1.
Terrorism
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Terrorism is, in its broadest sense, the use of intentionally indiscriminate violence as a means to create terror or fear, in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological aim. It is classified as fourth-generation warfare and as a violent crime, in modern times, terrorism is considered a major threat to society and therefore illegal under anti-terrorism laws in most jurisdictions. It is also considered a war crime under the laws of war when used to target non-combatants, such as civilians, neutral military personnel, a broad array of political organizations have practiced terrorism to further their objectives. It has been practiced by both right-wing and left-wing political organizations, nationalist groups, religious groups, revolutionaries, and ruling governments, there is no universally agreed upon definition of the term, and many definitions exist. According to data from the Global Terrorism Database, more than 61,000 incidents of non-state terrorism, Terrorism comes from the French word terrorisme, and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as practiced by the French government during the 1793–1794 Reign of Terror. The French word terrorisme in turn derives from the Latin verb terrere meaning to frighten, the Jacobins, coming to power in France in 1792, are said to have initiated the Reign of Terror. After the Jacobins lost power, the word terrorist became a term of abuse, although terrorism originally referred to acts committed by a government, currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people for political purposes in such a way as to create a spectacle. This meaning can be traced back to Sergey Nechayev, who described himself as a terrorist, Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group Peoples Retribution in 1869. It is a form of state-terrorism, the concept was however developed long before the Second Gulf War by Harlan Ullman as chair of a forum of retired military personnel. The definition of terrorism has proven controversial, various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions of terrorism in their national legislation. Moreover, the community has been slow to formulate a universally agreed. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term terrorism is politically and emotionally charged, in this regard, Angus Martyn, briefing the Australian parliament, stated, The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. The international community has adopted a series of conventions that define. U. S. Bruce Hoffman, a scholar, has noted, experts and other long-established scholars in the field are equally incapable of reaching a consensus. Four years and a second later, Schmid was no closer to the goal of his quest. Walter Laqueur despaired of defining terrorism in both editions of his work on the subject, maintaining that it is neither possible to do so nor worthwhile to make the attempt. Hoffman believes it is possible to some key characteristics of terrorism. A definition proposed by Carsten Bockstette at the George C, such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization
2.
Definitions of terrorism
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There is no universal agreement on the definition of terrorism. Various legal systems and government agencies use different definitions, moreover, governments have been reluctant to formulate an agreed upon and legally binding definition. These difficulties arise from the fact that the term is politically and emotionally charged and it can only be committed by non-state actors or undercover personnel serving on the behalf of their respective governments. It reaches more than the immediate target victims and is directed at targets consisting of a larger spectrum of society. It is both mala prohibita and mala in se, reasonable acts of self-defense, such as the use of force to kill, apprehend, or punish criminals who pose a threat to the lives of humans or property. Legitimate targets in war, such as combatants and strategic infrastructure that are an integral part of the enemys war effort. Collateral damage, including the infliction of damage to non-combatant targets during an attack on or attempting to attack legitimate targets in war. There are many reasons as to why there is no consensus regarding the definition of terrorism. Angus Martyn in a paper for the Australian Parliament has stated that The international community has never succeeded in developing an accepted comprehensive definition of terrorism. In the meantime, the community adopted a series of sectoral conventions that define. A2003 study by Jeffrey Record for the United States Army quoted a source that counted 109 definitions of terrorism that covered a total of 22 different definitional elements, yet terrorism is hardly the only enterprise involving violence and the threat of violence. So does war, coercive diplomacy, and bar room brawls, the term terrorism comes from French terrorisme, from Latin, terror, great fear, dread, related to the Latin verb terrere, to frighten. The terror cimbricus was a panic and state of emergency in Rome in response to the approach of warriors of the Cimbri tribe in 105 BCE, the French National Convention declared in September 1793 that terror is the order of the day. The period 1793–94 is referred to as La Terreur, maximilien Robespierre, a leader in the French revolution proclaimed in 1794 that Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible. The Committee of Public Safety agents that enforced the policies of The Terror were referred to as Terrorists, the word terrorism was first recorded in English-language dictionaries in 1798 as meaning systematic use of terror as a policy. This meaning originated with Russian radicals in the 1870s, sergey Nechayev, who founded the Peoples Reprisal in 1869, described himself as a terrorist. German radicalist writer Johann Most helped popularize the modern sense of the word by dispensing advice for terrorists in the 1880s, according to Myra Williamson, The meaning of terrorism has undergone a transformation. During the reign of terror a regime or system of terrorism was used as an instrument of governance, now the term terrorism is commonly used to describe terrorist acts committed by non-state or subnational entities against a state
3.
History of terrorism
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The history of terrorism is a history of well-known and historically significant individuals, entities, and incidents associated, whether rightly or wrongly, with terrorism. Scholars agree that terrorism is a term, and very few of those labeled terrorists describe themselves as such. It is common for opponents in a violent conflict to describe the other side as terrorists or as practicing terrorism, the association of the term only with state violence and intimidation lasted until the mid-19th century, when it began to be associated with non-governmental groups. Anarchism, often in league with rising nationalism and anti-monarchism, was the most prominent ideology linked with terrorism, near the end of the 19th century, anarchist groups or individuals committed assassinations of a Russian Tsar and a U. S. President. In the 20th century, terrorism continued to be associated with a vast array of anarchist, socialist, fascist and nationalist groups, some scholars also labeled as terrorist the systematic internal violence and intimidation practiced by states such as the Stalinist Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Though many have proposed, there is no consensus definition of the term terrorism. This in part derives from the fact that the term is politically and emotionally charged, listed below are some of the historically important understandings of terror and terrorism, and enacted but non-universal definitions of the term,1795. Government intimidation during the Reign of Terror in France, the general sense of systematic use of terror as a policy was first recorded in English in 1798. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly or selectively from a target population, United States, premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents. A definition proposed by Alex P. Schmid to the United Nations Crime Branch, given their nature or context, may seriously damage a country or an international organisation where committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population. India, Referencing Schmids 1992 proposal, the Supreme Court of India described terrorist acts as the equivalents of war crimes. Carsten Bockstette, a German military officer serving at the George C.2014, the Sicarii and the Hashshashin are described below, while the Fenian Brotherhood and Narodnaya Volya are discussed in the 19th Century sub-section. Other pre-Reign of Terror historical events associated with terrorism include the Gunpowder Plot. During the 1st century CE, the Jewish Zealots in Judaea Province rebelled, in 6 CE, according to contemporary historian Josephus, Judas of Galilee formed a small and more extreme offshoot of the Zealots, the Sicarii. Their efforts were directed against Jewish collaborators, including temple priests, Sadducees, Herodians. According to Josephus, the Sicarii would hide short daggers under their cloaks, mingle with crowds at large festivals, murder their victims and their most successful assassination was of the High Priest of Israel Jonathan. In the late 11th century, the Hashshashin arose, an offshoot of the Ismaili sect of Shia Muslims, led by Hassan-i Sabbah and opposed to Fatimid rule, the Hashshashin militia seized Alamut and other fortress strongholds across Persia. Hashshashin forces were too small to challenge enemies militarily, so they assassinated city governors, for example, they killed Janah al-Dawla, ruler of Homs, to please Ridwan of Aleppo, and assassinated Mawdud, Seljuk emir of Mosul, as a favor to the regent of Damascus
4.
