1.
Chasmosaurus
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Chasmosaurus is a genus of ceratopsid dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous Period of North America. Its name means opening lizard, referring to the openings in its frill. With a length of 4. 3–4.8 metres and a weight of 1. 5–2 tonnes, like all ceratopsians, it was purely herbivorous. It was initially to be called Protorosaurus, but this name had previously published for another animal. All specimens of Chasmosaurus were collected from the Dinosaur Park Formation of the Dinosaur Provincial Park of Alberta, C. russelli comes from the lower beds of the formation while C. belli comes from middle and upper beds. In 2010 G. S. Paul estimated the length of C. belli at 4.8 metres, the known differences between the two species mainly pertain to the horn and frill shape, as the postcrania of C. russelli are poorly known. Like many ceratopsians, Chasmosaurus had three main facial horns - one on the nose and two on the brow, in both species these horns are quite short, but with C. russelli they are somewhat longer, especially the brow horns, and more curved backwards. The frill of Chasmosaurus is very elongated and broader at the rear than at the front and it is hardly elevated from the plane of the snout. With C. belli the rear of the frill is V-shaped, with C. russelli the rear edge is shaped as a shallow U, and the sides are more convex. The sides were adorned by six to nine smaller skin ossifications or osteoderms, the corner of the frill featured two larger osteoderms on the parietal bone. With C. russelli the outer one was the largest, with C. belli the inner one, the remainder of the rear edge lacked osteoderms. The parietal bones of the frill were pierced by large openings, after which the genus was named. These were not oval in shape, as with most relatives, the Chasmosaurus specimen NMC2245 recovered by C. M. Sternberg was accompanied by skin impressions. The area conserved, from the hip region, measured about one by 0.5 metres. The skin appears to have had large scales in evenly spaced horizontal rows among smaller scales, the larger scales had a diameter of up to fifty-five millimetres and were distanced from each other by five to ten centimetres. They were hexagonal or pentagonal, thus with five or six sides, each of these sides touched somewhat smaller scales, forming a rosette. Small, non-overlapping convex scales of one centimetre in diameter surrounded the whole. The larger scales were wrinkled due to straight grooves orientated perpendicular to their edges, from top to bottom, the large scale rows gradually declined in size
2.
Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology
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The Royal Tyrrell Museum is a Canadian tourist attraction and a centre of palaeontological research noted for its collection of more than 130,000 fossils. The Royal Tyrrell Museum is operated by Albertas Ministry of Culture, the Museum is named in honour of Joseph Burr Tyrrell, a geologist who accidentally discovered the first reported dinosaur fossil in the Red Deer River valley in 1884 while searching for coal seams. The carnivorous dinosaur was later named Albertosaurus sarcophagus, the museum opened September 25,1985 and was given Royal status in 1990. More than 4,400 square metres of the museums 11,200 square metres is dedicated to exhibits in a series of chronological galleries celebrating the 3. 9-billion-year-history of life on Earth. One of the most popular is Dinosaur Hall, with over 40 mounted dinosaur skeletons, including specimens of Tyrannosaurus rex, Albertosaurus, Stegosaurus, also on display is the Triassic Giant, a 1,700 square feet specimen of the worlds largest known marine reptile. This exhibit pays homage to the work of Nicholls, who died in 2004, a window into the Preparation Lab allows visitors to watch technicians as they prepare fossils for research and exhibition. The Museum is affiliated with, CMA, CHIN, and Virtual Museum of Canada
3.
County of Newell
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The County of Newell is a municipal district in southern Alberta, Canada. 2, its office is located south of the City of Brooks. It was incorporated as the County of Newell No.4 on January 1,1953, through the amalgamation of the Municipal District of Newell No.28 and its name was changed to the County of Newell on September 9,2011. With a land area of 5,904.67 km2, it had a population density of 1. 3/km2 in 2016. In the 2011 Census, the County of Newell had a population of 6,786 living in 2,220 of its 2,480 total dwellings, a -1% change from its 2006 adjusted population of 6,852. With a land area of 5,904.72 km2, following the 2013 dissolution of the Village of Tilly, Statistics Canada adjusted the County of Newells 2011 population upward by 352 people to 7,138. The population of the County of Newell according to its 2009 municipal census is 7,101, in 2006, the County of Newell had a population of 6,862 living in 2,366 dwellings, a 3. 9% decrease from 2001. The county has an area of 5,903.47 km2. In 2001, the district had a population of 7,137 in 2,365 dwellings. On a surface area of 5,902.63 km², List of communities in Alberta List of municipal districts in Alberta Official website
4.
Special Area No. 2
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Special Area No.2 is a special area in southern Alberta, Canada. It is a rural municipality similar to a district, however. Special Area 2 has two parks, Little Fish Lake Provincial Park, and the portion of Dinosaur Provincial Park north of the Red Deer River. Lakes include Little Fish Lake, Dowling Lake, and the portion of Sullivan Lake. With a land area of 9,347.57 km2, it had a population density of 0. 2/km2 in 2016. In the 2011 Census, Special Area No.2 had a population of 2,025 living in 698 of its 745 total dwellings, with a land area of 9,342.42 km2, it had a population density of 0. 2/km2 in 2011
5.
Brooks, Alberta
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Brooks is a city in southeast Alberta, Canada, surrounded by the County of Newell. It is located on Highway 1 and the Canadian Pacific Railway, approximately 186 km southeast of Calgary, the city has an elevation of 760 m. The area that is now Brooks was originally used as a hunting ground for the Blackfoot. After Treaty 7 was signed in 1877, homesteaders moved into the area to begin farming, before 1904, the area still did not have a name. Through a Postmaster General-sponsored contest, the area was named after Noel Edgell Brooks, Brooks incorporated as a village on July 14,1910, and then as a town on September 8,1911. Its population in the 1911 Census of Canada was 486, in the 1996 Census, the population of Brooks reached 10,093 making it eligible for city status. Brooks incorporated as a city on September 1,2005 when its population was 11,604. In 2010, Brooks celebrated its centennial as a municipality since originally incorporating as a village in 1910, with a land area of 18.59 km2, it had a population density of 777. 4/km2 in 2016. The population of the City of Brooks according to its 2015 municipal census is 14,185, a change of 4. 4% from its 2007 municipal census population of 13,581. In the 2011 Census, the City of Brooks had a population of 13,676 living in 5,037 of its 5,509 total dwellings, with a land area of 18.19 km2, it had a population density of 751. 8/km2 in 2011. The documentary was called Brooks – The City of 100 Hellos and was created in 2010 for Omni Television, the communitys multicultural character was also the subject of a 2007 National Film Board of Canada documentary,24 Days in Brooks, directed by Dana Inkster. Brooks is located in the Grassland Natural Region of Alberta, the area surrounding Brooks is dry mixed grass/shortgrass prairie. Located in the region known as the Pallisers Triangle, Brooks has a semi-arid climate. Winters are dry and cold, with little snowfall compared to the rest of Canada, chinook winds, though less common than in areas west and especially southwest of Brooks, are not uncommon, and ameliorate the cold winter temperatures temporarily when they pass over. Wide diurnal temperature ranges are regular, due to the aridity, low humidity is prevalent throughout the year. Most of the relatively scant annual precipitation occurs in spring and summer. On average, the coldest month is January, with a temperature of −10.1 °C, while the warmest is July. The driest month is February, with a monthly precipitation of 9.1 mm, while the wettest month is June
6.
Alberta
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Alberta is a western province of Canada. With an estimated population of 4,196,457 as of July 1,2015, it is Canadas fourth-most populous province and its area is about 660,000 square kilometres. Alberta and its neighbour Saskatchewan were districts of the Northwest Territories until they were established as provinces on September 1,1905, the premier has been Rachel Notley since May 2015. Alberta is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia to the west and Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U. S. state of Montana to the south. Alberta is one of three Canadian provinces and territories to only a single U. S. state and one of only two landlocked provinces. About 290 km south of the capital is Calgary, the largest city in Alberta, Calgary and Edmonton centre Albertas two census metropolitan areas, both of which have populations exceeding one million, while the province has 16 census agglomerations. Tourist destinations in the province include Banff, Canmore, Drumheller, Jasper, Alberta is named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta, the fourth daughter of Victoria, Queen of Canada, and Albert, Prince Consort. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. Alberta, with an area of 661,848 km2, is the fourth largest province after Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia. To the south, the borders on the 49th parallel north, separating it from the US state of Montana. The province extends 1,223 km north to south and 660 km east to west at its maximum width, with the exception of the semi-arid steppe of the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes used for swimming, fishing, there are three large lakes, Lake Claire in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake, and Lake Athabasca which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River which travels 1,538 km from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca, the largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of 2161 m3/s. The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, Albertas capital city, Edmonton, is located approximately in the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly city in Canada, and serves as a gateway. The region, with its proximity to Canadas largest oil fields, has most of western Canadas oil refinery capacity, Calgary is located approximately 280 km south of Edmonton and 240 km north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the served as a means to populate the province in its early years
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Alberta Tourism, Parks and Recreation
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Alberta Culture and Tourism is a ministry of the Executive Council of Alberta. It was created on September 15,2014, and is responsible for Alberta’s cultural industries, tourism, the culture, tourism, and recreation functions of Albertas government have on several occasions in past been overseen by separate ministers. They have also been, more than once, sections within the portfolio of the same minister and they have also each been joined to still other government departments at various points. A separate tourism ministry goes back at least to 1968 when Allen R. Patrick was named Minister of Industry, from 1971 to 1975, tourism as an issue was assigned to a minister without a portfolio, and there was no separate tourism department. In 1979 Tourism and Small Business became a ministry, renamed simply Tourism in 1985. In the major restructuring of 1992, Tourism was reunited with Economic Development, Parks and this situation was mostly static for the next two decades. The ministry was known as Alberta Tourism, Parks, and Recreation from 2006 to 2014, the Cultural Affairs Department was founded in 1975 by Order in Council 518/1975, under the authority of the Public Service Administrative Transfers Act. The minister responsible for this was known as the Minister Responsible for Culture, Minister of Culture and this contained all of the current components of the ministry. From 2006 to 2008 this ministry was renamed Alberta Tourism, Parks, Recreation, on March 12,2008 culture was broken out in a new ministry called Alberta Culture and Community Spirit. In 2014, Culture was reunited with Tourism, but this time without Alberta Parks, travel Alberta divided the province into five tourism regions, Canadian Badlands Canadian Rockies Central Alberta Northern Alberta Southern Alberta List of Alberta provincial parks
9.
