediterranean basin north into Europe in the Mesolithic era, taller Mediterraneans were Neolithic seafarers who sailed in reed-type boats and colonised the Mediterranean basin from a Near Eastern origin. He argued that they also colonised Britain & Ireland where their descendants may be today, characterized by dark brown hair, dark eyes
Mediterranean race
–
Irish man of Mediterranean type, from
Augustus Henry Keane 's Man, Past and Present (1899).
Mediterranean race
–
Distribution of European racial types, from
Madison Grant 's
The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Mediterranean race is shown in yellow; green indicates the
Alpine race; bright red is the
Nordic race.
14.
Cephalic index
–
The cephalic index or cranial index is the ratio of the maximum width of the head of an organism multiplied by 100 divided by its maximum length. The index is used to categorize animals, especially dogs. The cephalic index was used by anthropologists in the early 20th century to categorize human populations. It is now used to describe individuals appearances and for estimating the age of fetuses for legal and obstetrical reasons. The cephalic index was defined by Swedish professor of anatomy Anders Retzius, humans are characterized by having either a dolichocephalic, mesaticephalic, or brachycephalic cephalic index/cranial index. The usefulness of the index was questioned by Giuseppe Sergi. Boas argued that if craniofacial features were so malleable in a generation, then the cephalic index was of little use for defining race. Scholars such as Earnest A. Hooton continued to argue that both environment and heredity were involved, Boas did not himself claim it was totally plastic. In 2002, a paper by Sparks and Jantz re-evaluated some of Boas original data using new statistical techniques, Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas data and concluded that most of Boas original findings were correct. Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas data, in a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas claims, and that Sparks, Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas method is useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. The cephalic index is used in the categorisation of animals, especially breeds of dogs, a brachycephalic skull is relatively broad and short. Dog breeds such as the pug are sometimes classified as Extreme Brachycephalic, mesaticephalic skulls are not markedly brachycephalic or dolichocephalic. When dealing with animals, especially dogs, the appropriate and commonly used term is not mesocephalic, but rather mesaticephalic. The breeds below exemplify this category, dutch rabbit Mini Rex Polish rabbit Satin Rabbit Mini Satin Hotot Dwarf New Zealand rabbit Netherland Dwarf American Sable A dolichocephalic skull is relatively long skull. Defending the Master Race, Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant, cephalic index Brachycephalic Experienced Veterinarians Database
Cephalic index
–
1896 World cephalic index map
Cephalic index
–
Cephalic index
Cephalic index
–
Brachycephalic
French Bulldog, with visible indications of laboured breathing.
Cephalic index
–
Breeds with less extreme brachycephalia, such as the
Boxer, have less compromised thermoregulation and thus are more tolerant of vigorous exercise and heat.
15.
Race (human classification)
–
Race is the classification of humans into groups based on physical traits, ancestry, genetics, or social relations, or the relations between them. First used to refer to speakers of a language and then to denote national affiliations. The term was used in a general biological taxonomic sense, starting from the 19th century. Social conceptions and groupings of races vary over time, involving folk taxonomies that define essential types of individuals based on perceived traits, scientists consider biological essentialism obsolete, and generally discourage racial explanations for collective differentiation in both physical and behavioral traits. Although still used in contexts, race has often been replaced by less ambiguous and emotionally charged synonyms, populations, people, ethnic groups, or communities. A popular view in American sociology is that the categories that are common in everyday usage are socially constructed. For this reason, there is no current consensus about whether racial categories can be considered to have significance for understanding human genetic variation, when people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs and these constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups, as a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to instances of tragedy, including slavery. In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects and this use of racial categories is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality. As sociological factors, racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities, accordingly, the racial paradigms employed in different disciplines vary in their emphasis on biological reduction as contrasted with societal construction. Groups of humans have identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups. These features are the features of how the concept of race is used today. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, a set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities. Brutal conflicts between groups have existed throughout history and across the world. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation, Homo sapiens europaeus was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas Homo sapiens afer was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless
Race (human classification)
Race (human classification)
–
The racial diversity of
Asia 's peoples,
Nordisk familjebok (1904)
Race (human classification)
–
Portrait "Redenção do Can" (1895), showing a Brazilian family each generation becoming "whiter".