Ideology
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Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or society has. An ideology is less encompassing than the ideas expressed in such as worldview, imaginary. Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant class of society such as the elite to all members of society as suggested in some Marxist and critical-theory accounts. In societies that distinguish between public and private life, every political or economic tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is propounded as a system of thought. In the Althusserian sense, ideology is the relation to the real conditions of existence. The term ideology was born during the Great Terror of French Revolution, the word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. The coup that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre saved Tracys life and freed him to pursue his work, assembling the words idea, from Greek ἰδέα and -logy, from -λογία. Tracy reacted to the phase of the revolution by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. He conceived of Ideology a liberal philosophy which provided a defense of individual liberty, property, free markets. He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, Tracy worked this out during the Napoleonic regime, and Napoleon Bonaparte came to view Ideology a term of abuse which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracys Institut National. Karl Marx adopted this negative sense of the term and used it in his writings, in the century after Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. The term ideology has dropped some of its sting, and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions. While Karl Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a part of institutional functioning. There has been analysis of different ideological patterns. This kind of analysis has been described by some as meta-ideology – the study of the structure, form, recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Ideas become ideologies through the subjective ongoing choices that people make, according to most recent analysis, ideologies are neither necessarily right nor wrong. Believers in ideology range from passive acceptance through fervent advocacy to true belief, an excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics and religions. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies, for Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related issues of utopia and historical myth
5.
Propaganda of the deed
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Propaganda of the deed is specific political action meant to be exemplary to others and serve as a catalyst for revolution. It is primarily associated with acts of left-wing resistance of the late 19th and early 20th century, most was an early influence on American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Berkman attempted propaganda by the deed when he tried in 1892 to kill industrialist Henry Clay Frick following the deaths by shooting of several striking workers. By the 1880s, the propaganda of the deed had begun to be used both within and outside of the anarchist movement to refer to individual bombings, regicides and tyrannicides. In 1886, French anarchist Clément Duval achieved a form of propaganda of the deed, stealing 15,000 francs from the mansion of a Parisian socialite, caught two weeks later, he was dragged from the court crying Long live anarchy. and condemned to death. Duvals sentence was commuted to hard labor on Devils Island. In the anarchist paper Révolte, Duval famously declared that, Theft exists only through the exploitation of man by man, when Society refuses you the right to exist, you must take it. The policeman arrested me in the name of the Law, I struck him in the name of Liberty, as early as 1887, a few important figures in the anarchist movement had begun to distance themselves from individual acts of violence. Peter Kropotkin thus wrote that year in Le Révolté that a structure based on centuries of history cannot be destroyed with a few kilos of dynamite. A variety of anarchists advocated the abandonment of these sorts of tactics in favor of revolutionary action. The anarcho-syndicalist, Fernand Pelloutier, argued in 1895 for renewed anarchist involvement in the movement on the basis that anarchism could do very well without the individual dynamiter. We want it to pervade and penetrate all the utterances of life, social and political, domestic and artistic, educational and recreational. There should be propaganda by word and action, the platform and the press, the corner, the workshop, and the domestic circle, acts of revolt. Those who agree with each other may co-operate, otherwise they should prefer to each on his own lines to trying to persuade one the other of the superiority of his own method. Later anarchist authors advocating propaganda of the deed included the German anarchist Gustav Landauer, for Gustav Landauer, propaganda of the deed meant the creation of libertarian social forms and communities that would inspire others to transform society. In Weak Statesmen, Weaker People, he wrote that the state is not something one can smash in order to destroy. The state is a relationship between human beings, one destroys it by entering into other relationships. In contrast, Errico Malatesta described propaganda by the deed as violent communal insurrections that were meant to ignite the imminent revolution, and this harmful tendency arises also when violence is used for a good end. e
6.
Communist terrorism
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Communist terrorism describes terrorism carried out in the advancement of, or by groups who adhere to, communism or related ideologies, such as Leninism, Maoism, or Marxism-Leninism. Communist terrorism in history has taken the form of state-sponsored terrorism, supported by communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, North Korea. In addition, non-state actors such as the Red Brigades, the Front Line, and these groups hope to inspire the masses to rise up and begin a revolution to overthrow existing political and economic systems. The end of the Cold War and the fall of the Soviet Union have been credited with leading to a decrease in such terrorism. Brian Crozier, founder and director of the Institute for the Study of Conflict, has said that communism was the source of both state-sponsored and non-state terrorism. In the 1930s, the term communist terrorism was used by the Nazi Party in Germany as part of a campaign to spread fear of communism. The Nazis blamed communist terrorism for the Reichstag fire, which used as an excuse to push through legislation removing personal freedom from German citizens. In the 1940s and 1950s, various Southeast Asian countries, such as the Philippines and Vietnam, in the 1960s, the Sino–Soviet split led to a marked increase in terrorist activity in the region. That decade also saw various terrorist groups commencing operations in Europe, Japan, yonah Alexander deemed these groups Fighting Communist Organizations, and says they rose out of the student union movement protesting against the Vietnam War. In Western Europe, these actions were known as Euroterrorism. The founders of FCOs argued that violence was necessary to achieve their goals, in the 1970s, there were an estimated 50 Marxist or Leninist groups operating in Turkey, and an estimated 225 groups operating in Italy. Groups also began operations in Ireland and the United Kingdom and these groups were deemed a major threat by NATO and the Italian, German, and British governments. Communist terrorism did not enjoy support from all ideologically sympathetic groups. The Italian Communist Party, for example, condemned such activity, in 1905, Lenin directed members of the St. Petersburg Combat Committee to commit acts of robbery, arson, and other terrorist acts. Not all scholars agree on Lenins position towards terrorism, joan Witte contends that he opposed the practice except when it was wielded by the party and the Red Army after 1917. She also suggests that he opposed the use of terrorism as a mindless act, chaliand and Blin contend that Lenin advocated mass terror but objected to disorderly, unorganized, or petty acts of terrorism. According to Richard Drake, Lenin had abandoned any reluctance to use terrorist tactics by 1917, Drake contends that the terrorist intent in Lenins program was unmistakable, as acknowledged by Trotsky in his book Terrorism and Communism, a Reply, published in 1918. In the book, Trotsky provided a justification for the use of terror, stating The man who repudiates terrorism in principle
7.
Buddhism and violence
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Buddhism encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to Gautama Buddha. Ahimsa, a meaning not to injure, is a primary virtue in Buddhism. Nirvana is the earliest and most common used to describe the goal of the Buddhist path. In the Chinese and Pali Canon, it is explained as, abstaining from taking life, from stealing, and from illicit sex. For the lay follower, the Cunda Kammaraputta Sutta elaborates, And how is one made pure in three ways by bodily action, There is the case where a certain person, abandoning the taking of life, abstains from the taking of life. Knife laid down, scrupulous, merciful, compassionate for the welfare of all living beings, abandoning the taking of what is not given, he abstains from taking what is not given. He does not take, in the manner of a thief, sarambha can be translated as accompanied by violence. As the mind filled with lobha, dosa and moha is led to actions which are akusala, indulging in violence is a form of self-harming. The Buddha is quoted in the Dhammapada as saying, All are afraid of the stick, putting oneself in anothers place, one should not beat or kill others. The Sutta Nipata says As I am, so are these, drawing the parallel to yourself, neither kill nor get others to kill. In Buddhism, to refuge in the Dharma - one of the Three Jewels - one should not harm other sentient beings. The Nirvana Sutra states, By taking refuge in the precious Dharma, one of the Five Precepts of Buddhist ethics or śīla states, I undertake the training rule to abstain from killing. The Buddha reportedly stated, Victory breeds hatred, happily the peaceful live giving up victory and defeat. These elements are used to indicate Buddhism is pacifistic and all violence done by Buddhists, the teaching of right speech in the Noble Eightfold Path, condemn all speech that is in any way harmful and divisive, encouraging to speak in thoughtful and helpful ways. The Pali Canon explained, And what is right speech, abstaining from lying, from divisive speech, from abusive speech, and from idle chatter, This is called right speech. Gananath Obeyesekere, Emeritus Professor of Anthropology at Princeton University, said that in the Buddhist doctrinal tradition, There is little evidence of intolerance, no justification for violence, no conception even of just wars or holy wars. In Southeast Asia, Thailand has had several prominent virulent Buddhist monastic calls for violence, in the 1970s, nationalist Buddhist monks like Phra Kittiwuttho argued that killing Communists did not violate any of the Buddhist precepts. The militant side of Thai Buddhism became prominent again in 2004 when a Malay Muslim insurgency renewed in Thailands deep south, in 1930s Rangoon, nationalist monks stabbed four Europeans
8.