International Union for Conservation of Nature
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The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying. IUCNs mission is to influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of resources is equitable. Over the past decades, IUCN has widened its focus beyond conservation ecology and now incorporates issues related to equality, poverty alleviation. Unlike other international NGOs, IUCN does not itself aim to mobilize the public in support of nature conservation and it tries to influence the actions of governments, business and other stakeholders by providing information and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships. The organization is best known to the public for compiling and publishing the IUCN Red List. IUCN has a membership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organizations, some 11,000 scientists and experts participate in the work of IUCN commissions on a voluntary basis. It employs approximately 1000 full-time staff in more than 60 countries and its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland. IUCN has observer and consultative status at the United Nations, and plays a role in the implementation of several conventions on nature conservation. It was involved in establishing the World Wide Fund for Nature, in the past, IUCN has been criticized for placing the interests of nature over those of indigenous peoples. In recent years, its relations with the business sector have caused controversy. It was previously called the International Union for Protection of Nature, establishment In 1947, the Swiss League for the Protection of Nature organised an international conference on the protection of nature in Brunnen. It is considered to be the first government-organized non-governmental organization, the initiative to set up the new organisation came from UNESCO and especially from its first Director General, the British biologist Julian Huxley. At the time of its founding IUPN was the international organisation focusing on the entire spectrum of nature conservation Early years. Its secretariat was located in Brussels and its first work program focused on saving species and habitats, increasing and applying knowledge, advancing education, promoting international agreements and promoting conservation. Providing a solid base for conservation action was the heart of all activities. IUPN and UNESCO were closely associated and they jointly organized the 1949 Conference on Protection of Nature. In preparation for this conference a list of endangered species was drawn up for the first time
10.
Natural monument
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A natural monument is a natural or natural/cultural feature of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative of aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value and this is a lower level of protection than level II and level I. The European Environment Agencys guidelines for selection of a natural monument are, the area should be large enough to protect the integrity of the feature and its immediately related surroundings
11.
World Heritage Site
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A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
12.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
13.
UNESCO
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The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. It is the heir of the League of Nations International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation, UNESCO has 195 member states and nine associate members. Most of its offices are cluster offices covering three or more countries, national and regional offices also exist. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs, education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and it is also a member of the United Nations Development Group. UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, on 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education began work as a non-governmental organization in the service of international educational development. However, the work of predecessor organizations was largely interrupted by the onset of World War II. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944, a prominent figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom. At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, the Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCOs Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state. The first General Conference took place between 19 November to 10 December 1946, and elected Dr. Julian Huxley to Director-General and this change in governance distinguished UNESCO from its predecessor, the CICI, in how member states would work together in the organizations fields of competence. In 1956, the Republic of South Africa withdrew from UNESCO claiming that some of the organizations publications amounted to interference in the racial problems. South Africa rejoined the organization in 1994 under the leadership of Nelson Mandela, UNESCOs early work in the field of education included the pilot project on fundamental education in the Marbial Valley, Haiti, started in 1947. This project was followed by missions to other countries, including, for example. In 1948, UNESCO recommended that Member States should make free primary education compulsory, in 1990, the World Conference on Education for All, in Jomtien, Thailand, launched a global movement to provide basic education for all children, youths and adults. Ten years later, the 2000 World Education Forum held in Dakar, Senegal, UNESCOs early activities in culture included, for example, the Nubia Campaign, launched in 1960. The purpose of the campaign was to move the Great Temple of Abu Simbel to keep it from being swamped by the Nile after construction of the Aswan Dam, during the 20-year campaign,22 monuments and architectural complexes were relocated. This was the first and largest in a series of campaigns including Mohenjo-daro, Fes, Kathmandu, Borobudur, the organizations work on heritage led to the adoption, in 1972, of the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. The World Heritage Committee was established in 1976 and the first sites inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1978, since then important legal instruments on cultural heritage and diversity have been adopted by UNESCO member states in 2003 and 2005
14.
Calgary
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Calgary is a city in the Canadian province of Alberta. It is situated at the confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the south of the province, in an area of foothills and prairie, the city anchors the south end of what Statistics Canada defines as the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The city had a population of 1,239,220 in 2016, making it Albertas largest city, also in 2016, Calgary had a metropolitan population of 1,392,609, making it the fourth-largest census metropolitan area in Canada. The Calgary CMA is home to the second-highest number of head offices in Canada among the countrys 800 largest corporations. In 1988, Calgary became the first Canadian city to host the Winter Olympic Games, Calgary was named after Calgary on the Isle of Mull, Scotland. In turn, the name originates from a compound of kald and gart, similar Old Norse words, meaning cold and garden, alternatively, the name might be Gaelic Cala ghearraidh, meaning beach of the meadow, or Gaelic for either clear running water or bay farm. The Calgary area was inhabited by people whose presence has been traced back at least 11,000 years. Before the arrival of Europeans, the area was inhabited by the Blackfoot, Blood, Peigan, in 1787, cartographer David Thompson spent the winter with a band of Peigan encamped along the Bow River. He was a Hudsons Bay Company trader and the first recorded European to visit the area, John Glenn was the first documented European settler in the Calgary area, in 1873. The site became a post of the North-West Mounted Police, the NWMP detachment was assigned in 1875 to protect the western plains from US whisky traders, and to protect the fur trade. Originally named Fort Brisebois, after NWMP officer Éphrem-A, Brisebois, it was renamed Fort Calgary in 1876 by Colonel James Macleod. When the Canadian Pacific Railway reached the area in 1883, over a century later, the Canadian Pacific Railway headquarters moved to Calgary from Montreal in 1996. Calgary was officially incorporated as a town in 1884, and elected its first mayor, in 1894, it was incorporated as The City of Calgary in what was then the North-West Territories. The Calgary Police Service was established in 1885 and assumed municipal, local duties from the NWMP, the Calgary Fire of 1886 occurred on November 7,1886. Fourteen buildings were destroyed with losses estimated at $103,200, although no one was killed or injured, city officials drafted a law requiring all large downtown buildings to be built with Paskapoo sandstone, to prevent this from happening again. After the arrival of the railway, the Dominion Government started leasing grazing land at minimal cost, as a result of this policy, large ranching operations were established in the outlying country near Calgary. Already a transportation and distribution hub, Calgary quickly became the centre of Canadas cattle marketing and meatpacking industries. By the late 19th century, the Hudsons Bay Company expanded into the interior and established posts along rivers that later developed into the cities of Winnipeg, Calgary
15.
Red Deer River
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The Red Deer River is a river in Alberta and a small portion of Saskatchewan, Canada. It is a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River and is part of the larger Saskatchewan-Nelson system that empties into Hudson Bay. Red Deer River has a length of 724 kilometres and a drainage area of 45,100 square kilometres. Its mean discharge is 70 cubic metres per second, the river got its name from the translation of Was-ka-soo which means elk river in the Cree. Communities located along the Red Deer River include Sundre, Red Deer, Drumheller, a glacial flood about 18,000 years ago eroded out a portion of this basin and apparently all or most of the scenic badlands bearing the dinosaur and other Cretaceous fossils. Joseph Tyrrell discovered a coal seam here in 1883, besides large dinosaur skeletons. Twenty-four municipalities declared local states of emergency as water levels rose, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police stated four people may have drowned near High River. Over 100,000 people have been displaced throughout the region, at Drumheller it has a south-east direction, and while it flows through Dinosaur Provincial Park it turns east and flows to the Alberta/Saskatchewan border, which it crosses at Empress. It flows for 16 kilometres through Saskatchewan before it merges into the South Saskatchewan River, the waters of Ewing Lake, Little Fish Lake also flow into the Red Deer River. Sport fish include, northern pike, sauger, lake whitefish, yellow perch, burbot, lake sturgeon, mountain whitefish, goldeye, brown trout, bull trout, rainbow trout, brook trout, and cutthroat trout. The Red Deer River is the source for the City of Red Deer, Alberta. Pipelines cross under the river and there have been leaks disrupting access to potable water, about 75 to 125 barrels of crude oil flowed upstream from the breakpoint under a Red Deer River channel, leaving an oily sheen on Gleniffer Reservoir and 6800 kilograms of oil-soaked debris. The remediation was not completed until 2011, List of crossings of the Red Deer River List of longest rivers of Canada List of rivers of Alberta List of rivers of Saskatchewan Glacial Lake Bassano
16.