16.
Somatotype and constitutional psychology
–
Constitutional psychology is a now neglected theory, also developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with human temperament types. The foundation of these originated with Francis Galton and eugenics. From type number, an individuals mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted, Barbara Honeyman Heath, who was Sheldons main assistant in compiling Atlas of Men, accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book. There is evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes, for example, one study found that endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Stereotypes of mesomorphs are generally more favorable than those of endomorphs. Stereotypes of ectomorphs are somewhat mixed, volume 40, Issue 1, Pages 181–187, ISSN 1899-7562, ISSN 1640-5544, doi,10. Anthropometric, morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men’s volleyball team, annals of Biological Research,2012,3, 3657-3662 Height, weight, somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood, Alfredo Irurtia Amigó, apunts med esport. His original visual assessment methodology, based on the photographs, has also criticised as subjective. His original thesis has also described as fraudulent for knowingly failing to acknowledge / account for body shape changing with age. His suggestion of a link to both body shape and personality traits has also been described as objectional. Sheldons work has also criticised as being heavily burdened by his own stereotypical. Sheldons theories enjoyed a vogue through the 1950s, some modern scientists dismiss his claims using insults such as outdated or quackery. Hartl, Emil M. Monnelly, Edward P. Elderkin, new York, London, Harper & Brothers – via University of Delhi. Carter, J. E. Lindsay, Heath, Barbara Honeyman, ch.4, William Sheldons Body and Temperament Types. What manner of morph are you, pp. 65–79 – via Google Books. Somatotype and Sport The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype Sheldons Body Personality What Is Your Body Type
Somatotype and constitutional psychology
–
comparison of body types
17.
Neurocranium
–
In mammals, the neurocranium, also known as the braincase, brainpan, or brain-pan is the upper and back part of the skull. The skull can be divided into two parts, the neurocranium, which forms a case around the brain, and the facial skeleton. In the human skull, the neurocranium includes the calvaria or skullcap, the lower part of the skull is the facial skeleton, also known as the splanchnocranium. There may variably also be extra sutural bones present, below the neurocranium is a complex of openings and bones, including the foramen magnum which houses the neural spine. The auditory bullae, located in the region, aid in hearing. The size of the neurocranium is variable among mammals, the roof may contain ridges such as the temporal crests. The neurocranium arises from paraxial mesoderm, there is also some contribution of ectomesenchyme. In Chondrichthyes and other cartilaginous vertebrates this portion of the cranium does not ossify, the neurocranium is formed by the endocranium, the lower portions of the cranial vault, and the skull roof. These are not fused in fishes, and a proper neurocranium is only found in land vertebrates, the upper-frontmost part of the cranium also houses the evolutionarily newest part of the human brain, the frontal lobes
Neurocranium
–
Inner surface of
base of skull.
Neurocranium
–
The eight bones that form the human neurocranium.
Neurocranium
–
Neurocranium (labeled as "Brain case") and
facial bones.
18.
Brown hair
–
Brown hair is the second most common human hair color, after black hair. It varies from brown to almost black hair. It is characterized by higher levels of the dark pigment eumelanin and its strands are thicker than those of fair hair but not as much as those of red hair. People with brown hair are often referred to as brunette, which in French is the form of brunet. Brown hair is common among Australian Aborigines and Melanesians, although brunet is the masculine version of the popular diminutive form used to describe a little boy or young man with brown hair, the use of brunet is uncommon in English. One is more likely to say of a man or boy, He has brown hair or He is brown-haired, than to say, He is a brunette. The term brunette is the form of the French word brunet which is a diminutive form of brun meaning brown/brown-haired. All of these ultimately derive from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhrūn- brown. The form brun is still used in Scotland, particularly in rural areas. Rather, one would say, She has light brown hair, brown-haired individuals predominate in most parts of Europe. Brown hair, mostly medium to light brown shades, are dominant in Australia, Canada. Similarly to blond hair, brown hair occurs commonly among Australian Aborigine, dark brown hair is predominant in the Mediterranean parts of Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, Central Africa and in Southern Africa. Further East, very dark hair, easily mistaken for black hair. This is also true of Southern Cone of South America, the pigment eumelanin gives brown hair its distinctive color. Brown hair has more eumelanin than blond hair but also has less than black. There are two different types of eumelanin, which are distinguished from each other by their pattern of polymer bonds, the two types are black eumelanin and brown eumelanin. Black eumelanin is the darkest, brown eumelanin is much lighter than black, a small amount of black eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes grey hair. A small amount of brown eumelanin in the absence of other pigments causes yellow color hair, often, natural blond or red hair will darken to a brown color over time
Brown hair
–
Actress
Jennifer Connelly with dark brown hair
Brown hair
–
A close-up view of brown hair
Brown hair
–
Brown hair
Brown hair
–
cinnamon brown (
Afghan Nuristani girl)
19.