Christian terrorism
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Christian terrorism comprises terrorist acts by groups or individuals who profess Christian motivations or goals. The early modern period in Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation, according to Vahabph D. Aghai, The beginnings of modern terrorism can be traced back to England and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Sue Mahan and Pamala L. Griset classify the plot as an act of terrorism, writing that Fawkes. Peter Steinfels also characterizes this plot as a case of religious terrorism. They targeted African Americans, Jews, Catholics, and other social or ethnic minorities, vehemently anti-Catholic, Klan members had an explicitly Protestant Christian terrorist ideology, basing their beliefs in part on a religious foundation in Protestant Christianity. The goals of the KKK included, from an early time onward, an intent to reestablish Protestant Christian values in America by any means possible, although members of the KKK swear to uphold Christian morality, virtually every Christian denomination has officially denounced the KKK. Within Christianity the Klan directed its hostilities against Catholics, modern Klan organizations remain associated with acts of domestic terrorism in the United States. According to terrorism expert David C, Rapoport, a religious wave, or cycle, of terrorism, dates from approximately 1979 to the present. According to Rapoport, this wave most prominently features Islamic terrorism, Anti-balaka groups destroyed almost all mosques in the Central African Republic unrest. In 2014, Amnesty International reported several massacres committed by the Anti-balaka against Muslim civilians, other sources report incidents of Muslims being cannibalized. While anti-balaka groups have been described as Christian militias in the media. Bishop Juan José Aguirre said, But in no sense can it be said that the anti-balaka is a Christian group, the Tony Blair Faith Foundation has also pointed out the presence of animists in anti-balaka groups. However, there have reports that many members of Anti-balaka groups have forcibly converted Muslims to Christianity. On 20 January 2014, Catherine Samba-Panza, the mayor of Bangui, was elected as the president in the second round voting. The election of Samba-Panza was welcomed by Ban Ki-moon, the UN Secretary-General, Samba-Panza was viewed as having been neutral and away from clan clashes. Her arrival to the presidency was accepted by the anti-balaka. Following the election, Samba-Panza made a speech in the parliament appealing to the anti-balaka to put down their weapons, the next day anti-Muslim violence continued in Bangui, just days after the Muslim former Health Minister Dr. As of 20 January, the ICRC reported that it had buried about 50 bodies within 48 hours and it also came after a mob killed two people whom they accused of being Muslim, then dragged the bodies through the streets and burnt them
9.
Mormonism and violence
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Mormonism and Mormon adherents have been subjected to, as well as in a few instances themselves used, significant violence throughout much of the religions history. In the early history of the United States, violence was used as a form of control, many people of different faiths used violence to harass and persecute different religious beliefs. Mormons were persecuted violently and pushed from Ohio to Missouri to Illinois, there were incidents of massacre, home burning, pillaging, and the murder of their founder, Joseph Smith. However, there were also a few incidents of Latter-day Saints who perpetrated violence. The effect of violence has affected the history of the Latter Day Saint movement. Early Mormon history is marked by instances of violence, which has helped shape the churchs views on violence. The first significant instance occurred in Missouri, Mormons tended to vote as a bloc there often unseating local political leadership. Three days later, a militia unit attacked a Mormon settlement at Hauns Mill, resulting in the death of 18 Mormons, the Extermination Order was not formally rescinded until 1976. In Nauvoo, Illinois, conflict was based on the tendency of Mormons to dominate community, economic. The city of Nauvoo had become the largest in Illinois, the city council was predominantly Mormon, other issues of contention included polygamy, freedom of speech, anti-slavery views during Smith’s presidential campaign, and the deification of man. After the destruction of the press of the Nauvoo Expositor, Joseph Smith was arrested and incarcerated in Carthage Jail where he was killed by a mob on June 27,1844. The conflict in Illinois became so severe that most of the residents of Nauvoo fled across the Mississippi River in February 1846, in response, in 1857 Buchanan sent one-third of United Statess standing army to Utah in what is known as the Utah War. During the Utah War, the Mountain Meadows massacre occurred, religious justification for capital punishment is not unique to Mormonism. In 1843, he or his scribe commented that the common method in Christian nations was hanging. In a March 4,1843, debate with church leader George A, in the churchs April 6,1843, general conference, Smith said he would wring a thiefs neck off if I can find him. If I cannot bring him to any other way. Brigham Young, Smiths successor in the LDS Church, initially held views on capital punishment similar to those of Smith. On January 27,1845, he spoke approvingly of Smiths toleration of corrupt men in Nauvoo who were guilty of murder and robbery, on the chance that they might repent, later that year, Young gave orders that when a man is found to be a thief
10.
Islamic terrorism
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Islamic terrorism or radical Islamic terrorism, is defined as any terrorist act, set of acts or campaign committed by groups or individuals who profess Islamic or Islamist motivations or goals. Islamic terrorists justify their violent tactics through interpreting the Quran and Hadith according to their own goals, the highest numbers of incidents and fatalities caused by Islamic terrorism occur in Iraq, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Pakistan and Syria. In 2015 four Islamic extremist groups were responsible for 74% of all deaths from terrorism, ISIS, Boko Haram, the Taliban and Al-Qaeda, according to the Global Terrorism Index 2016. In recent decades, such incidents have occurred on a scale, affecting not only Muslim-majority states in Africa and Asia, but also Europe, Russia, Australia, Canada. Such attacks have targeted Muslims and non-Muslims, the literal use of the phrase Islamic terrorism is disputed. Such use in Western political speech has variously been called counter-productive, highly politicized, intellectually contestable, however, others view the refusal to use the term as an act of self-deception. Some Muslim commentators assert that extremism within Islam goes back to the 7th century to the Kharijites, from their essentially political position, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting an approach of Takfir, whereby they declared other Muslims to be unbelievers. Dame Eliza Manningham Buller, the head of MI5, told the Iraq inquiry. For example, Hezbollah initiated suicide bombings after a complex reworking of the concept of martyrdom, the only way to apply a brake to suicide terrorism, Kramer argues, is to undermine its moral logic, by encouraging Muslims to see its incompatibility with their own values. Maajid Nawaz, in a debate with Mehdi Hasan, countered Scheuers contention, the prerequisite to such a disavowal of one’s country of birth is a recalibration of identity, this is the undeniable role of ideological narratives. Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, in their book, The Age of Sacred Terror and they are seen as a sacrament. Intended to restore to the universe a moral order that had been corrupted by the enemies of Islam and it is neither political or strategic but an act of redemption meant to humiliate and slaughter those who defied the hegemony of God. Two studies of the background of Muslim terrorists in Europe—one of the UK, many lack religious literacy and could actually be regarded as religious novices. Very few have been brought up in strongly religious households, some are involved in drug-taking, drinking alcohol and visiting prostitutes. MI5 says there is evidence that a religious identity actually protects against violent radicalisation. They are estranged from their parents and don’t know where to fit in, or they are recent converts, largely from rural areas and many from divorced families. If Islam or social conditions are essentially to blame for breeding terrorism, why does it not attract first- or third-generation French Muslims, or those whose Islamic culture is the deepest
11.