Badlands
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Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been extensively eroded by wind and water. They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith and they can resemble malpaís, a terrain of volcanic rock. Canyons, ravines, gullies, buttes, mesas, hoodoos and they are often difficult to navigate by foot. Badlands often have a color display that alternates from dark black/blue coal stria to be bright clays to red scoria. Badlands are partially characterized by their thin to nonexistent regolith layers, the regolith profiles of badlands in arid climates are likely to resemble one another. In these regions, the layer is typically composed of silt, shale. This layer can form either a compact crust or a looser, Badlands such as those found in the Mancos Shale, the Brule Formation, the Chadron Formation, and the Dinosaur Provincial Park can be generally said to fit this profile. In less arid regions, however, the regolith profile can vary considerably, some badlands have no regolith layer whatsoever, capping instead in bare rock such as sandstone. Others have a regolith with a clay veneer, and still others have a biological crust of algae or lichens, in addition to lacking significant regolith, they also lack much vegetation. The lack of vegetation could very well be a result of the lack of a substantial regolith, the formation of badlands is a result of two processes, deposition and erosion. The process of deposition describes the accumulation, over time, of layers of mineral material, different environments such as seas, rivers, or tropical zones, deposit different sorts of clays, silts, and sand. Once the deposited sediments have solidified, the material becomes subject to erosion. It is sometimes taught that badlands erode at a steady rate of about 1 inch per year. In actuality, the processes by which the erosion responses take place vary depending on the precise interbedding of the sedimentary material. In 2010, researchers at Badlands National Park initiated a 3-year project to learn more about the erosion rate of the specific badlands found in that park. Some of the best-known badland formations can be found in Canada, in the U. S. Makoshika State Park in Montana and Badlands National Park in South Dakota together form a series of extensive badland formations. Among the Henry Mountains area, about 1500m above sea level, Cretaceous, another popular area of badland formations is Toadstool Geologic Park in the Oglala National Grassland of northwestern Nebraska. Dinosaur National Monument in Colorado and Utah are also badlands settings, a small badland called Hells Half-Acre is present in Natrona County, Wyoming
17.
Dinosaur
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Dinosaurs are a diverse group of reptiles of the clade Dinosauria that first appeared during the Triassic. Although the exact origin and timing of the evolution of dinosaurs is the subject of active research and they became the dominant terrestrial vertebrates after the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 201 million years ago. Their dominance continued through the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods and ended when the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event led to the extinction of most dinosaur groups 66 million years ago, until the late 20th century, all groups of dinosaurs were believed to be extinct. As such, birds were the dinosaur lineage to survive the mass extinction event. This article deals primarily with non-avian dinosaurs, Dinosaurs are a varied group of animals from taxonomic, morphological and ecological standpoints. Birds, at over 10,000 living species, are the most diverse group of vertebrates besides perciform fish, using fossil evidence, paleontologists have identified over 500 distinct genera and more than 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs. Dinosaurs are represented on every continent by both extant species and fossil remains, while dinosaurs were ancestrally bipedal, many extinct groups included quadrupedal species, and some were able to shift between these stances. Elaborate display structures such as horns or crests are common to all dinosaur groups, evidence suggests that egg laying and nest building are additional traits shared by all dinosaurs.7 meters and heights of 18 meters and were the largest land animals of all time. Still, the idea that dinosaurs were uniformly gigantic is a misconception based in part on preservation bias, as large. Many dinosaurs were small, Xixianykus, for example, was only about 50 cm long. Through the first half of the 20th century, before birds were recognized to be dinosaurs, most of the community believed dinosaurs to have been sluggish. Most research conducted since the 1970s, however, has indicated that all dinosaurs were active animals with elevated metabolisms and numerous adaptations for social interaction. The large sizes of some groups, as well as their seemingly monstrous and fantastic nature, have ensured dinosaurs regular appearance in best-selling books and films. Persistent public enthusiasm for the animals has resulted in significant funding for dinosaur science, the term is derived from the Greek words δεινός and σαῦρος. Though the taxonomic name has often interpreted as a reference to dinosaurs teeth, claws. Instead, dinosaurs, like many forms of reptile sub-groups, did not exhibit characteristics which were traditionally regarded as reptilian. Under phylogenetic nomenclature, dinosaurs are usually defined as the group consisting of Triceratops, Neornithes, their most recent common ancestor, Birds are now recognized as being the sole surviving lineage of theropod dinosaurs. In traditional taxonomy, birds were considered a class that had evolved from dinosaurs
18.
Spore
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In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavorable conditions. Spores form part of the cycles of many plants, algae, fungi. Bacterial spores are not part of a sexual cycle but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions, spores are usually haploid and unicellular and are produced by meiosis in the sporangium of a diploid sporophyte. Under favourable conditions the spore can develop into a new organism using mitotic division, producing a multicellular gametophyte, two gametes fuse to form a zygote which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as alternation of generations, the term spore derives from the ancient Greek word σπορά spora, meaning seed, sowing, related to σπόρος sporos, sowing, and σπείρειν speirein, to sow. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes, vascular plant spores are always haploid. Vascular plants are either homosporous or heterosporous, plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type. Spores can be classified in several ways, In fungi and fungus-like organisms, spores are often classified by the structure in which meiosis, since fungi are often classified according to their spore-producing structures, these spores are often characteristic of a particular taxon of the fungi. Sporangiospores, spores produced by a sporangium in many such as zygomycetes. Zygospores, spores produced by a zygosporangium, characteristic of zygomycetes, ascospores, spores produced by an ascus, characteristic of ascomycetes. Basidiospores, spores produced by a basidium, characteristic of basidiomycetes, aeciospores, spores produced by an aecium in some fungi such as rusts or smuts. Urediniospores, spores produced by a uredinium in some such as rusts or smuts. Teliospores, spores produced by a telium in some such as rusts or smuts. Oospores, spores produced by an oogonium, characteristic of oomycetes, carpospores, spores produced by a carposporophyte, characteristic of red algae. Tetraspores, spores produced by a tetrasporophyte, characteristic of red algae, chlamydospores, thick-walled resting spores of fungi produced to survive unfavorable conditions. Parasitic fungal spores may be classified into internal spores, which germinate within the host, meiospores, spores produced by meiosis, they are thus haploid, and give rise to a haploid daughter cell or a haploid individual. Examples are the cells of gametophytes of seed plants found in flowers or cones. Microspores, meiospores that give rise to a male gametophyte, megaspores, meiospores that give rise to a female gametophyte
19.
Carnivore
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Animals that depend solely on animal flesh for their nutrient requirements are called obligate carnivores while those that also consume non-animal food are called facultative carnivores. A carnivore that sits at the top of the chain is termed an apex predator. Plants that capture and digest insects are called carnivorous plants, similarly, fungi that capture microscopic animals are often called carnivorous fungi. The word carnivore sometimes refers to the mammalian order Carnivora, while many Carnivora meet the definition of being meat eaters, not all do, and even fewer are true obligate carnivores. In addition, there are plenty of species that are not members of Carnivora. Outside the animal kingdom, there are several genera containing carnivorous plants, the former are predominantly insectivores, while the latter prey mostly on microscopic invertebrates, such as nematodes, amoebae and springtails. Carnivores are sometimes characterized by the type of prey that they consume, for example, animals that eat insects and similar invertebrates primarily or exclusively are called insectivores, while those that eat fish primarily or exclusively are called piscivores. The first tetrapods, or land-dwelling vertebrates, were piscivorous amphibians known as labyrinthodonts and they gave rise to insectivorous vertebrates and, later, to predators of other tetrapods. Carnivores may alternatively be classified according to the percentage of meat in their diet, obligate carnivores or true carnivores depend on the nutrients found only in animal flesh for their survival. For instance, felids including the cat are obligate carnivores requiring a diet of primarily animal flesh. Characteristics commonly associated with carnivores include organs for capturing and disarticulating prey, in truth, these assumptions may be misleading, as some carnivores do not hunt and are scavengers. Thus they do not have the associated with hunting carnivores. Carnivores have comparatively short digestive systems, as they are not required to break down tough cellulose found in plants, many animals that hunt other animals have evolved eyes that face forward, thus making depth perception possible. This is almost universal among mammalian predators, other predators, like crocodiles, as well as most reptiles and amphibians, have sideways facing eyes and hunt by ambush rather than pursuit. The first vertebrate carnivores were fish, and then amphibians that moved on to land, early tetrapods were large amphibious piscivores. Some scientists assert that Dimetrodon was the first terrestrial vertebrate to develop the curved, serrated teeth that enable a predator to eat prey much larger than itself. While amphibians continued to feed on fish and later insects, reptiles began exploring two new types, tetrapods, and later, plants. Carnivory was a transition from insectivory for medium and large tetrapods
20.
John Ware (cowboy)
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Ware was born into slavery on a plantation near Georgetown, South Carolina. After the American Civil War he left the Carolinas for Texas where he learned the skills of a rancher, upon his arrival in Calgary he found work at the Bar U and Quorn ranches before starting his own ranch near the Red Deer river. By 1900, he and his wife, Mildred Lewis, had five children and he moved from the Calgary area to a spot northeast of the village of Duchess, Alberta. In 1902 his first home was destroyed by the spring flood and he rebuilt on higher ground overlooking a stream, now called Ware Creek. Wares funeral was reported to be one of the largest held in the days of Calgary. Like any folk hero there are a range of tales about his ability to eat, ride, shoot. It is said that he was never tossed from a horse and that he popularized steer wrestling. The story of John Ware is that of a figure in history who helped to lay the foundations of the ranching industry in western Canada. Born a slave, Ware worked his way to being one of the most well-respected figures in frontier Alberta, crossing race lines thanks to his good nature and he is the subject of a biography, John Wares Cow Country by J. W. The cabin was restored and re-dedicated in 2002, diamond Joe White, a musician from Alberta, has released a song titled High Rider, The John Ware Story. None of John and Mildreds five children who lived to adulthood had descendants and their last surviving daughter, Nettie, died on her 96th birthday in March 1989 in Vulcan, Alberta. Their last son, Arthur, died in Burnaby, British Columbia, in May 1989, however, relatives of Mildred Ware still reside in New Jersey, Canada Post issued a commemorative stamp featuring John Ware, to celebrate Black History Month 2012. Ware, John at The Canadian Encyclopedia John Ware, who Was John Ware. from Alberta Parks John Ware - Canadas Legendary Cowboy at the Wayback Machine Personal account and history of John Ware and his family, including his daughter Mildred Ware
21.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
22.