Black hair
–
Black hair is the darkest and most common of all human hair colors globally, due to larger populations with this dominant trait. It is a dominant genetic trait, and it is found in people of all backgrounds and it has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors. Sometimes very dark hair is mistaken for black. In English, black hair is described as soft-black, raven black. The range of colors associated with black hair is vast. Black-haired humans can have dark or light eyes and this is likely the original hair color of Homo sapiens, and is found in its greatest distribution in Asia, pre-Columbian Americas and Africa. Black hair is particularly common in people of Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Southern Europe. It is notably concentrated among Celtic peoples of Europe, Irish people with these traits are sometimes known as the Black Irish. Though this characteristic can be seen in people throughout the United Kingdom, Hair is naturally reflective, so black hair isnt completely dark in bright light. However, the darkest shade is deep enough that it doesnt give the reflection a warm, instead, the sheen can seem almost blue, like the iridescence of a ravens wing. Its found in people of African, Latin American, South Asian, human skin color Melanin Pigment Skin Moreno Hair color Hair dye Brown hair Frost, Why Do Europeans Have So Many Hair and Eye Colors. Black Hair, Still Tangled in Politics
Black hair
–
A woman with black hair
Black hair
–
Boy with black hair
Black hair
–
Girls with black hair
Black hair
–
Black hair
20.
Blond
–
Blond, blonde, or fair hair, is a hair color characterized by low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. The resultant visible hue depends on various factors, but always has some sort of yellowish color, the color can be from the very pale blond to reddish strawberry blond or golden-brownish blond colors. On the Fischer–Saller scale, blond color ranges from A to O, the word blond is first documented in English in 1481 and derives from Old French blund, blont meaning a colour midway between golden and light chestnut. It gradually eclipsed the native term fair, of meaning, from Old English fæġer. This earlier use of fair survives in the proper name Fairfax, the French word blond has two possible origins. Also, Old English beblonden meant dyed as ancient Germanic warriors were noted for dyeing their hair, however, linguists who favor a Latin origin for the word say that Medieval Latin blundus was a vulgar pronunciation of Latin flavus, also meaning yellow. Most authorities, especially French, attest the Frankish origin, the word was reintroduced into English in the 17th century from French, and was for some time considered French, in French, blonde is a feminine adjective, it describes a woman with blonde hair. Blond, with its continued gender-varied usage, is one of few adjectives in written English to retain separate masculine and feminine grammatical genders, each of the two forms, however, is pronounced identically. The Oxford English Dictionary records that the phrase big blond beast was used in the 20th century to refer specifically to men of the Nordic type. The OED also records that blond as an adjective is used with reference to women, in which case it is likely to be spelt blonde. By the early 1990s, blonde moment or being a dumb blonde had come into common parlance to mean an instance of a person, another hair color word of French origin, brunet, also functions in the same way in orthodox English. Brunette can be used, however, like blonde, to describe a mixed-gender populace, the OED quotes Grant Allen, The nation which resulted. Blond and blonde are also used to refer to objects that have a color reminiscent of fair hair. Various subcategories of blond hair have been defined to describe the different shades and sources of the color more accurately. Common examples include the following, ash-blond, ashen or grayish blond, bleached blond, bottle blond, or peroxide blond terms used to refer to artificially colored blond hair. Blond/flaxen, when distinguished from other varieties, blond by itself refers to a light but not whitish blond, with no traces of red, gold, or brown, dirty blond or dishwater blond, dark blond with flecks of golden blond and brown. Golden blond, a darker to rich, golden-yellow blond, honey blond or caramel blond, dark iridescent blond. Platinum blond or towheaded, whitish-blond, almost all platinum blonds are children, platinum blond is often used to describe bleached hair, while towheaded generally refers to natural hair color
Blond
–
A girl with light blond hair
Blond
–
Detail of a portrait of Crown Prince of Poland,
Sigismund Casimir Vasa (c. 1644), with characteristic blond hair which darkened with time as confirmed by his later effigies.