Khalistan movement
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The Khalistan movement was a Sikh nationalist movement, which seeks to create a separate country called Khalistān in the Punjab region of South Asia. The Punjab region has been the homeland for the Sikhs. However, the region also has a number of Hindus and Muslims, and before 1947. They put forward the idea of Khalistan, envisaging it as a state covering a small part of the greater Punjab region. Following Indias independence in 1947, the Punjabi Suba Movement led by the Akali Dal aimed at creation of a Punjabi-majority state in the Punjab region of India in the 1950s. Concerned that creating a Punjabi-majority state would mean creating a Sikh-majority state. Subsequently, the Sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, in 1971, the Khalistan proponent Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to the United States. He placed an advertisement in The New York Times proclaiming the formation of Khalistan and was able to collect millions of dollars from the Sikh diaspora. On 12 April 1980, he held a meeting with the Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi before declaring the formation of National Council of Khalistan and he declared himself as the President of the Council and Balbir Singh Sandhu as its Secretary General. In May 1980, Jagjit Singh Chauhan travelled to London and announced the formation of Khalistan, a similar announcement was made by Balbir Singh Sandhu, in Amritsar, who released stamps and currency of Khalistan. The inaction of the authorities in Amritsar and elsewhere was decried by Akali Dal headed by the Sikh leader Harchand Singh Longowal as a stunt by the Congress party of Indira Gandhi. Various pro-Khalistan outfits have been involved in a separatist movement against the government of India ever since, there are claims of funding from Sikhs outside India to attract young people into these pro-Khalistan militant groups. In the 1980s, some of the Khalistan proponents turned to militancy, the handling of the operation, damage to the Akal Takht and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the Indian Government. Many Sikhs strongly maintain that the attack resulted in the desecration of the holiest Sikh shrine, the Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards in retaliation. Following her death, thousands of Sikhs were massacred in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots in Delhi, termed as a genocide by the congress activists, in January 1986, the Golden Temple was occupied by militants belonging to All India Sikh Students Federation and Damdami Taksal. On 26 January 1986, the gathering passed a resolution favouring the creation of Khalistan, subsequently, a number of rebel militant groups in favour of Khalistan waged a major insurgency against the government of India. Pro-Khalistan organisations such as Dal Khalsa are also active outside India, in November 2015, a Sarbat Khalsa, or congregation of the Sikh community was called in response to recent unrest in the Punjab region. The Sarbat Khalsa adopted 13 resolutions to strengthen Sikh institutions and traditions, the 12th resolution reaffirmed the resolutions adopted by the Sarbat Khalsa in 1986, including the declaration of the sovereign state of Khalistan
12.
Militia organizations in the United States
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Militia organizations in the United States are private organizations that include paramilitary or similar elements. These groups may refer to themselves as militia, unorganized militia, while groups such as the Posse Comitatus existed as early as the 1980s, the movement gained momentum after controversial standoffs with government agents in the early 1990s. By the mid-1990s, groups were active in all 50 US states, although the far-right patriot movement had long been marginalized, cultural factors paved the way for the wide-scale growth of the libertarian or ideological militia movement. Critic Mark Pitcavage described the movement of the 1990s, The militia movement is a right-wing movement that arose following controversial standoffs in the 1990s. It inherited paramilitary traditions of earlier groups, especially the conspiratorial, the militia movement claims that militia groups are sanctioned by law but uncontrolled by government, in fact, they are designed to oppose a tyrannical government. During the 1990s public attention to the movement began to grow. This increased public scrutiny and law enforcement pressure, and brought in more recruits due to the awareness of the movement. In March 1996, agents of the FBI and other law enforcement organizations surrounded the 960-acre eastern Montana Justus Township compound of the Montana Freemen. The Freemen were a Sovereign Citizen group that included elements of the Christian Identity ideology, espoused common law legal theories, Montana legislator Carl Ohs mediated through the standoff. Both Randy Weaver and Bo Gritz had attempted to talk to the group but had given up in frustration, a break finally came when far right leaders abandoned the group to their fate. A1999 US Department of Justice analysis of the militia threat at the Millennium conceded that the vast majority of militias were reactive. The Hutaree militia of Michigan was in fact prevented from killing a police officer, by 2001, the militia movement seemed to be in decline, having peaked in 1996 with 858 groups. With the post-2007 global financial crisis and the election of Barack Obama to the United States presidency in 2008, others subscribe to the insurrection theory which describes the right of the body politic to rebel against the established government in the face of tyranny. Some groups legitimately peruse supplementing state and national defenses in a time of need, such as invasion, foreign cited insurrections, Militia service is as old as the United States. Before independence, local communities formed their own security forces, composed of citizens who would rally in times of emergency, throughout our history, the Reserve and National Guard components of the U. S. military have made essential contributions to the nation’s defense. The relationships between the National Guard, the full-time Active federal forces, and the Active component’s Reserve elements have changed over time as the needs of the country have changed. For much of its history, the U. S. maintained a small Active component that was expanded by draft or mobilized reserves, tensions with the Soviet Union led to sustainment of a large standing military that changed the relationship between Active and Reserve/Guard elements. The Southern Poverty Law Center identified 334 militia groups at their peak in 2011 and it identified 276 in 2015, up from 202 in 2014
13.