Cowboy
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A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of special significance. A subtype, called a wrangler, specifically tends the horses used to work cattle, in addition to ranch work, some cowboys work for or participate in rodeos. There are also cattle handlers in many parts of the world, particularly South America and Australia. The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas, over the centuries, differences in terrain, climate and the influence of cattle-handling traditions from multiple cultures created several distinct styles of equipment, clothing and animal handling. As the ever-practical cowboy adapted to the world, the cowboys equipment and techniques also adapted to some degree. The English word cowboy has an origin from several earlier terms that referred to both age and to cattle or cattle-tending work, the word cowboy appeared in the English language by 1725. It appears to be a direct English translation of vaquero, a Spanish word for an individual who managed cattle while mounted on horseback and it was derived from vaca, meaning cow, which came from the Latin word vacca. Another English word for a cowboy, buckaroo, is an anglicization of vaquero, originally, the term may have been intended literally—a boy who tends cows. By 1849 it had developed its sense as an adult cattle handler of the American West. Variations on the word cowboy appeared later, cowhand appeared in 1852, and cowpoke in 1881, originally restricted to the individuals who prodded cattle with long poles to load them onto railroad cars for shipping. Names for a cowboy in American English include buckaroo, cowpoke, cowhand, the word cowboy also had English language roots beyond simply being a translation from Spanish. Originally, the English word cowherd was used to describe a cattle herder, and often referred to a preadolescent or early adolescent boy and this word is very old in the English language, originating prior to the year 1000. In antiquity, herding of sheep, cattle and goats was often the job of minors, on western ranches today, the working cowboy is usually an adult. Responsibility for herding cattle or other livestock is no longer considered a job suitable for children or early adolescents. However, both boys and girls growing up in a ranch environment often learn to ride horses and perform basic ranch skills as soon as they are physically able, such youths, by their late teens, are often given responsibilities for cowboy work on the ranch. The term cowboy was used during the American Revolution to describe American fighters who opposed the movement for independence, in the same period, a number of guerilla bands operated in Westchester County, which marked the dividing line between the British and American forces. These groups were made up of local farmhands who would ambush convoys, there were two separate groups, the skinners fought for the pro-independence side, the cowboys supported the British
23.
Riparian zone
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A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream. Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the fifteen terrestrial biomes of the earth, Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic plants. In some regions the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, the word riparian is derived from Latin ripa, meaning river bank. Riparian zones may be natural or engineered for soil stabilization or restoration and these zones are important natural biofilters, protecting aquatic environments from excessive sedimentation, polluted surface runoff and erosion. They supply shelter and food for aquatic animals and shade that limits stream temperature change. When riparian zones are damaged by construction, agriculture or silviculture, biological restoration can take place, usually by human intervention in erosion control and revegetation. If the area adjacent to a watercourse has standing water or saturated soil for as long as a season, because of their prominent role in supporting a diversity of species, riparian zones are often the subject of national protection in a Biodiversity Action Plan. These are also known as a Plant or Vegetation Waste Buffer, research shows that riparian zones are instrumental in water quality improvement for both surface runoff and water flowing into streams through subsurface or groundwater flow. Particularly, the attenuation of nitrate or denitrification of the nitrates from fertilizer in this zone is important. The use of wetland riparian zones shows a high rate of removal of nitrate entering a stream. The meandering curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow the flow of water, sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less turbid water, replenish soils, and build stream banks. Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration, the riparian zones also provide wildlife habitat, increased biodiversity, and wildlife corridors, enabling aquatic and riparian organisms to move along river systems avoiding isolated communities. Riparian vegetation can also forage for wildlife and livestock. They provide native landscape irrigation by extending seasonal or perennial flows of water, nutrients from terrestrial vegetation are transferred to aquatic food webs. The vegetation surrounding the stream helps to shade the water, mitigating water temperature changes, the vegetation also contributes wood debris to streams, which is important to maintaining geomorphology. From a social aspect, riparian zones contribute to nearby property values through amenity and views, space is created for riparian sports such as fishing, swimming and launching for vessels and paddlecraft. The protection of zones is often a consideration in logging operations. The undisturbed soil, soil cover, and vegetation provide shade, plant litter, and woody material, factors such as soil types and root structures, climatic conditions and vegetative cover determine the effectiveness of riparian buffering
24.
Fossil
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Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous rock formations and sedimentary layers is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, such a preserved specimen is called a fossil if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years. The observation that fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or absolute age of the various strata. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, even single bacterial cells one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs, Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as animal tracks or feces. These types of fossil are called trace fossils, as opposed to body fossils, finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals, these are known as chemofossils or biosignatures. The process of fossilization varies according to type and external conditions. Permineralization is a process of fossilization that occurs when an organism is buried, the empty spaces within an organism become filled with mineral-rich groundwater. Minerals precipitate from the groundwater, occupying the empty spaces and this process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils, for permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decay process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil, some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth, other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis, in some cases the original remains of the organism completely dissolve or are otherwise destroyed. The remaining organism-shaped hole in the rock is called an external mold, if this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An endocast or internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the cavity of an organism. This is a form of cast and mold formation. If the chemistry is right, the organism can act as a nucleus for the precipitation of minerals such as siderite, if this happens rapidly before significant decay to the organic tissue, very fine three-dimensional morphological detail can be preserved. Nodules from the Carboniferous Mazon Creek fossil beds of Illinois, USA, are among the best documented examples of such mineralization, replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral
25.
Royal Ontario Museum
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The Royal Ontario Museum is a museum of art, world culture and natural history in Toronto, Canada. The museum is north of Queens Park, in the University of Toronto district, the Museum subway station of the Toronto Transit Commission is named after the ROM, and since 2008, it is decorated to resemble the institutions collection. St. George station is close to the new entrance as well. Established on 16 April 1912 and opened on 19 March 1914, the museum was under the direct control and management of the University of Toronto until 1968, when it became an independent Crown agency of the government of Ontario. Today, the museum is Canadas largest field-research institution, with research, with more than six million items and forty galleries, the museums diverse collections of world culture and natural history contribute to its international reputation. The museum contains collections of dinosaurs, minerals and meteorites, Near Eastern and African art, Art of East Asia, European history. It houses the worlds largest collection of fossils from the Burgess Shale with more than 150,000 specimens, the museum also contains an extensive collection of design and fine arts, including clothing, interior, and product design, especially Art Deco. The Royal Ontario Museum was formally established on 16 April 1912, and was governed by the Government of Ontario. Its first assets were transferred from the University and the provincial Department of Education, coming from its predecessor the Museum of Natural History and Fine Arts at the Toronto Normal School. On 19 March 1914, at 3,00 pm, the Duke of Connaught, also the Governor General of Canada, officially opened the Royal Ontario Museum to the public. The museums location at the edge of Torontos built-up area, far from the central business district, was selected mainly for its proximity to the University of Toronto. This was the first phase of a construction plan that intended on expanding the museum towards Queens Park Crescent. The first expansion to the Royal Ontario Museum publicly opened on 12 October 1933, the renovation saw the construction of the south wing fronting onto Queens Park, and required the demolition of Argyle House, a Victorian mansion once located at 100 Queens Park. As this occurred during the Great Depression, an effort was made to use primarily local building materials, teams of workers alternated weeks of service due to the physically draining nature of the job. In 1947, the ROM was dissolved as a body corporate and this would continue until 1968, when the Museum and the McLaughlin Planetarium were separated from the University to form a new corporation. On 26 October 1968, the ROM opened the McLaughlin Planetarium on the end of the property after receiving a $2 million donation from Colonel R. Samuel McLaughlin. By the 1980s, however, the audiences were dwindling. The space temporarily reopened from 1998 to 2002, after being leased to Childrens Own Museum, in 2009, the ROM sold the building to the University of Toronto for $22 million, and ensured that it would continue to be used for institutional and academic purposes
26.
Toronto
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Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the provincial capital of Ontario. With a population of 2,731,571, it is the fourth most populous city in North America after Mexico City, New York City, and Los Angeles. A global city, Toronto is a centre of business, finance, arts, and culture. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited the area now known as Toronto for thousands of years, the city itself is situated on the southern terminus of an ancient Aboriginal trail leading north to Lake Simcoe, used by the Wyandot, Iroquois, and the Mississauga. Permanent European settlement began in the 1790s, after the broadly disputed Toronto Purchase of 1787, the British established the town of York, and later designated it as the capital of Upper Canada. During the War of 1812, the town was the site of the Battle of York, York was renamed and incorporated as the city of Toronto in 1834, and became the capital of the province of Ontario during the Canadian Confederation in 1867. The city proper has since expanded past its original borders through amalgamation with surrounding municipalities at various times in its history to its current area of 630.2 km2. While the majority of Torontonians speak English as their primary language, Toronto is a prominent centre for music, theatre, motion picture production, and television production, and is home to the headquarters of Canadas major national broadcast networks and media outlets. Toronto is known for its skyscrapers and high-rise buildings, in particular the tallest free-standing structure in the Western Hemisphere. The name Toronto is likely derived from the Iroquois word tkaronto and this refers to the northern end of what is now Lake Simcoe, where the Huron had planted tree saplings to corral fish. A portage route from Lake Ontario to Lake Huron running through this point, in the 1660s, the Iroquois established two villages within what is today Toronto, Ganatsekwyagon on the banks of the Rouge River and Teiaiagonon the banks of the Humber River. By 1701, the Mississauga had displaced the Iroquois, who abandoned the Toronto area at the end of the Beaver Wars, French traders founded Fort Rouillé on the current Exhibition grounds in 1750, but abandoned it in 1759. During the American Revolutionary War, the region saw an influx of British settlers as United Empire Loyalists fled for the British-controlled lands north of Lake Ontario, the new province of Upper Canada was in the process of creation and needed a capital. Dorchester intended the location to be named Toronto, in 1793, Governor John Graves Simcoe established the town of York on the Toronto Purchase lands, instead naming it after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany. Simcoe decided to move the Upper Canada capital from Newark to York, the York garrison was constructed at the entrance of the towns natural harbour, sheltered by a long sandbar peninsula. The towns settlement formed at the end of the harbour behind the peninsula, near the present-day intersection of Parliament Street. In 1813, as part of the War of 1812, the Battle of York ended in the towns capture, the surrender of the town was negotiated by John Strachan. US soldiers destroyed much of the garrison and set fire to the parliament buildings during their five-day occupation, the sacking of York was a primary motivation for the Burning of Washington by British troops later in the war
27.
Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
28.
Canadian Museum of Nature
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The Canadian Museum of Nature is Canadas national natural history and natural sciences museum in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Its four main collections, which were started by the Geological Survey of Canada in 1856 and now include ca.14.6 million specimens, include Botany, Mineralogy, Palaeontology and Zoology. The exhibits and main programmes are housed in the Victoria Memorial Museum Building in Ottawa, nearly 85% of the specimens displayed in the gallery are genuine fossils. The Canadian Museum of Nature is one of only a handful of museums in North America to display mostly original fossil material, vale Earth Gallery - minerals and rocks, and how geological forces have shaped our planet. Mammal Gallery - Canadas wild animals, including mounts of grizzly bears, polar bears, bison, moose, caribou, pronghorns and cougars. RBC Blue Water Gallery - a blue whale skeleton, exhibits about life found in marine and fresh water environments, bird Gallery - nearly 500 mounts of 450 species of Canadian birds, multimedia experiences and interactive displays. Nature Live - live insects, arachnids and slugs, stone Wall Gallery - changing displays of art and photography about natural science. Landscapes of Canada Gardens - an outdoor exhibit with zones representing three different ecosystems of Canada, Arctic tundra, boreal forest and prairie grasslands. The Canada Goose Arctic Gallery -- a new permanent gallery -- will open in June,2017, the goal of this gallery is to enhance and transform people’s understanding of the Arctic and its importance to Canada in the 21st century. Collections-based scientific research has been a component of the museum since its inception. Today, research at the museum is focused in two centres of expertise, the Centre for Species Discovery and Change and the Centre for Arctic Knowledge. Each of the four main collections have several subcollections, Botany Geological Collections Palaeontology Zoology From 1972-2005 the museum published the scientific journal Syllogeus. The Natural Heritage Campus in Gatineau, Quebec, opened in 1997 and it is the 76 hectare site of the museums administrative operations and its extensive research and collections facility. The campus is not open to the public except for an annual Open House that showcases its 14.6 million specimens, its research labs, the library, however, does allow visitors. The Canadian Museum of Nature has its origins in the Geological Survey of Canada, nearly 150 years later, on July 1,1990, the museum became a Crown Corporation by an Act of Parliament. The Museums Act was a significant event in the history of the museum, the neighbourhood became known as Stewarton and residential development started in the area during the 1870s. The construction of the building involved the importing of 300 skilled stonemasons from Scotland, the architectural style is sometimes described as Scottish baronial. Ewart was sent to Britain to study the architecture of Hampton Court and Windsor Castle, the unstable site forced some workers to stop working, as shifting foundations in the basement shot bricks and stones out from the walls, hitting some construction workers
29.
Ottawa
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Ottawa is the capital city of Canada. It stands on the bank of the Ottawa River in the eastern portion of southern Ontario. Ottawa borders Gatineau, Quebec, the two form the core of the Ottawa–Gatineau census metropolitan area and the National Capital Region. The 2016 census reported a population of 934,243, making it the fourth-largest city in Canada, the City of Ottawa reported that the city had an estimated population of 960,754 as of December 2015. Founded in 1826 as Bytown, and incorporated as Ottawa in 1855, the city name Ottawa was chosen in reference to the Ottawa River nearby, the name of which is derived from the Algonquin Odawa, meaning to trade. The city is the most educated in Canada, and is home to a number of post-secondary, research, and cultural institutions, including the National Arts Centre, Ottawa also has the highest standard of living in the nation and low unemployment. It ranked second out of 150 worldwide in the Numbeo quality of life index 2014–2015, with the draining of the Champlain Sea around ten thousand years ago the Ottawa Valley became habitable. The area was used for wild harvesting, hunting, fishing, trade, travel. The Ottawa river valley has archaeological sites with arrow heads, pottery, the area has three major rivers that meet, making it an important trade and travel area for thousands of years. The Algonquins called the Ottawa River Kichi Sibi or Kichissippi meaning Great River or Grand River, Étienne Brûlé, the first European to travel up the Ottawa River, passed by Ottawa in 1610 on his way to the Great Lakes. Three years later, Samuel de Champlain wrote about the waterfalls of the area and about his encounters with the Algonquins, the early explorers and traders were later followed by many missionaries. The first maps of the area used the word Ottawa to name the river, philemon Wright, a New Englander, created the first settlement in the area on 7 March 1800 on the north side of the river, across from Ottawa in Hull. He, with five other families and twenty-five labourers, set about to create a community called Wrightsville. Wright pioneered the Ottawa Valley timber trade by transporting timber by river from the Ottawa Valley to Quebec City, the following year, the town would soon be named after British military engineer Colonel John By who was responsible for the entire Rideau Waterway construction project. Colonel By set up military barracks on the site of todays Parliament Hill and he also laid out the streets of the town and created two distinct neighbourhoods named Upper Town west of the canal and Lower Town east of the canal. Similar to its Upper Canada and Lower Canada namesakes, historically Upper Town was predominantly English speaking and Protestant whereas Lower Town was predominantly French, Irish, bytowns population grew to 1,000 as the Rideau Canal was being completed in 1832. In 1855 Bytown was renamed Ottawa and incorporated as a city, William Pittman Lett was installed as the first city clerk guiding it through 36 years of development. On New Years Eve 1857, Queen Victoria, as a symbolic, in reality, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald had assigned this selection process to the Executive Branch of the Government, as previous attempts to arrive at a consensus had ended in deadlock
30.
American Museum of Natural History
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The American Museum of Natural History, located on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is one of the largest museums in the world. The museum has a scientific staff of 225, sponsors over 120 special field expeditions each year. Before construction of the present complex, the museum was housed in the Arsenal building in Central Park. Sherman, A. G. Phelps Dodge, William A. Haines, Charles A. Dana, Joseph H. Choate, Henry G. Stebbins, Henry Parish, the founding of the museum realized the dream of naturalist Dr. Albert S. Bickmore. Bickmore, a student of Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz, lobbied tirelessly for years for the establishment of a natural history museum in New York. In 1874, the cornerstone was laid for the museums first building, the original Victorian Gothic building, which was opened in 1877, was designed by J. Wrey Mould, both already closely identified with the architecture of Central Park. The original building was eclipsed by the south range of the museum, designed by J. Cleaveland Cady. It extends 700 feet along West 77th Street, with corner towers 150 feet tall and its pink brownstone and granite, similar to that found at Grindstone Island in the St. Lawrence River, came from quarries at Picton Island, New York. The entrance on Central Park West, the New York State Memorial to Theodore Roosevelt and it leads to a vast Roman basilica, where visitors are greeted with a cast of a skeleton of a rearing Barosaurus defending her young from an Allosaurus. The museum is accessible through its 77th street foyer, renamed the Grand Gallery. The hall leads into the oldest extant exhibit in the museum, since 1930, little has been added to the exterior of the original building. The architect Kevin Roche and his firm Roche-Dinkeloo have been responsible for the planning of the museum since the 1990s. Various renovations both interior and exterior have been carried out including improvements to Dinosaur Hall and mural restoration in Roosevelt Memorial Hall, in 1992 the firm designed the new eight story AMNH Library. The museums south façade, spanning 77th Street from Central Park West to Columbus Avenue was cleaned, repaired and re-emerged in 2009, steven Reichl, a spokesman for the museum, said that work would include restoring 650 black-cherry window frames and stone repairs. The museums consultant on the latest renovation is Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc. an architectural and engineering firm with headquarters in Northbrook, the museums first two presidents were John David Wolfe and Robert L. Stuart, both among the museums founders. The museum was not put on a sound footing until the appointment of the president, Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was president for over 25 years, overseeing its expansion, the fourth president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, was appointed in 1906 on the death of Jesup. Osborn consolidated the museums expansion, developing it into one of the worlds foremost natural history museums, F. Trubee Davison was president from 1933 to 1951, with A. Perry Osborn as Acting President from 1941 to 1946
31.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
32.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
33.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
34.
Midland Provincial Park
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Midland Provincial Park is a provincial park located in Alberta, Canada. Once the site of the Midland Coal Mine, it was designated as a park on June 5,1979. It now hosts the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology, the Midland Coal Mine was the site of a large mining disaster in the mid-1920s, many men lost their lives in a mine explosion. It is located 6 km west of Drumheller on Highway 838, activities in the park include canoeing, kayaking, fishing, wildlife viewing and hiking through willows and cottonwoods along the Red Deer River. Points of interest are fossil beds, a site and the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology. List of Alberta provincial parks Park page at Alberta Development Virtual tour Drumheller Mining History The Dangers of Coal Mining in Drumheller
35.