Blond
–
Blonds of different varieties at
WTMD 's
First Thursday series in
Canton, Baltimore,
Maryland, in June 2014
Blond
–
A young man with light blond hair
21.
Noric race
–
The concept of a Dinaric race originated with Joseph Deniker in the late 19th century, but became most closely associated with the writings of Carleton S. Coon and Nazi eugenicist Hans F. K. Günther. The term was derived from the Dinaric Alps which was supposed to be the habitat of the race. Characteristics were defined as very tall, mostly mesomorph bodily build, with long legs and short trunk. The type has been described as follows, The vertical height of the cranium is high, eyes are set relatively close and the surrounding tissue defines them as wide open. The iris is most often brown, with a significant percentage of light pigmentation in the Dinaric population, the nose is large, narrow and convex. The face is long and orthognathic, with a prominent chin, the form of the forehead is variable, but not rarely it is bulbous. The hair color is dark brown, with black-haired and blond individuals in minority, blondness being the characteristic of the more Central European. Several theories were advanced regarding the genesis of the Dinaric race, most researchers agreed that this race was autochthonous to its present habitat from the Neolithic period. Both Günther and Coon claimed that the Bell-Beaker people of the European Bronze Age were at least partially Dinaric and he referred to the creation of this distinctive phenotype from the mixing of earlier separate groups as dinaricisation. In his view Dinarics were a type that arose from ancient mixes of the Mediterranean race. The Noric race was a racial category proposed by the anthropologist Victor Lebzelter, the Noric race was supposed to be a lighter sub-type of the Dinaric race. The term derived from Noricum, a province of the Roman Empire roughly equivalent to southern Austria, the term is not to be confused with Nordic. Norics were characterized by tall stature, brachycephaly, nasal convexity, long face and their complexion was said to be light, and blondness combined with light eyes to be their anthropologic characteristic. Examples of Dinarics from Coons The Races of Europe Renato Biasutti on Caucasoid Subraces preserved at the Internet Archive
Noric race
–
An illustration showing a "Dinaric skull" from
Hans F. K. Günther 's Racial Elements of European History (1927)
Noric race
–
Joseph Deniker 's map of European races (1899) identified "Dinarics" as the dominant group in parts of
central Europe, Northern
Italy and the North West
Balkans.
22.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
23.
Balkans
–
The Balkan Peninsula, or the Balkans, is a peninsula and a cultural area in Eastern and Southeastern Europe with various and disputed borders. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the Serbia-Bulgaria border to the Black Sea, the highest point of the Balkans is Mount Musala 2,925 metres in the Rila mountain range. In Turkish, Balkan means a chain of wooded mountains, the name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. A less popular hypothesis regarding its etymology is that it derived from the Persian Balā-Khāna, from Antiquity through the Middle Ages, the Balkan Mountains had been called by the local Thracian name Haemus. According to Greek mythology, the Thracian king Haemus was turned into a mountain by Zeus as a punishment, a reverse name scheme has also been suggested. D. Dechev considers that Haemus is derived from a Thracian word *saimon, a third possibility is that Haemus derives from the Greek word haema meaning blood. The myth relates to a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with a thunder bolt and Typhons blood fell on the mountains, from which they got their name. The earliest mention of the name appears in an early 14th-century Arab map, the Ottomans first mention it in a document dated from 1565. There has been no other documented usage of the word to refer to the region before that, there is also a claim about an earlier Bulgar Turkic origin of the word popular in Bulgaria, however it is only an unscholarly assertion. The word was used by the Ottomans in Rumelia in its meaning of mountain, as in Kod̲j̲a-Balkan, Čatal-Balkan, and Ungurus-Balkani̊. The concept of the Balkans was created by the German geographer August Zeune in 1808, during the 1820s, Balkan became the preferred although not yet exclusive term alongside Haemus among British travelers. Among Russian travelers not so burdened by classical toponymy, Balkan was the preferred term, zeunes goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer and, to a large extent, after the dissolution of Yugoslavia beginning in June 1991, the term Balkans again received a negative meaning, especially in Croatia and Slovenia, even in casual usage. A European Union initiative of 1999 is called the Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe, and its northern boundary is often given as the Danube, Sava and Kupa Rivers. The Balkan Peninsula has an area of about 470,000 km2. It is more or less identical to the known as Southeastern Europe. As of 1920 until World War II, Italy included Istria, the current territory of Italy includes only the small area around Trieste inside the Balkan Peninsula. However, the regions of Trieste and Istria are not usually considered part of the Balkans by Italian geographers, the Western Balkans is a neologism coined to describe the countries of ex-Yugoslavia and Albania
Balkans
–
The Balkan Peninsula, as defined by the
Danube -
Sava -
Kupa line
Balkans
–
The Peninsula's most extensive definition, bordered by water on three sides and connected with a line on the fourth
Balkans
–
Panorama of
Stara Planina. Its highest peak is
Botev at a height of 2,376 m.