Resistance movement
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It may seek to achieve its objectives through either the use of nonviolent resistance, or the use of force, whether armed or unarmed. The term resistance is used to designate a movement considered legitimate. Organizations and individuals critical of foreign intervention and supporting forms of organized movement tend to favor the term, when such a resistance movement uses violence, those favorably disposed to it may also speak of freedom fighters. More recently the 1977 Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, in which peoples are fighting against colonial domination and alien occupation and against racist regimes. This phraseology contains many ambiguities that cloud the issue of who is or is not a legitimate combatant, ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment. The modern usage of the term Resistance originates from the self-designation of many movements during World War II, the term is still strongly linked to the context of the events of 1939–45, and particularly to opposition movements in Axis-occupied countries. Using the term resistance to designate a movement meeting the definition prior to World War II might be considered by some to be an anachronism. However, such movements existed prior to World War II, and there have been many after it – for example in struggles against colonialism, Resistance has become a generic term that has been used to designate underground resistance movements in any country. Resistance movements can include any irregular armed force that rises up against an enforced or established authority, government and this frequently includes groups that consider themselves to be resisting tyranny. Some resistance movements are underground organizations engaged in a struggle for liberation in a country under military occupation or totalitarian domination. Any government facing violent acts from a resistance movement usually condemns such acts as terrorism, Resistance during World War II was mainly dedicated to fighting the Axis occupiers. Germany itself also had an anti-Nazi German resistance movement in this period, so, resistance is often understood as something that always opposes to power or domination. However, some scholars believe and argue that looking at resistance in relation to only power and domination will not provide us a full understanding of the actual nature of resistance. Not all power, domination or oppression leads to resistance, and not all cases of resistance are against or to oppose what we categorize as “power. ”In fact, they believe that resistance has its own characteristics and spatialities. There are various forms of resistance for various reasons, which then can be, again, different geographical spaces can also make different forms of resistance possible or impossible and more effective or less effective. The reason is that these variations can define the nature and outcome of resistance and he compared this accident with a similar fire accident at Triangle Shirtwaist Company, New York,1911, killing 146 workers, which caused a labor resistance by 100,000 people. For an effective resistance, he proposed that four tasks should be undertaken, There are many forms of resistance in relations to different power dominations and actors. Moreover, some other resistance takes place in order to resist or question the norms or discourse or in order to challenge a global trend called globalization
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Death squad
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A death squad is an armed group that conducts extrajudicial killings or forced disappearances of persons for the purposes of political repression, genocide, or revolutionary terror. These killings are often conducted in ways meant to ensure the secrecy of the killers identities, Death squads may have the support of domestic or foreign governments. They may comprise a secret force, paramilitary groups, government soldiers, policemen. They may also be organized as vigilantes, when death squads are not controlled by the state, they may consist of insurgent forces or organized crime. Historically, the origins of what are known as death squads goes back many decades to the Bolshevik Cheka as a part of the Red Terror in Russia. The Cheka were initially a party organization and later were given official powers and authority for extrajudicial secret arrest, internment and they ultimately institutionalized the practices into the Gulag system. Einsatzgruppen were used by Nazi Germany as a part of the Holocaust, apparently, the term was first used by the fascist Iron Guard in Romania. It officially installed Iron guard death squads in 1936 in order to kill political enemies and it was also used during the Battle of Algiers by Paul Aussaresses. In Southeast Asia, extrajudicial killings were conducted by both sides during the Vietnam War, Nguyễn Văn Lém, a member of the Viet Cong, commanded a death squad targeting South Vietnamese policemen and their families during the Tet Offensive in Saigon. On February 1,1968, Captain Bay Lop was arrested by South Vietnamese police while dumping the bodies of his units victims, Captain Bay Lop was then shot in the head by South Vietnamese Police Major General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan. A photograph taken of the event by American reporter Eddie Adams horrified people throughout the Western World, Argentina used extrajudicial killings as way of crushing the liberal and communist opposition to the military junta during the Dirty war of the 1970s. For example, Alianza Anticomunista Argentina was a death squad mainly active during the Dirty War. The Chilean military regime of 1973–1990 also committed such killings, during the Salvadoran civil war, death squads achieved notoriety on March 24,1980, when a sniper assassinated Archbishop Óscar Romero as he said Mass inside a convent chapel. Death squads were instrumental in killing hundreds of real and suspected Communists, priests who were spreading Liberation Theology, such as Father Rutilio Grande, were often targeted as well. The murderers were found to have soldiers of the Salvadoran military. These events prompted outrage in the U. S. and led to a cutoff in military aid at the end of his presidency. Death Squad activity stretched well into the Reagan years as well, honduras also had death squads active through the 1980s, the most notorious of which was the army unit Battalion 316. Hundreds of people, teachers, politicians, and union bosses were assassinated by government-backed forces, Battalion 316 received substantial training from the United States Central Intelligence Agency
15.
Clandestine cell system
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In a cell structure, each small group of people in the cell know the identities of only the people in their cell. It is also a used by criminal organizations, undercover operatives. Historically, clandestine organizations have avoided electronic communications, as signals intelligence is a strength of conventional militaries, in the context of tradecraft, covert and clandestine are not synonymous. As noted in the definition in an operation the identity of the sponsor is concealed, but in a clandestine operation. At least insofar as someone or something that is known to exist by at least two individuals can be concealed, put differently, clandestine means hidden, and covert means deniable. The adversary is aware that an activity is happening, but theoretically and hypothetically does not know who is doing it. Separating action from sponsorship is a technicality hopefully providing sufficient distance from the action so that the sponsor can claim ignorance in the event the covert plot is discovered. Clandestine activities, however, if successful, are unknown to the adversary. Espionage is espionage regardless of whether or not the intelligence and information provided to the sponsor - friend or foe - is of benefit or use or not, even if the information was intentionally misleading, fake or inaccurate the crime is in passing it to a foreign government. A sleeper cell refers to a cell, or isolated grouping of sleeper agents that lies dormant until it receives orders or decides to act, in World War II, Operation Jedburgh teams parachuted into occupied France to lead unconventional warfare units. They would be composed of two officers, one American or British, and the other French, the latter preferably from the area into which they landed, the third member of the team was a radio operator. Especially through the French member, they would contact trusted individuals in the area of operation, if the mission was sabotage, reconnaissance or espionage, there was no need to meet in large units. If the team was to carry out action, often an unwise mission unless an appreciable number of the locals had military experience. Even then, the hideouts of the leadership were known only to subcell leaders, the legitimacy of the Jedburgh team came from its known affiliation with Allied powers, and it was a structure more appropriate for UW than for truly clandestine operations. Also known as the Viet Cong, this grew from earlier anticolonial groups fighting the French. Its command, control, and communication techniques derived from the experiences of these insurgent groups. The group had support from North Vietnam, and, indirectly. It had parallel political and military structures, often overlapping, see Viet Cong and PAVN strategy and tactics
16.
Leaderless resistance
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Leaderless resistance can encompass anything from non-violent protest and civil disobedience to vandalism, terrorism and other violent activity. Leaderless cells lack bidirectional, vertical command links and operate without hierarchal command, while it lacks a central command, the concept includes a common goal between the individual actor and the group or social movement from which the ideology was learned. A typical covert cell can be an individual or a small group. The basic characteristic of the structure is that there is no communication between cells which are otherwise acting toward the same goals. Members of one cell usually have little or no information on who else is agitating on behalf of their cause. Leaderless movements may have a symbolic figurehead and this can be a public figure or an inspirational author, who picks generic targets and objectives, but does not actually manage or execute plans. As a result, leaderless resistance cells are not susceptible to informants. The latter strategy, however, usually some form of organized. In some cases, a leaderless movement may evolve into a coherent insurgency or guerrilla movement. In the same conflict, the British leadership had extensive plans for the use of resistance in the event of a successful German invasion. While the concept of resistance is often based on resistance by violent means. The concept of resistance was developed by Col. Ulius Louis Amoss. An anti-communist, Amoss saw leaderless resistance as a way to prevent the penetration and destruction of CIA-supported resistance cells in Eastern European countries under Soviet control. The concept was revived and popularized in an essay published by the anti-government Ku Klux Klan member Louis Beam in 1983 and again in 1992. Beam advocated leaderless resistance as a technique for white nationalists to continue the struggle against the U. S. government, despite an overwhelming imbalance in power and resources. A more workable approach would be to convince the like-minded individuals to form independent cells, within a year, a leaderless model of hunt-sabotage groups was formed across the country. The Band of Mercy was then formed in 1972 using direct action to liberate animals, ronnie Lee and others then changed the name to the Animal Liberation Front in 1976 and the leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation was born. Letter bombs were sent to the then British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, the Earth Liberation Front was then formed in 1992, which broke from Earth First
17.