Drumheller
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Drumheller /drʌmˈhɛlər/ is a town within the Red Deer River valley in the badlands of east-central Alberta, Canada. It is located 110 kilometres northeast of Calgary, the Drumheller portion of the Red Deer River valley, often referred to as Dinosaur Valley, has an approximate width of 2 kilometres and an approximate length of 28 kilometres. The town is named for Colonel Samuel Drumheller, who land in 1910. Drumheller became a station in 1912. It then incorporated as a village on May 15,1913, a town on March 2,1916, over a 15-year period, Drumhellers population increased 857% from 312 in 1916 to 2,987 in 1931 shortly after becoming a city. The City of Drumheller amalgamated with the Municipal District of Badlands No.7 on January 1,1998 to form the current Town of Drumheller, some of the reasons the two municipalities amalgamated included the MD of Badlands No. The amalgamated municipality opted for town status rather than city status so that highways within would remain the responsibility of the Province of Alberta, as a result of the amalgamation, Drumheller became Alberta’s largest town in terms of land area at 107.93 square kilometres. The 1998 amalgamation resulted in Drumheller absorbing six hamlets that were previously under the jurisdiction of the MD of Badlands No.7 – Cambria, East Coulee, Lehigh, Nacmine, Rosedale and Wayne. Drumheller also previously absorbed the hamlets of Bankview, Midlandvale, Newcastle, Bankview and Midland were annexed in 1964 and 1972 respectively, while Newcastle and North Drumheller were both annexed in 1967. Other localities within Drumheller, either absorbed through past annexations or its eventual amalgamation with the MD of Badlands No,7, include Aerial, Eladesor, Kneehill, Rosedale Station, Western Monarch and Willow Creek. In total, Drumheller has absorbed at least 13 other communities in its history, with a land area of 108.03 km2, it had a population density of 73. 9/km2 in 2016. In the 2011 Census, the Town of Drumheller had a population of 8,029 living in 3,182 of its 3,418 total dwellings, with a land area of 107.93 km2, it had a population density of 74. 4/km2 in 2011. The highest temperature recorded in Drumheller was 40.6 °C on 18 July 1941. The coldest temperature recorded was −43.9 °C on 29 January 1996. Next to Drumheller ski hill is the Canadian Badlands Passion Play site, companies are composed of actors from all over Alberta. The site also offers small plays throughout the summer and an interpretive centre, the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology is a museum that hosts Canadas largest collection of dinosaur fossils. It boasts 375,000 visitors a year, the largest of all provincial museum attractions and it opened on September 25,1985. The Royal Tyrrell Museum is located in the northwest quadrant of the Town of Drumheller, Channel 8, CICT-TV-1 Channel 10, CFCN-TV-6 Channel 12, CFCN-TV-1 List of communities in Alberta List of towns in Alberta Official website
36.
Hoodoo (geology)
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A hoodoo is a tall, thin spire of rock that protrudes from the bottom of an arid drainage basin or badland. Hoodoos, which may range from 1.5 to 45 metres, typically consist of soft rock topped by harder. They generally form within sedimentary rock and volcanic rock formations, Hoodoos are found mainly in the desert in dry, hot areas. In common usage, the difference between hoodoos and pinnacles is that hoodoos have a variable thickness often described as having a totem pole-shaped body, a spire, on the other hand, has a smoother profile or uniform thickness that tapers from the ground upward. An example of a spire, as an earth pyramid, is found at Aultderg Burn, near Fochabers. Hoodoos range in size from the height of a human to heights exceeding a 10-story building. Hoodoo shapes are affected by the patterns of alternating hard. Minerals deposited within different rock types cause hoodoos to have different colors throughout their height, Hoodoos are commonly found in the High Plateaus region of the Colorado Plateau and in the Badlands regions of the Northern Great Plains. While hoodoos are scattered throughout these areas, nowhere in the world are they as abundant as in the section of Bryce Canyon National Park. They are also very prominent a few hundred miles away at Goblin Valley State Park on the side of the San Rafael Swell. Hoodoos are a tourist attraction in the Cappadocia region of Turkey and these rock formations were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 new lira banknote of 2005–2009. Đavolja Varoš hoodoos in Serbia feature 202 exotic formations described as earth pyramids or towers, since 1959, Đavolja Varoš has been protected by the state. It was also a nominee in the New Seven Wonders of Nature campaign, the hoodoo stones on the northern coast of Taiwan are unusual for their coastal setting. The stones formed as the seabed rose rapidly out of the ocean during the Miocene epoch, efforts have been made to slow the erosion in the case of iconic specimens in Wanli. Hoodoos in Drumheller, Alberta, are a feature that continues to attract thousands of visitors each year. The sediments comprising these hoodoos formed between 70 and 75 million years ago during the Cretaceous Period as clay and sand sediments from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation were deposited. In glaciated mountainous valleys the soft eroded material may be glacial till with the protective capstones being large boulders in the till, over time, cracks in the resistant layer allow the much softer rock beneath to be eroded and washed away. Hoodoos form where a small cap of the resistant layer remains, further erosion of the soft layer causes the cap to be undercut, eventually falling off, and the remaining cone is then quickly eroded
37.
Populus deltoides
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Populus deltoides is a large tree growing to 20–40 m tall and with a trunk up to 1.8 m diameter, one of the largest North American hardwood trees. The bark is silvery-white, smooth or lightly fissured when young, becoming dark gray, the twigs are grayish-yellow and stout, with large triangular leaf scars. The winter buds are slender, pointed, 1–2 centimetres long, yellowish brown and it is one of the fastest growing trees in North America. In Mississippi River bottoms, height growth of 10–15 feet per year for a few years have been seen, sustained height growth of 5-foot height growth and 1-inch diameter growth per year for 25 years is common. The leaves are large, deltoid, 4–10 cm long and 4–11 cm broad with a truncated base and a petiole 3–12 cm long. The leaf is very coarsely toothed, the teeth are curved and gland tipped, due to the flat stem of the leaf, the leaf has the tendency to shake from even the slightest breeze. This is one of the identifying characteristics and it is dioecious, with the flowers produced on single-sex trees in early spring. The species is divided three subspecies or up to five varieties. The subspecies classification is as follows, Populus deltoides subsp, deltoides, eastern cottonwood is found in southeastern Canada and the eastern United States. The plains cottonwood ranges from southcentral Canada to the central United States and south to northern New Mexico, the Rio Grande cottonwood grows from southern Colorado south through Texas to northeastern Mexico, and west to Arizona. The leaves serve as food for caterpillars of various Lepidoptera, eastern cottonwoods typically live 70 to 100 years, but they have the potential to live 200 to 400 years if they have a good growing environment. The Balmville Tree was the oldest eastern cottonwood in the United States, the US national champion Populus deltoides var. deltoides is located in Beatrice, Nebraska and measures 88 ft tall,108 ft wide. The US national champion Populus deltoides var. monilifera is located in Ravalli County, Montana, the US national champion Populus deltoides var. wislizeni is located in Bernalillo County, New Mexico and measures 84 ft tall,83 ft wide. The largest recorded tree in the world is the Frimley Park tree located in Hastings. There is an unregistered Cottonwood tree in West Central Oklahoma that until recently had a circumference at breast height of 56 feet 2 inches and it was split in half and that remaining standing is now 32 feet 8 inches. Calling the cottonwood tree the pioneer of the prairie, the Kansas state legislature designated the cottonwood the official tree of Kansas in 1937. Populus section Aigeiros Media related to Populus deltoides at Wikimedia Commons
38.
Prairie
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Temperate grassland regions include the Pampas of Argentina, southern Brazil and Uruguay as well as the steppes of Eurasia. Lands typically referred to as prairie tend to be in North America, the Central Valley of California is also a prairie. The Canadian Prairies occupy vast areas of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Prairie is the French word for meadow, but the ultimate root is the Latin pratum. The formation of the North American Prairies started with the upwelling of the Rocky Mountains near Alberta, the mountains created a rain shadow that resulted in lower precipitation rates downwind, creating an environment in which most tree species will not tolerate. The parent material of most prairie soil was distributed during the last glacial advance that began about 110,000 years ago, the glaciers expanding southward scraped the landscape, picking up geologic material and leveling the terrain. As the glaciers retreated about 10,000 years ago, it deposited this material in the form of till, wind based loess deposits also form an important parent material for prairie soils. Tallgrass Prairie evolved over tens of thousands of years with the disturbances of grazing, native ungulates such as bison, elk, and white-tailed deer, roamed the expansive, diverse, plentiful grassland before European colonization of the Americas. For 10, 000-20,000 years native people used fire annually as a tool to assist in hunting, transportation, evidence of ignition sources of fire in the tallgrass prairie are overwhelmingly human as opposed to lightning. Humans, and grazing animals, were participants in the process of prairie formation. Fire has the effect on prairies of removing trees, clearing dead plant matter, fire kills the vascular tissue of trees, but not prairie, as up to 75% of the total plant biomass is below the soil surface and will re-grow from its deep roots. Without disturbance, trees will encroach on a grassland, cast shade, Prairie and widely spaced oak trees evolved to coexist in the oak savanna ecosystem. In spite of long recurrent droughts and occasional torrential rains, the grasslands of the Great Plains were not subject to soil erosion. The root systems of native prairie grasses firmly held the soil in place to prevent run-off of soil, when the plant died, the fungi, bacteria returned its nutrients to the soil. These deep roots also helped native prairie plants reach water in even the driest conditions, the native grasses suffered much less damage from dry conditions than the farm crops currently grown. Prairie in North America is usually split into three groups, wet, mesic, and dry and they are generally characterized by tallgrass prairie, mixed, or shortgrass prairie, depending on the quality of soil and rainfall. In wet prairies the soil is very moist, including during most of the growing season. The resulting stagnant water is conducive to the formation of bogs, wet prairies have excellent farming soil. The average precipitation amount is 10-30 inches a year, mesic prairie /ˈmiːzɪk/ has good drainage, but good soil during the growing season
39.