Balkans
–
View toward
Rila, the highest mountain in the Balkans which reaches 2925 m
24.
Neolithic
–
It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
Neolithic
–
An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. Neolithic stone artifacts are by definition polished and, except for specialty items, not chipped.
Neolithic
–
Algerian cave paintings depicting hunting scenes
Neolithic
–
Female figure from
Tumba Madžari,
Republic of Macedonia
Neolithic
–
Skara Brae, Scotland. Evidence of home furnishings (shelves)
25.
Beaker culture
–
The term was coined by John Abercromby, based on the cultures distinctive pottery drinking beakers. The Bell Beaker period marks a period of contact in Atlantic and Western Europe on a scale not seen previously. It has been suggested that the beakers were designed for the consumption of alcohol, beer and mead content have been identified from certain examples. However, not all Beakers were drinking cups, some were used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores, others have some organic residues associated with food, and still others were employed as funerary urns. They were used as status display amongst disparate elites, there have been numerous proposals by archaeologists as to the origins of the Bell Beaker culture, and debates continued on for decades. Several regions of origin have been postulated, notably the Iberian peninsula, similarly, scholars have postulated various mechanisms of spread, including migrations of populations, smaller warrior groups, individuals, or a diffusion of ideas and object exchange. Recent analyses have made significant inroads to understanding the Beaker phenomenon and they have concluded that the Bell Beaker phenomenon was a synthesis of elements, representing “an idea and style uniting different regions with different cultural traditions and background. An overview of all sources from southern Germany concluded that Bell Beaker was a new and independent culture in that area. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around the Tagus estuary in Portugal. Turek sees late Neolithic precursors in northern Africa, arguing the Maritime style emerged as a result of contacts between Iberia and Morocco in the first half of the third millennium BC. AOO and AOC Beakers appear to have evolved continually from a period in the lower Rhine and North Sea regions, at least for Northern. Furthermore, the ritual which typified Bell Beaker sites was intrusive into Western Europe. Such an arrangement is rather derivative of Corded Ware traditions although, instead of battle-axes, the initial moves from the Tagus estuary were maritime. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica, the enclave established in southern Brittany was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, and across the Gâtinais valley to the Seine valley, and thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, another pulse had brought Bell Beaker to Csepel Island in Hungary by about 2500 BC. But in contrast to the early Bell Beaker preference for the dagger and bow, here Bell Beaker people assimilated local pottery forms such as the polypod cup. These common ware types of pottery then spread in association with the bell beaker. From the Carpathian Basin Bell Beaker spread down the Rhine and eastwards into what is now Germany, by this time the Rhine was on the western edge of the vast Corded Ware zone
Beaker culture
–
The distinctive Bell Beaker pottery drinking vessels shaped like an inverted bell
Beaker culture
–
3,500 years old, 40 cm (16 in) high "Giant Beaker of Pavenstädt",
Gütersloh town museum, Germany
Beaker culture
–
Vessel from
Ciempozuelos (Spain) dated from the Bronze Age (
National Archaeological Museum of Spain,
Madrid)
Beaker culture
–
Reconstruction of a Beaker burial, (
M.A.N.,
Madrid)
26.