Aircraft hijacking
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Aircraft hijacking is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by an individual or a group. In most cases, the pilot is forced to fly according to the orders of the hijackers, occasionally, however, the hijackers have flown the aircraft themselves, such as the September 11 attacks. In at least three cases, the plane was hijacked by the pilot or co-pilot. Unlike the typical hijackings of vehicles or ships, skyjacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Most aircraft hijackers intend to use the passengers as hostages, either for monetary ransom or for political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, including demanding the release of inmates, highlighting the grievances of a particular community. Hijackers also have used aircraft as a weapon to target particular locations, hijackings for hostages commonly produce an armed standoff during a period of negotiation between hijackers and authorities, followed by some form of settlement. Settlements do not always meet the original demands. If the hijackers demands are deemed too great and the show no inclination to surrender. 1929, In the Fort Worth Star-Telegram daily newspaper 19 September 1970 and he was flying a postal route for the Mexican company Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from San Luis Potosí to Toreon and then on to Guadalajara. He was approached by Gen. Saturnino Cedillo, governor of the state of San Luis Potosí, Cedillo was accompanied by several other men. He was told through an interpreter that he had no choice in the matter and he stalled long enough to convey the information to his boss, who told him to cooperate. He had no maps, but was guided by the men as he flew above Mexican mountains and he landed on a road as directed, and was held captive for several hours under armed guard. He eventually was released with a Buenos from Cedillo and his staff, DeCelles kept his flight log, according to the article, but he did not file a report with authorities. He went on to work for the FAA in Fort Worth after his flying career,1931, The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21,1931, in Arequipa, Peru. Byron Richards, flying a Ford Tri-Motor, was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries and he refused to fly them anywhere and after a 10-day standoff, Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for flying one group member to Lima. 1939, The worlds first fatal hijacking occurred on 28 October 1939, larry Pletch shot Carl Bivens,39, a flight instructor who was offering Pletch lessons in a yellow Taylor Cub monoplane with tandem controls in the air after taking off in Brookfield, Missouri. Bivens, instructing from the front seat, was shot in the back of the head twice, Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line, Pletch later confessed to prosecutors in Missouri
18.
Beheading in Islam
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Beheading was a standard method of execution in pre-modern Islamic law, as well as in pre-modern European law. Its use had been abandoned in most countries by the end of the 20th century, currently, it is used only in Saudi Arabia. It also remains a legal method of execution in Qatar, Yemen, and reportedly in Iran, in recent times, non-state Jihadist organization such as ISIL and Tawhid and Jihad use or have used beheadings. Since 2002, they have circulated beheading videos as a form of terror and their actions have been condemned by other militant and terrorist groups, and well as by mainstream Islamic scholars and organizations. The use of beheading for punishment continued well-into the 20th century in both Islamic and non-Islamic nations, when done properly, it was once considered a humane and honorable method of execution. There is a debate as to whether the Quran discusses beheading, two surahs could potentially be used to provide a justification for beheading in the context of war, When the Lord inspired the angels I am with you. So make those who stand firm. I will throw fear into the hearts of those who disbelieve, then smite the necks and smite of them each finger. Among classical commentators, Fakhr al-Din al-Razi interprets the last sentence of 8,12 to mean striking at the enemies in any way possible, al-Qurtubi reads the reference to striking at the necks as conveying the gravity and severity of the fighting. For al-Qurtubi, al-Tabari, and Ibn Kathir, the indicates the brevity of the act. Furthermore, surah 47,4 goes on to recommend generosity or ransom when waging war, justification for beheading has also been drawn from the Siras and Hadiths. There is no agreement among scholars as to the accuracy of this. Beheading was the method of executing the death penalty under classical Islamic law. It was also, together with hanging, one of the methods of execution in the Ottoman Empire. Currently, Saudi Arabia is the country in the world which uses decapitation within its Islamic legal system. The majority of executions carried out by the Wahhabi government of Saudi Arabia are public beheadings, according to Amnesty, beheading have been carried out by state authorities in Iran as recently as 2001, but as of 2014 is no longer in use. It is also a form of execution in Qatar and Yemen. Capital punishment of the Banu Qurayza for treaty violations,400 killed in 627, saladin personally beheaded Raynald of Châtillon, a Christian knight who served in the Second Crusade and organized attacks against Islams two holiest cities after the Battle of Hattin
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Bioterrorism
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Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These agents are bacteria, viruses, or toxins, and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form, for the use of this method in warfare, see biological warfare. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention bioterrorism is the release of viruses, bacteria, toxins or other harmful agents to cause illness or death in people, animals. Biological agents can be spread through the air, water, or in food, terrorists tend to use biological agents because they are extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus, can be spread person to person and some, like anthrax. A biological weapon is useful to terrorists mainly as a method of creating mass panic, however, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists. The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans, by the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This generally proved to be ineffective, shortly after the start of World War I, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France. At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders, Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain, Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918, in 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia’s mules and horses on the Eastern Front and these actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys. In 1972 police in Chicago arrested two students, Allen Schwander and Stephen Pera, who had planned to poison the citys water supply with typhoid. Schwander had founded a terrorist group, R. I. S. E, while Pera collected and grew cultures from the hospital where he worked. The two men fled to Cuba after being released on bail, Schwander died of natural causes in 1974, while Pera returned to the U. S. in 1975 and was put on probation. In 1980 the World Health Organization announced the eradication of smallpox, although the disease has been eliminated in the wild, frozen stocks of smallpox virus are still maintained by the governments of the United States and Russia. Disastrous consequences are feared if rogue politicians or terrorists were to get hold of the smallpox strains, since vaccination programs are now terminated, the world population is more susceptible to smallpox than ever before. In Oregon in 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population
20.
Car bomb
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A car bomb, or truck bomb, also known as a vehicle-borne improvised explosive device, is an improvised explosive device placed inside a car or other vehicle and detonated. The latter type may be parked up or the vehicle might be used to deliver the bomb. It is commonly used as a weapon of terrorism or guerrilla warfare, the gasoline in the vehicles fuel tank may make the explosion of the bomb more powerful by dispersing and igniting the fuel. Car bombs are effective weapons as they are a way to transport a large amount of explosives to the intended target. A car bomb also produces copious shrapnel, or flying debris, in recent years, car bombs have become widely used by suicide bombers. Since the height of the Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign in 1991, where major public roads pass near buildings, road closures may be the only option. Historically these tactics have encouraged potential bombers to target soft or unprotected targets, in the Syrian Civil War, and Iraq, the car bomb concept was modified so that it could be driven and detonated by a driver, but armoured to withstand incoming fire. The vehicle would be driven to its area, in a similar fashion to a kamikaze plane of WW2. These were known by the acronym SVBIED or VBIEDs and this saw generally civilian cars with armour plating added, that would protect the car for as long as possible, so that it could reach its intended target. Cars were sometimes driven into enemy troop areas, or into incoming enemy columns, most often, the SVIEDs were used by ISIS against Government forces, but also used by Syrian rebels against government troops. In some cases trucks were used, as well as cars. They were sometimes used to start an assault, generally the vehicles had a large space that would contain very heavy explosives. In some cases, animal drawn carts with improvised explosive devices have been used, tactically, a single vehicle may be used, or an initial breakthrough vehicle, then followed by another vehicle. Though using a less refined technology, the principle of the hellburner is similar to that of the car bomb. The first possible suicide car bombing was the Bath School bombings of 1927, mass-casualty car bombing, and especially suicide car bombing, is currently a predominantly Middle Eastern phenomenon. The tactic was first introduced to the region by the Stern Gang, the tactic was widely used in the Lebanese Civil War by the Islamic fundamentalist group Hezbollah. A notable suicide car bombing was the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing, marines and 58 French military personnel. The perpetrator of attacks has never been positively confirmed
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Cyberterrorism
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Cyberterrorism is the use of the Internet to conduct violent acts that result in or threaten the loss of life or significant bodily harm in order to achieve political gains through intimidation. By these narrow and broad definitions, it is difficult to identify instances of online terrorism are cyberterrorism or cybercrime. Cyberterrorism can be defined as the intentional use of computer, networks. The objectives of such terrorists may be political or ideological since this can be seen as a form of terrorism, there have been several major and minor instances of cyberterrorism. Al-Qaeda utilized the internet to communicate with supporters and even to new members. There is debate over the definition of the scope of cyberterrorism. There is variation in qualification by motivation, targets, methods, depending on context, cyberterrorism may overlap considerably with cybercrime, cyberwar or ordinary terrorism. Eugene Kaspersky, founder of Kaspersky Lab, now feels that cyberterrorism is an accurate term than cyberwar. He states that with todays attacks, you are clueless about who did it or when they strike again. There are some who say that cyberterrorism does not exist and is really a matter of hacking or information warfare, if a strict definition is assumed, then there have been no or almost no identifiable incidents of cyberterrorism, although there has been much public concern. However, there is an old saying that death or loss of property are the products of terrorism. If any incident in the world can create terror, it may be called cyberterrorism. Or to intimidate any person in furtherance of such objectives, the term appears first in defense literature, surfacing in reports by the U. S. Army War College as early as 1998. Examples are hacking into computer systems, introducing viruses to vulnerable networks, web site defacing, Denial-of-service attacks, for the use of the Internet by terrorist groups for organization, see Internet and terrorism. Cyberterrorism can also include attacks on Internet business, but when this is done for economic rather than ideological. Cyberterrorism is limited to actions by individuals, independent groups, or organizations, any form of cyber warfare conducted by governments and states would be regulated and punishable under international law. As shown above, there are definitions of cyber terrorism. There is controversy concerning overuse of the term and hyperbole in the media, the organization possesses little target analysis, command and control, or learning capability
22.