Coyote
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The coyote is a canid native to North America. It is smaller than its relative, the gray wolf, and slightly smaller than its other close relatives, the eastern wolf. It fills much of the ecological niche as the golden jackal does in Eurasia, though it is larger. The species is versatile and able to adapt to environments modified by humans, as human activity has altered the landscape, the coyotes range has expanded. In 2013, coyotes were sighted in eastern Panama for the first time, the coyote is more closely related to the common ancestor of wolves and other canids than the gray wolf. As of 2005,19 coyote subspecies are recognized, the average male coyote weighs 8 to 20 kg and the average female 7 to 18 kg. Their fur color is light gray and red or fulvous interspersed with black and white. It is highly flexible in organization, living either in a family unit or in loosely knit packs of unrelated individuals. The coyotes characteristic vocalization is a made by solitary individuals. Humans aside, cougars and gray wolves are the only serious enemies. Nevertheless, coyotes do sometimes mate with gray, eastern, or red wolves, Most recent studies show that most wolves contain some level of coyote DNA. As with other figures, the coyote uses deception and humor to rebel against social conventions. The animal was especially respected in Mesoamerican cosmology as a symbol of military might, after the European colonization of the Americas, it was reviled in Anglo-American culture as a cowardly and untrustworthy animal. Unlike wolves, which have undergone an improvement of their public image, Coyote males average 8 to 20 kg in weight, while females average 7 to 18 kg, though size varies geographically. Northern subspecies, which average 18 kg, tend to larger than the southern subspecies of Mexico. Body length ranges on average from 1.0 to 1.35 m, the largest coyote on record was a male killed near Afton, Wyoming, on November 19,1937, which measured 1.5 m from nose to tail, and weighed 34 kg. Scent glands are located at the side of the base of the tail and are a bluish-black color. The color and texture of the fur varies somewhat geographically
40.
Nighthawk
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A nighthawk is a nocturnal bird of the subfamily Chordeilinae, within the nightjar family, Caprimulgidae. The term nighthawk, first recorded in the King James Version of 1611, was originally a name in England for the European nightjar. Its use in the Americas refers to members of the genus Chordeiles, nighthawks are medium-sized birds with long wings, short legs, and very short bills. They usually nest on the ground, the least nighthawk, at 16 centimetres and 23 grams, is the smallest of all Caprimulgiformes. Nightjars are sometimes referred to as goatsuckers from the belief that they suck milk from goats. Nighthawks have small feet, of use for walking. Their soft plumage is coloured to resemble bark or leaves. Some species perch facing along a branch, rather than across it as birds usually do and this helps to conceal them during the day. The female lays two patterned eggs directly onto bare ground and they are mostly active in the late evening and early morning or at night and feed on moths and other large flying insects. The bill opens very wide and has a hooked upper tip. Nighthawks are similar in most respects to the nightjars, but have shorter bills, nighthawks are less strictly nocturnal than many nightjars and may be seen hunting when there is still light in the sky
41.
Cottontail rabbit
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Cottontail rabbits are among the 17 lagomorph species in the genus Sylvilagus, found in the Americas. In appearance, most cottontail rabbits closely resemble the wild European rabbit, most Sylvilagus species have stub tails with white undersides that show when they retreat, giving them their name, cottontails. This feature is not present in some cottontails, nor is it unique to the genus, the genus is widely distributed across North America, Central America, and northern and central South America, though most species are confined to particular regions. Most species live in nests called forms, and all have altricial young, cottontail rabbits show a greater resistance to myxomatosis than European rabbits. The lifespan of a cottontail averages about two years, depending on the location, almost every living carnivorous creature larger or faster than the lagomorph is its predator. That includes, domestic dogs, humans, snakes, coyotes, mountain lions, foxes, the cottontails biggest threat comes from above. Large birds of prey swoop down on cottontails, and sometimes carry them upwards, and then drop them to end their life, or stun them with an aerial assault and those cottontails particularly vulnerable to attack, are the newborn. Cottontail lagomorphs borrow burrows that have been vacated by other animals and she is defenseless against any and all that would get close enough to eat her or her young. Though cottontails are very sexually active creatures, and mated pairs have several offspring many times in all seasons and those that do manage to avoid being eaten, grow very quickly and are considered full grown adults at three months. It can only use its nose to move and adjust the position of the food that it directly in front of its front paws on the ground. The cottontail rabbit will turn the food with its nose to find the cleanest part of the vegetation to begin its meal, the only time a cottontail uses its front paws to enable eating is when vegetation is above its head on a living plant. The cottontail will lift its paw to bend the branch to bring the food within reach, cottontails are rarely found out of their burrows looking for food on windy days, because the wind interferes with their hearing capabilities. Hearing an oncoming predator is their defense mechanism
42.
Mule deer
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The mule deer is a deer indigenous to western North America, it is named for its ears, which are large like those of the mule. There are believed to be several subspecies including the black-tailed deer, unlike the related white-tailed deer, mule deer are generally more associated with the land west of the Missouri River, and more specifically with the Rocky Mountain region of North America. Mule deer have also introduced to Argentina and Kauai, Hawaii. The most noticeable differences between white-tailed and mule deer are the size of their ears, the color of their tails, in many cases, body size is also a key difference. The mule deers tail is black-tipped, whereas the whitetails is not, mule deer antlers are bifurcated, they fork as they grow, rather than branching from a single main beam, as is the case with white-tails. Each spring, a bucks antlers start to regrow almost immediately after the old antlers are shed, shedding typically takes place in mid-February, with variations occurring by locale. Although capable of running, mule deer are often seen stotting, the mule deer is the larger of the two Odocoileus species on average, with a height of 80–106 cm at the shoulders and a nose-to-tail length ranging from 1.2 to 2.1 m. Of this, the tail may comprise 11.6 to 23 cm, adult bucks normally weigh 55–150 kg, averaging around 92 kg, although trophy specimens may weigh up to 210 kg. Does are rather smaller and typically weigh from 43 to 90 kg, an exception to this is the subspecies, the Sitka black-tailed deer. This race is smaller than other mule deer, with an average weight of 54.5 kg and 36 kg in males and females. In addition to related to available shelter and food, the breeding cycle is important in understanding deer behavior. The rut or mating season begins in the fall as does go into estrus for a period of a few days and males become more aggressive. Does may mate more than one buck and go back into estrus within a month if they did not become pregnant. The gestation period is about 190–200 days, with fawns born in the spring, staying with their mothers during the summer, mule deer females usually give birth to two fawns, although if it is their first time having a fawn, they often have just one. A bucks antlers fall off during the winter, to again in preparation for the next seasons rut. The annual cycle of growth is regulated by changes in the length of the day. For a guide to identify the sex and age class of Rocky Mountain mule deer at various seasons see S1 File, for more information see the main article on deer. The size of mule deer groups follow a seasonal pattern
43.
Pronghorn
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The pronghorn is a species of artiodactyl mammal indigenous to interior western and central North America. It is the surviving member of the family Antilocapridae. During the Pleistocene period, about 12 antilocaprid species existed in North America, three other genera existed when humans entered North America but are now extinct. As a member of the superfamily Giraffoidea, the pronghorns closest living relatives are the giraffes, the Giraffoidea are in turn members of the infraorder Pecora, making pronghorns more distant relatives of the Cervidae and Bovidae, among others. The scientific name of the pronghorn is Antilocapra americana, the pronghorn is the sole extant member of the family Antilocapridae. This species was first described by American ornithologist George Ord in 1815, the expedition, which aimed to unravel water routes in the continent for commercial purposes, led to the discovery or formal recognition of a variety of flora and fauna of North America. Following the discovery of a few subspecies of the grouse, Lewis and Clark came across the pronghorn near the mouth of the Niobrara River. Clark was the first to kill a pronghorn, and described his experience as follows, Lewis and Clark made several other observations on the behavior of the pronghorn and how the local tribes hunted them. They described the animal, which referred to as the Antelope or the Goat, as follows. Shy and timorous they generally only on the ridges, which command a view of all the approaches of an enemy. When they first see the hunters they run with great velocity, the Indians near the Rocky Mountains hunt these animals on horseback, and shoot them with arrows. The Mandans mode of hunting them is to form a large, strong pen or fold, the animals are surrounded by the hunters, and gently driven towards this pen, in which they imperceptibly find themselves enclosed, and are then at the mercy of the hunters. Pronghorns have distinct white fur on their rumps, sides, breasts, bellies, adult males are 1. 3–1.5 m long from nose to tail, stand 81–104 cm high at the shoulder, and weigh 40–65 kg. The females are the height as males, but weigh 34–48 kg. The feet have two hooves, with no dewclaws and their body temperature is 38 °C. The orbits are prominent and set high on the skull, with never an anteorbital pit, as in the Giraffidae, skin covers the bony cores, but in the pronghorn, it develops into a keratinous sheath which is shed and regrown on an annual basis. Unlike the horns of the family Bovidae, the sheaths of the pronghorn are branched. Males have a horn sheath about 12. 5–43 cm long with a prong, females have smaller horns that range from 2. 5–15.2 cm and sometimes barely visible, they are straight and very rarely pronged
44.