Bronze Age
–
The Bronze Age is a historical period characterized by the use of bronze, proto-writing, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the principal period of the three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system, as proposed in modern times by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen. An ancient civilization is defined to be in the Bronze Age either by smelting its own copper and alloying with tin, arsenic, or other metals, or by trading for bronze from production areas elsewhere. Copper-tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze began in the third millennium BC. Worldwide, the Bronze Age generally followed the Neolithic period, with the Chalcolithic serving as a transition, although the Iron Age generally followed the Bronze Age, in some areas, the Iron Age intruded directly on the Neolithic. Bronze Age cultures differed in their development of the first writing, according to archaeological evidence, cultures in Mesopotamia and Egypt developed the earliest viable writing systems. The overall period is characterized by use of bronze, though the place and time of the introduction. Human-made tin bronze technology requires set production techniques, tin must be mined and smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a time of use of metals. The dating of the foil has been disputed, the Bronze Age in the ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy and mathematics, the usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used. Instead, a division based on art-historical and historical characteristics is more common. The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people, ur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The earliest mention of Babylonia appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC, the Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over 100 years later, it took over the other city-states. Babylonia adopted the written Semitic Akkadian language for official use, by that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use. Elam was an ancient civilization located to the east of Mesopotamia, in the Old Elamite period, Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was centered in Susa in the Khuzestan lowlands. Its culture played a role in the Gutian Empire and especially during the Achaemenid dynasty that succeeded it
Bronze Age
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert,
Israel.
Bronze Age
–
Diffusion of metallurgy in
Europe and
Asia Minor. The darkest areas are the oldest.
Bronze Age
–
A
Shang Dynasty two-handled bronze gefuding gui (1600–1046 BC).
Bronze Age
–
Spring and Autumn Period pu bronze vessel with interlaced
dragon design (722–481 BC)
27.
Alpine race
–
The origin of the Alpine race was variously identified. Ripley argued that it migrated from Central Asia during the Neolithic revolution, splitting the Nordic and it was also identified as descending from the Celts residing in central Europe in Neolithic times. The term Alpine has historically given to denote a physical type within the Caucasian race, first defined by William Z. Ripley. It is equivalent to Joseph Denikers Occidental or Cevenole subrace and Jan Czekanowski identified it, in the early 20th century the Alpine physical type was popularised by numerous anthropologists, such as Thomas Griffith Taylor and Madison Grant, as well as in Soviet era anthropology. The German Nazi Party under the direction of Hans F. K. Hitler was so impressed by this work by Günther. Mussolini is a representative of our Alpine race. It however fell out of popularity by the 1950s, but reappeared in the literature of Sonia Mary Cole, in more recent sources, a very small array of anthropologists accustomed with such usage, still use the term. The Alpine race is mainly distinguished by its cranial measurements, such as high cephalic index, a typical Alpine skull is therefore regarded as brachycephalic. As well as being broad in the crania, this thickness appears generally elsewhere in the morphology of the Alpine, as Hans Günther describes. the Alpine race is thick-set, the average height of the Alpine man is about 1.63 metres. This small height is brought about by the short, squat legs. This broadness and shortness is repeated in all the details, in the broadness of the hand and its fingers, in the short, broad feet, in the thick. Ripley further notes that the nose of the Alpine is more broad while their hair is usually a chestnut colour, according to Robert Bennett Bean the skin pigmentation of the Alpine is an intermediate white, a colour in-between the lighter skinned Nordic and the darker skinned Mediterranean. Despite the large numbers of alleged Alpines, the characteristics of the Alpines were not as widely discussed as those of the Nordics and Mediterraneans. Typically they were portrayed as sedentary, solid peasant stock, the backbone of the European population. Madison Grant, insisted on their essentially peasant character, according to Ripley and Coon, the Alpine race is predominant in Central/Southern/Eastern Europe and parts of Western/Central Asia. Ripley argued that the Alpines had originated in Asia, and had spread westwards along with the emergence and expansion of agriculture, which they established in Europe. This model was repeated in Madison Grants book The Passing of the Great Race, in which the Alpines were portrayed as the most populous of European and western Asian races. Close approximations to this type appear also in the Balkans and in the highlands of western and central Asia, in modern races it sometimes appears in a relatively pure form, sometimes as an element in mixed brachycephalic populations of multiple origin
Alpine race
–
Rundstedt, Mussolini and Hitler, Russia 1941. Hitler identified Mussolini as part of the Alpine race
Alpine race
–
An
Austrian as an example of the Alpine type of the Caucasoid race -
William Z. Ripley The Races of Europe (1899)
Alpine race
–
Henry Keane 's Man, Past and Present (1899) shows a
Tajik as an example of the Alpine type
Alpine race
–
Meyers Blitz-Lexikon (
Leipzig, 1932) shows the
German cartographer
Heinrich Kiepert as an example of the Alpine type
28.