Explosive material
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An explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material, which may be composed of a single ingredient or a combination of two or more. Materials that detonate are said to be high explosives and materials that deflagrate are said to be low explosives, Explosives may also be categorized by their sensitivity. Sensitive materials that can be initiated by a small amount of heat or pressure are primary explosives. A wide variety of chemicals can explode, a number are manufactured specifically for the purpose of being used as explosives. The remainder are too dangerous, sensitive, toxic, expensive, unstable, in contrast, some materials are merely combustible or flammable if they burn without exploding. The distinction, however, is not razor-sharp, though early thermal weapons, such as Greek fire, have existed since ancient times, the first widely used explosive in warfare and mining was black powder, invented in 9th century China. This material was sensitive to water, and it produced copious amounts of dark smoke, the first useful explosive stronger than black powder was nitroglycerin, developed in 1847. Since nitroglycerin is a liquid and highly unstable, it was replaced by nitrocellulose, TNT in 1863, smokeless powder, dynamite in 1867, World War I saw the adoption of TNT trinitrotoluene in artillery shells. World War II saw a use of new explosives. In turn, these have largely replaced by more powerful explosives such as C-4. However, C-4 and PETN react with metal and catch fire easily, yet unlike TNT, C-4 and PETN are waterproof, the largest commercial application of explosives is mining. In Materials Science and Engineering, explosives are used in cladding, a thin plate of some material is placed atop a thick layer of a different material, both layers typically of metal. Atop the thin layer is placed an explosive, at one end of the layer of explosive, the explosion is initiated. The two metallic layers are forced together at high speed and with great force, the explosion spreads from the initiation site throughout the explosive. Ideally, this produces a metallurgical bond between the two layers and it is possible that some fraction of the surface material from either layer eventually gets ejected when the end of material is reached. Hence, the mass of the now welded bilayer, may be less than the sum of the masses of the two initial layers, there are applications where a shock wave, and electrostatics, can result in high velocity projectiles. Thus, explosives are substances that contain an amount of energy stored in chemical bonds. Consequently, most commercial explosives are compounds containing -NO2, -ONO2 and -NHNO2 groups that
23.
Hostage
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A hostage is a person or entity which is held by one of two belligerent parties to the other or seized as security for the carrying out of an agreement, or as a preventive measure against war. A person who seizes one or more hostages is known as a hostage-taker, if the hostages are present voluntarily, then the receiver is known as a host. These obligations would be in the form of signing of a peace treaty and this would eventually influence them culturally and open the way for an amicable political line if they ascended to power after release. This caused the element gīsl = hostage in many old Germanic personal names, the practice was also commonplace in the Imperial Chinese tributary system, especially between the Han and Tang dynasties. The practice continued through the early Middle Ages, the Irish High King Niall of the Nine Hostages got his epithet Noígiallach because, by taking nine petty kings hostage, he had subjected nine other principalities to his power. This practice was adopted in the early period of the British occupation of India. The practice of taking hostages as security for the out of a treaty between civilized states is now obsolete. In France, after the revolution of Prairial, the law of hostages was passed. Relatives of émigrés were taken from disturbed districts and imprisoned, and were liable to execution at any attempt to escape. Sequestration of their property and deportation from France followed on the murder of a republican, four to every such murder, the law only resulted in an increase in the insurrection. Napoleon in 1796 had used similar measures to deal with the insurrection in Lombardy, another case where hostages have been taken in modern warfare has been the subject of much discussion. The measure seems to have been effective, in 1900 during the Second Boer War, by a proclamation issued at Pretoria, Lord Roberts adopted the plan for a similar reason, but shortly afterwards it was abandoned. The Germans also, between the surrender of a town and its occupation, took hostages as security against outbreaks of violence by the inhabitants. It may be noticed, however, that the hostages would suffer should the acts aimed at be performed by the authorized belligerent forces of the enemy, the regulations, however do not allude to the practice of taking hostage. In May 1871, at the close of the Paris Commune and it was an act of maniacal despair, on the defeat at Mont Valrien on the 4 April and the entry of the army into Paris on the 21 May. Taking hostages is today considered a crime or an act of terrorism, the criminal activity is known as kidnapping. An acute situation where hostages are kept in a building or a vehicle that has taken over by armed terrorists or common criminals is often called a hostage crisis. Common Article 3 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions states that the taking of hostages during a conflict is a war crime and shall remain prohibited at any time
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Improvised explosive device
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An improvised explosive device is a bomb constructed and deployed in ways other than in conventional military action. It may be constructed of conventional explosives, such as an artillery round. IEDs are commonly used as roadside bombs, IEDs are generally seen in heavy terrorist actions or in unconventional warfare by guerrillas or commando forces in a theater of operations. In the second Iraq War, IEDs were used extensively against US-led invasion forces and they are also used in Afghanistan by insurgent groups, and have caused over 66% of coalition casualties in the 2001–present Afghanistan War. IEDs were also used extensively by cadres of the rebel Tamil Tiger organization against military targets in Sri Lanka, an IED is a bomb fabricated in an improvised manner incorporating destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals and designed to destroy or incapacitate personnel or vehicles. In some cases, IEDs are used to distract, disrupt, or delay an opposing force, IEDs may incorporate military or commercially sourced explosives, and often combine both types, or they may otherwise be made with homemade explosives. An IED has five components, a switch, an initiator, container, charge, an IED designed for use against armoured targets such as personnel carriers or tanks will be designed for armour penetration, by using a shaped charge that creates an explosively formed penetrator. IEDs are extremely diverse in design and may contain many types of initiators, detonators, penetrators, antipersonnel IEDs typically also contain fragmentation-generating objects such as nails, ball bearings or even small rocks to cause wounds at greater distances than blast pressure alone could. IEDs are triggered by various methods, including remote control, infrared or magnetic triggers, in some cases, multiple IEDs are wired together in a daisy chain to attack a convoy of vehicles spread out along a roadway. IEDs made by inexperienced designers or with substandard materials may fail to detonate, the sophistication of an IED depends on the training of the designer and the tools and materials available. IEDs may use artillery shells or conventional high-explosive charges as their explosive load as well as homemade explosives, chlorine liquid has been added to IEDs in Iraq, producing clouds of chlorine gas. A vehicle-borne IED, or VBIED, is a term for a car bomb or truck bomb but can be any type of transportation such as a bicycle, motorcycle, donkey. They are typically employed by insurgents, and can carry a large payload. They can also be detonated from a remote location, vBIEDs can create additional shrapnel through the destruction of the vehicle itself and use vehicle fuel as an incendiary weapon. The act of a persons being in this vehicle and detonating it is known as an SVBIED suicide, the fougasse was improvised for centuries, eventually inspiring factory-made land mines. Ernst Jünger mentions in his war memoir the systematic use of IEDs, another early example of coordinated large-scale use of IEDs was the Belarusian Rail War launched by Belarusian guerrillas against the Germans during World War II. Both command-detonated and delayed-fuse IEDs were used to derail thousands of German trains during 1943–1944, starting six months before the invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR on 27 December 1979, the Afghan Mujahideen were supplied with large quantities of military supplies. Among those supplies were many types of anti-tank mines, the insurgents often removed the explosives from several foreign anti-tank mines, and combined the explosives in tin cooking-oil cans for a more powerful blast
25.