Rattlesnake
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Rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera Crotalus and Sistrurus of the subfamily Crotalinae. The 36 known species of rattlesnakes have between 65 and 70 subspecies, all native to the America, ranging from southern Alberta, Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small animals such as birds and rodents. The threat of envenomation, advertised by the shaking of the titular noisemaker at the end of their tails. However, rattlesnakes fall prey to hawks, weasels, king snakes, Rattlesnakes are heavily preyed upon as neonates, while they are still weak and mentally immature. Large numbers of rattlesnakes are killed by humans, Rattlesnake populations in many areas are severely threatened by habitat destruction, poaching, and extermination campaigns. Rattlesnake are the leading contributor to snakebite injuries in North America, however, rattlesnakes rarely bite unless provoked or threatened, if treated promptly the bites are seldom fatal. Rattlesnakes receive their name from the rattle located at the end of their tails, the scientific name Crotalus is derived from the Greek κρόταλον, meaning castanet. The name Sistrurus is the Latinized form of the Greek word for tail rattler and shares its root with the ancient Egyptian musical instrument the sistrum, Rattlesnakes are native to the Americas, living in diverse habitats from southwestern Canada to central Argentina. The large majority of live in the American Southwest and Mexico. Four species may be found east of the Mississippi River, in the United States, the states with the most types of rattlesnakes are Texas and Arizona. Most species live near open, rocky areas, rocks offer them cover from predators, plentiful prey, and open basking areas. However, rattlesnakes can also be found in a variety of other habitats including prairies, marshes, deserts. The most probable ancestral area of rattlesnakes is the Sierra Madre Occidental region in Mexico, the most probable vegetation or habitat of the ancestral area appears to be pine-oak forests. Feeding habits play an important ecological role by limiting the size of rodent populations, Rattlesnakes consume mice, rats, small birds, and other small animals. They lie in wait for their prey, or hunt for it in holes, the prey is killed quickly with a venomous bite as opposed to constriction. If the bitten prey moves away before dying, the rattlesnake can follow it by its scent, when it locates the fallen prey, it checks for signs of life by prodding with its snout, flicking its tongue, and using its sense of smell. Once the prey has become incapacitated, the rattlesnake locates its head by odors emitted from the mouth, the prey is then ingested head-first, which allows wings and limbs to fold at the joints in a manner which minimizes the girth of the meal. The gastric fluids of rattlesnakes are extremely powerful, allowing for the digestion of flesh, optimal digestion occurs when the snake maintains a body temperature between 80 and 85 °F
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Garter snake
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Garter snake/rat snakes, garden snake, gardener snake, and ribbon snake are some of the common names for the nearly harmless, small to medium-sized snakes belonging to the genus Thamnophis. Endemic to North America, species in the genus Thamnophis can be found from the Subarctic plains of Canada to Central America, the common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, is the state reptile of Massachusetts. Garter snakes are closely related to the genus Nerodia, with species having been moved back. Garter snakes are present throughout most of North America, garter snakes populate a variety of habitats, including forests, woodlands, fields, grasslands, and lawns. They almost exclusively inhabit areas with some form of water, often an adjacent wetland, stream and this reflects the fact that amphibians are a large part of their diet. Garter snakes have complex systems of pheromonal communication and they can find other snakes by following their pheromone-scented trails. Male and female pheromones are so different as to be immediately distinguishable. However, male garter snakes sometimes produce male and female pheromones. During the mating season, this ability fools other males attempting to mate with them. This causes the transfer of heat to them in kleptothermy, which is an advantage immediately after hibernation, allowing them to become more active. Male snakes giving off both male and female pheromones have been shown to garner more copulations than normal males in the balls that form at the den when females enter the mating melee. If disturbed, a snake may coil and strike, but typically it will hide its head. These snakes will also discharge a malodorous, musky-scented secretion from a gland near the cloaca and they often use these techniques to escape when ensnared by a predator. They will also slither into the water to escape a predator on land, hawks, crows, raccoons, crayfish, and other snake species will eat garter snakes, with even shrews and frogs eating the juveniles. Being heterothermic, like all reptiles, garter snakes bask in the sun to regulate their body temperature, during hibernation, garter snakes typically occupy large, communal sites called hibernacula. These snakes will migrate large distances to brumate, garter snakes, like all snakes, are carnivorous. Their diet consists of almost any creature they are capable of overpowering, slugs, earthworms, leeches, lizards, amphibians minnows, when living near water, they will eat other aquatic animals. The ribbon snake in particular favors frogs, readily eating them despite their chemical defenses
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Curlew
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The curlews /ˈkɜːrljuːz/, genus Numenius, are a group of eight species of birds, characterised by long, slender, downcurved bills and mottled brown plumage. The English name is imitative of the Eurasian curlews call, but may have influenced by the Old French corliu, messenger, from courir. It was first recorded in 1377 in Langlands Piers Plowman Fissch to lyue in þe flode. Þe corlue by kynde of þe eyre, the genus name Numenius is from Ancient Greek noumenios, a bird mentioned by Hesychius. They are one of the most ancient lineages of scolopacid waders, curlews feed on mud or very soft ground, searching for worms and other invertebrates with their long bills. They will also take crabs and similar items, the distribution of curlews has altered considerably in the past hundred years as a result of changing agricultural practices. The stone-curlews are not true curlews but members of the family Burhinidae, which is in the same order Charadriiformes, apart from that, a Late Pleistocene curlew from San Josecito Cave, Mexico has been described. This fossil was initially placed in a genus, Palnumenius. The upland sandpiper is an odd bird which is the closest relative of the curlews and it is distinguished from them by its yellow legs, long tail, and shorter, less curved bill
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Canada goose
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The Canada goose is a large wild goose species with a black head and neck, white patches on the face, and a brown body. Native to arctic and temperate regions of North America, its migration occasionally reaches northern Europe and it has been introduced to the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Argentina, Chile, and the Falkland Islands. Like most geese, the Canada goose is primarily herbivorous and normally migratory, Canada geese are also among the most commonly hunted waterfowl in North America. The Canada goose was one of the species described by Carl Linnaeus in his 18th-century work Systema Naturae. It belongs to the Branta genus of geese, which species with largely black plumage. Branta is a Latinised form of Old Norse Brandgás, burnt goose, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first citation for the Canada goose dates back to 1772. The Canada goose is colloquially referred to as the Canadian goose. The British Ornithologists Union followed suit in June 2005, the AOU has divided the many subspecies between the two species. This has been aggravated by the overlap between the types of Canada goose and larger types of cackling goose. The old lesser Canada goose was believed to be a hybrid population, with the birds named B. c. taverneri considered a mixture of B. c. minima, B. c. occidentalis. In addition, the barnacle goose has been determined to be a derivative of the cackling goose lineage, the black head and neck with a white chinstrap distinguish the Canada goose from all other goose species, with the exception of the cackling goose and barnacle goose. The seven subspecies of this vary widely in size and plumage details. Some of the races can be hard to distinguish from the cackling goose. However, most subspecies of the goose are considerably smaller. The smallest cackling goose, B. h. minima, is larger than a mallard. In addition to the difference, cackling geese also have a shorter neck and smaller bill. Canada geese range from 75 to 110 cm in length and have a 127–185 cm wingspan. Among standard measurements, the chord can range from 39 to 55 cm, the tarsus can range from 6.9 to 10.6 cm
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Opuntia
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Opuntia is a genus in the cactus family, Cactaceae. The most common species is the Indian fig opuntia. Most culinary uses of the prickly pear refer to this species. Prickly pears are also known as tuna, sabra, nopal from the Nahuatl word nōpalli for the pads, or nostle, from the Nahuatl word nōchtli for the fruit, or paddle cactus. The genus is named for the Ancient Greek city of Opus, where, according to Theophrastus, like all true cactus species, prickly pears are native only to the Americas, but they have been introduced to other parts of the globe. Prickly pear species are found in abundance in Mexico, especially in the central and western regions, Prickly pear cactus is also native to coastal beach scrub environments and low open areas of the East Coast from Florida to Connecticut/Long Island. Prickly pears also produce a fruit, commonly eaten in Mexico and in the Mediterranean region, known as tuna, the fruit can be red, wine-red, green, or yellow-orange. The first introduction of prickly pears into Australia is ascribed to Governor Philip, brought from Brazil to Sydney, prickly pear grew in Sydney, New South Wales, where they were rediscovered in a farmers garden in 1839. They appear to have spread from New South Wales and caused great damage in the eastern states. In the Galápagos Islands, six different species are found, O. echios, O. galapageia, O. helleri, O. insularis, O. saxicola and these species are divided into 14 different varieties, most of these are confined to one or a few islands. For this reason, they have described as an excellent example of adaptive radiation. On the whole, islands with tall, trunked varieties have giant tortoises, Prickly pears are a prime source of food for the common giant tortoises in the Galápagos islands so they are important in the food web. Charles Darwin was the first to note that these cacti have thigmotactic anthers and this movement can be seen by gently poking the anthers of an open Opuntia flower. The same trait has evolved convergently in other cacti, chollas, now recognized to belong to the distinct genus Cylindropuntia, are distinguished by having cylindrical, rather than flattened, stem segments with large barbed spines. The barbed spines can remain embedded in the skin, causing discomfort, collectively, opuntias, chollas, and related plants are sometimes called opuntiads. When Carl Linnaeus published Species Plantarum in 1753 – the starting point for botanical nomenclature – he placed all the species of cactus known to him in one genus, Cactus. In 1754, the Scottish botanist Philip Miller divided cacti into several genera and he distinguished the genus largely on the form of its flowers and fruits. Also, not all species listed here may actually belong in this genus, – quipá Opuntia insularis Opuntia invicta syn. O. leptocarpa MacKensen, O. tenuispina Engelm