Croatia
–
Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a sovereign state between Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and the Mediterranean. Its capital city is Zagreb, which one of the countrys primary subdivisions. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres and has diverse, mostly continental, Croatias Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The countrys population is 4.28 million, most of whom are Croats, the Croats arrived in the area of present-day Croatia during the early part of the 7th century AD. They organised the state into two duchies by the 9th century, tomislav became the first king by 925, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Petar Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir, Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest, the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs which seceded from Austria-Hungary, a fascist Croatian puppet state backed by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany existed during World War II. After the war, Croatia became a member and a federal constituent of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991 Croatia declared independence, which came wholly into effect on 8 October of the same year, the Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration. A unitary state, Croatia is a republic governed under a parliamentary system, the International Monetary Fund classified Croatia as an emerging and developing economy, and the World Bank identified it as a high-income economy. Croatia is a member of the European Union, United Nations, the Council of Europe, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the service sector dominates Croatias economy, followed by the industrial sector and agriculture. Tourism is a significant source of revenue during the summer, with Croatia ranked the 18th most popular tourist destination in the world, the state controls a part of the economy, with substantial government expenditure. The European Union is Croatias most important trading partner, since 2000, the Croatian government constantly invests in infrastructure, especially transport routes and facilities along the Pan-European corridors. Internal sources produce a significant portion of energy in Croatia, the rest is imported, the origin of the name is uncertain, but is thought to be a Gothic or Indo-Aryan term assigned to a Slavic tribe. The oldest preserved record of the Croatian ethnonym *xъrvatъ is of variable stem, the first attestation of the Latin term is attributed to a charter of Duke Trpimir from the year 852. The original is lost, and just a 1568 copy is preserved—leading to doubts over the authenticity of the claim, the oldest preserved stone inscription is the 9th-century Branimir Inscription, where Duke Branimir is styled as Dux Cruatorvm. The inscription is not believed to be dated accurately, but is likely to be from during the period of 879–892, the area known as Croatia today was inhabited throughout the prehistoric period
Croatia
–
Branimir Inscription
Croatia
–
Flag
Croatia
–
Tanais Tablet B, name Khoroáthos highlighted
Croatia
–
The
walls of Dubrovnik helped to defend the city since
Middle Ages until the
1991–1992 siege.
29.