Insurgency
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An insurgency is a rebellion against authority when those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents. The nature of insurgencies is an ambiguous concept, where a revolt takes the form of armed rebellion, it may not be viewed as an insurgency if a state of belligerency exists between one or more sovereign states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, criticisms of widely held ideas and actions about insurgency started to occur in works of the 1960s, they are still common in recent studies. Sometimes there may be one or more simultaneous insurgencies occurring in a country, the Iraq insurgency is one example of a recognized government versus multiple groups of insurgents. Other historic insurgencies, such as the Russian Civil War, have been rather than a straightforward model made up of two sides. During the Angolan Civil War there were two sides, MPLA and UNITA. At the same time, there was another separatist movement for the independence of the Cabinda region headed up by FLEC, if there is a rebellion against the authority and those taking part in the rebellion are not recognized as belligerents, the rebellion is an insurgency. However, not all rebellions are insurgencies, as a state of belligerency may exist between one or more states and rebel forces. When insurgency is used to describe a movements unlawfulness by virtue of not being authorized by or in accordance with the law of the land, its use is neutral. The use of the term insurgency recognizes the political motivation of those who participate in an insurgency, if an uprising has little support, such a resistance may be described as brigandry and those who participate as brigands. The distinction on whether an uprising is an insurgency or a belligerency has not been as clearly codified as many other covered by the internationally accepted laws of war for two reasons. The dispute resulted in a compromise wording being included in the Hague Conventions known as the Martens Clause from the diplomat who drafted the clause. The United States Department of Defense defines it as this, An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a government through use of subversion. The United States counterinsurgency Field Manual, This definition does not consider the morality of the conflict, or the different viewpoints of the government and it is focused more on the operational aspects of the types of actions taken by the insurgents and the counter-insurgents. The Department of Defenses definition focuses on the type of violence employed towards specified ends and this characterization fails to address the argument from moral relativity that one mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter. The French expert on Indochina and Vietnam, Bernard Fall, who wrote Street Without Joy, insurgency has been used for years in professional military literature. Under the British, the situation in Malaya as often called the Malayan insurgency or the Troubles in Northern Ireland, each had different specifics but shared the property of an attempt to disrupt the central government by means considered illegal by that government. North points out, however, that insurgents today need not be part of an organized movement, Some are networked with only loose objectives
26.
Kidnapping
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In criminal law, kidnapping is the abduction or unlawful transportation of a person, usually to hold the person against his or her will. This may be done for ransom, wikipedia. org/wiki/Stockholm_syndrome Kidnapping that does not result in a homicide is an offence that comes with a maximum possible penalty of life imprisonment. A murder that results from kidnapping is classified as 1st-degree, with a sentence of imprisonment that results from conviction. Part 1 allows sentencing kidnappers to maximum imprisonment of 8 years or a fine of the fifth category, part 2 allows maximum imprisonment of 9 years or a fine of the fifth category if there are serious injuries. Part 3 allows maximum imprisonment of 12 years or a fine of the fifth if the victim has been killed. Part 4 allows sentencing people that collaborate with kidnapping, part 1,2 and 3 will apply also to them. Kidnapping is an offence under the law of England and Wales. In R v D, Lord Brandon said, First, the nature of the offence is an attack on, and infringement of and this is the case regardless of the age of the child. A very small child will not have the understanding or intelligence to consent and this means that absence of consent will be a necessary inference from the age of the child. It is a question of fact for the jury whether a child has sufficient understanding. Lord Brandon said, I should not expect a jury to find at all frequently that a child under fourteen had sufficient understanding and intelligence to give its consent. If, on the hand, the child did not consent. Mode of trial Kidnapping is an indictable-only offence, sentence Kidnapping is punishable with imprisonment or fine at the discretion of the court. There is no limit on the fine or the term of imprisonment that may be imposed provided the sentence is not inordinate. The use of force to take and detain will also be regarded as an assault, law in the United States follows from English common law. The fact that a victim may have been taken across state lines brings the crime within the ambit of federal criminal law. Most states recognize different types of kidnapping and punish accordingly, New York bases its definition of first-degree kidnapping on the duration and purpose. There are several deterrents to kidnapping in the United States of America, among these are, The extreme logistical challenges involved in successfully exchanging the money for the return of the victim without being apprehended or surveiled
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Letter bomb
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They have been used in Israeli targeted killings and in terrorist attacks such as those of the Unabomber. Some countries have agencies whose duties include the interdiction of letter bombs, the letter bomb may have been in use for nearly as long as the common postal service has been in existence, as far back as 1764. Letter bombs are designed to explode immediately on opening, with the intention of seriously injuring or killing the recipient. A related threat is mail containing unidentified powders or chemicals, as in the 2001 anthrax attacks, one of the worlds first mailbombs is mentioned in the 18th century diary of Danish official and historian Bolle Willum Luxdorph. His diary mainly consists of references to news from Denmark. In the entry for January 19,1764 he writes the following, when he opens it, therein is to be found gunpowder and a firelock which sets fire unto it, so he became very injured. The entry for February 15 same year says, Colonel Poulsen receives a letter in German and it is referring to the dose of gunpowder in the box. In a later reference Luxdorph has found a mention of a bomb being used, also in 1764. June 1889, Edward White, formerly an artist at Madame Tussauds, was alleged to have sent a parcel bomb to John Theodore Tussaud after being dismissed, August 20,1904, A Swedish man named Martin Ekenberg sent a mailbomb to businessman Karl Fredrik Lundin in Stockholm. It was a box loaded with bullets and explosives, in 1915, Vice President of the United States Thomas R. Marshall was the target of an assassination attempt by letter bomb. In 1946, several British high officials, including Sir Stafford Cripps, Ernest Bevin, in 1947, several letter bombs were sent to President Harry Truman in the White House. They were intercepted by White House mail room workers, who were on alert because of the bombs to British officials. These also were claimed by the Stern Gang, August 30,1958, A parcel bomb sent by Ngo Dinh Nhu, younger brother and chief adviser of South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem, failed to kill King Sihanouk of Cambodia. In 1961 the Nazi war criminal Alois Brunner received a bomb that caused the loss of an eye. In 1980 another letter bomb cost him the fingers of his left hand, two Damascus postal workers were killed. The senders are unknown but some suspect the Israeli intelligence agency Mossad, in the 1960s, 1970s and early 1980s, several terrorist organizations in Argentina such as Montoneros and ERP included letter bombs into their weaponry. On 28 December 1977, in Malta, Karen Grech, age 15, was killed when she opened a letterbomb addressed to her father Edwin Grech, on the same day, another bomb was sent to Labour MP Dr. Paul Chetcuti Caruana, but it did not detonate. Theodore Kaczynski, the Unabomber, killed three and injured 23 in a series of mailbombings in the United States from the late 1970s to the early 1990s