Serbia
–
Serbia, officially the Republic of Serbia, is a sovereign state situated at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Pannonian Plain and the central Balkans. Relative to its territory, it is a diverse country distinguished by a transitional character, situated along cultural, geographic, climatic. Serbia numbers around 7 million residents, and its capital, Belgrade, following the Slavic migrations to the Balkans from the 6th century onwards, Serbs established several states in the early Middle Ages. The Serbian Kingdom obtained recognition by Rome and the Byzantine Empire in 1217, in the early 19th century, the Serbian Revolution established the nation-state as the regions first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory. During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Serbia formed a union with Montenegro which dissolved peacefully in 2006, in 2008 the parliament of the province of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence, with mixed responses from the international community. Serbia is a member of organizations such as the UN, CoE, OSCE, PfP, BSEC. An EU membership candidate since 2012, Serbia has been negotiating its EU accession since January 2014, the country is acceding to the WTO and is a militarily neutral state. Serbia is an income economy with dominant service sector, followed by the industrial sector. The country ranks high on the Social Progress Index as well as the Global Peace Index, relatively high on the Human Development Index, located at the crossroads between Central and Southern Europe, Serbia is found in the Balkan peninsula and the Pannonian Plain. Serbia lies between latitudes 41° and 47° N, and longitudes 18° and 23° E. The country covers a total of 88,361 km2, which places it at 113th place in the world, with Kosovo excluded, the area is 77,474 km2. Its total border length amounts to 2,027 km, all of Kosovos border with Albania, Macedonia and Montenegro are under control of the Kosovo border police. The Pannonian Plain covers the third of the country while the easternmost tip of Serbia extends into the Wallachian Plain. The terrain of the part of the country, with the region of Šumadija at its heart. Mountains dominate the third of Serbia. Dinaric Alps stretch in the west and the southwest, following the flow of the rivers Drina, the Carpathian Mountains and Balkan Mountains stretch in a north–south direction in eastern Serbia. Ancient mountains in the southeast corner of the country belong to the Rilo-Rhodope Mountain system, elevation ranges from the Midžor peak of the Balkan Mountains at 2,169 metres to the lowest point of just 17 metres near the Danube river at Prahovo. The largest lake is Đerdap Lake and the longest river passing through Serbia is the Danube, the climate of Serbia is under the influences of the landmass of Eurasia and the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea
Serbia
–
Clay figure from
Vinča culture, 4000–4500 BC, British Museum
Serbia
–
Flag
Serbia
–
Felix Romuliana,
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Serbia
–
Temnić inscription, is one of the oldest records of
Old Church Slavonic Cyrillic script from the territory of Serbia.
30.
Montenegro
–
Montenegro is a sovereign state in Southeastern Europe. Its capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is designated as the Old Royal Capital. In the 9th century, three Slavic principalities were in the territory of Montenegro, Duklja, roughly corresponding to the half, Travunia, the west, and Rascia. In 1042, archon Stefan Vojislav led a revolt that resulted in the independence of Duklja, Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislavs son, Mihailo, and his grandson Bodin. By the 13th century, Zeta had replaced Duklja when referring to the realm. In the late 14th century, southern Montenegro came under the rule of the Balšić noble family, then the Crnojević noble family, large portions fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1496 to 1878. Parts were controlled by Venice and the First French Empire and Austria-Hungary, from 1515 until 1851, the prince-bishops of Cetinje were the rulers. The House of Petrović-Njegoš ruled the country from 1697 to 1918, from 1918, it was a part of Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was succeeded by SFR Yugoslavia in 1945, FR Yugoslavia in 1992, and subsequently by the state union of Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. On the basis of a referendum held on 21 May 2006. Montenegro is also a candidate negotiating to join the European Union, on 2 December 2015, Montenegro received an official invitation to join NATO, whereby it would be the 29th member country. This invitation was meant to start accession talks. The countrys name in most Western European languages reflects an adaptation of the Venetian Montenegro, many other languages, particularly nearby ones, use their own direct translation of the term black mountain. Examples are the Albanian name for the country, Mali i Zi, the Greek name Μαυροβούνιο, the Chinese name 黑山, all Slavic languages use slight variations on the Montenegrin name Crna Gora, examples include the Czech Černá Hora and the Polish Czarnogóra. Chechen and Ingush people call the country Ӏаьржаламанчоь, the name Crna Gora came to denote the majority of contemporary Montenegro only in the 15th century. The aforementioned region became known as Old Montenegro by the 19th century to distinguish it from the acquired territory of Brda. Its borders have changed little since then, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor, the ISO Alpha-2 code for Montenegro is ME and the Alpha-3 Code is MNE. By 1000 BC, a common Illyrian language and culture had spread across much of the Balkans, interaction amongst groups was not always friendly – hill forts were the most common form of settlement – but distinctive Illyrian art forms such as amber and bronze jewellery evolved. In time, the Illyrians established a federation of tribes centred in what is now Macedonia
Montenegro
–
Royal family at the proclamation of the Kingdom of Montenegro, King
Nicholas I of Montenegro in the middle
Montenegro
–
Flag
Montenegro
–
Monument in the Montenegrin capital of
Podgorica, on the Gorica hill, commemorates the partisan struggle during World War II
Montenegro
–
Establishment of the Eighth
Yugoslav Partisans Brigade of Montenegro in Berane, on 25 February in 1944
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