1.
Display size
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On 2D displays, such as computer monitors and TVs, the display size is the physical size of the area where pictures and videos are displayed. The size of a screen is described by the length of its diagonal. It is also called the physical image size to distinguish it from the logical image size. The TV image is composed of lines of pixels. Ideally, the TV watcher sits far enough away from the screen that the individual lines merge into one solid image, the watcher may sit even farther away and still see a good picture, but it will be a smaller portion of their visual field. The resolution of the eye is about one minute of arc. For full HDTV resolution, this one minute of arc implies that the TV watcher should sit 4 times the height of the screen away, do not be surprised if the observer can see the pixels at this viewing distance as most normal people see far better than 6/6. If the user is replacing a standard definition TV with an HDTV this implies that the best visual experience will be with a set that is twice as tall as the definition set. Cost and budget also limit screen size, knowing the actual height and width of a screen is useful when deciding which one to purchase. Common dimensions are listed in the table below, if the display is not listed, then the following equations can be used. Note that D is the diagonal, W is the width, being circular, the external diameter of the bulb was used to describe their size. In the US, when virtually all TV tubes were 4,3, in virtually all other markets, the size of the outer diameter of the tube was given. What was a 27V in the US could be a 28 elsewhere, however the V terminology was frequently dropped in US advertising referring to a 27V as a 27. This was not misleading for the consumer as the seller had to give the screen size by law. Flat panel displays by contrast use the actual diagonal of their visible display size and this means that a similarly specified size of display will be larger as a flat panel display compared with a cathode ray tube display. When the common aspect ratio went from 4,3 to 16,9, a screen that is approximately the same height as a 27V would be a 32W. Vizio and other US TV manufacturers have introduced even wider screens with a 21,9 aspect ratio in order to match aspect ratios used in cinemas, in order to gauge the relative sizes of these new screens, the screen aspect must be considered. In a commercial market where multiple aspect ratios are being sold, set sizes are frequently given as a class as screens from different manufacturers will have slight differences in size
2.
Graphics display resolution
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The graphics display resolution is the width and height dimensions of an electronic visual display device, such as a computer monitor, in pixels. Certain combinations of width and height are standardized and typically given a name, a higher display resolution in a display of the same size means that displayed content appears sharper. The favored aspect ratio of mass market display industry products has changed gradually from 4,3, then to 16,10, and then to 16,9, the 4,3 aspect ratio generally reflects older products, especially the era of the cathode ray tube. The 16,10 aspect ratio had its largest use in the 1995–2010 period, and the 16,9 aspect ratio tends to reflect post-2010 mass market computer monitor, laptop, and entertainment products displays. The 4,3 aspect ratio was common in older cathode ray tube displays. The 16,10 ratio allowed some compromise between showing older 4,3 aspect ratio broadcast TV shows, but also allowing better viewing of widescreen movies. However, around the year 2005, entertainment industry displays gradually moved from 16,10 to the 16,9 aspect ratio, by about 2007, virtually all mass market entertainment displays were 16,9. In 2011, 1920×1080 was the resolution in the most heavily marketed entertainment market displays. The next standard, 3840×2160 emerged on the market in 2013, also in 2013, displays with 2560×1080 appeared, which closely approximate the common CinemaScope movie standard aspect ratio of 2. 35–2.40. In 2014,21,9 screens with pixel dimensions of 3440×1440 became available as well, in this time frame, with the notable exception of Apple, almost all desktop, laptop, and display manufacturers gradually moved to promoting only 16,9 aspect ratio displays. By 2011, the 16,10 aspect ratio had virtually disappeared from the Windows laptop display market, one consequence of this transition was that the highest available resolutions moved generally downward. NHD is a resolution of 640×360 pixels, which is exactly one ninth of a Full HD frame. Pixel doubling nHD frames will form one 720p frame and pixel tripling nHD frames will form one 1080p frame, one drawback of this resolution is that the vertical resolution is not an even multiple of 16, which is a common macroblock size for video codecs. Video frames encoded with 16×16 pixel macroblocks would be padded to 640×368, H.264 codecs have this padding and cropping ability built-in as standard. The same is true for qHD and 1080p but the amount of padding is more for lower resolutions such as nHD. To avoid storing the eight lines of padded pixels, some prefer to encode video at 624×352. When such video streams are encoded from HD frames or played back on HD displays in full screen mode they are scaled by non-integer scale factors. True nHD frames on the hand has integer scale factors
3.
Digital television
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Digital television is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signal, in contrast to the totally analog and channel separated signals used by analog television. Digital TV can support more than one program in the channel bandwidth. It is a service that represents the first significant evolution in television technology since color television in the 1950s. Several regions of the world are in different stages of adaptation and are implementing different broadcasting standards and this standard has been adopted in Europe, Singapore, Australia and New Zealand. Advanced Television System Committee uses eight-level vestigial sideband for terrestrial broadcasting and this standard has been adopted by six countries, United States, Canada, Mexico, South Korea, Dominican Republic and Honduras. Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting is a designed to provide good reception to fixed receivers. It utilizes OFDM and two-dimensional interleaving and it supports hierarchical transmission of up to three layers and uses MPEG-2 video and Advanced Audio Coding. This standard has adopted in Japan and the Philippines. ISDB-T International is an adaptation of this standard using H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC that been adopted in most of South America and is also being embraced by Portuguese-speaking African countries. Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcasting adopts time-domain synchronous OFDM technology with a signal frame to serve as the guard interval of the OFDM block. The DTMB standard has adopted in the Peoples Republic of China, including Hong Kong. Digital TVs roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive and it wasnt until the 1990s that digital TV became a real possibility. S. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard—based on an analog system—was the front-runner among the more than 23 different technical concepts under consideration, then, an American company, General Instrument, demonstrated the feasibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of significance that the FCC was persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally based standard could be developed. In March 1990, when it became clear that a standard was feasible. The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on new design principles. Although incompatible with the existing NTSC standard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements, the final standard adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats, aspect ratios, or lines of resolution. This outcome resulted from a dispute between the electronics industry and the computer industry over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—is superior
4.
Computer monitor
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A computer monitor or a computer display is an electronic visual display for computers. A monitor usually comprises the display device, circuitry, casing, the display device in modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display or a flat panel LED display, while older monitors used a cathode ray tubes. It can be connected to the computer via VGA, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, LVDS or other proprietary connectors, originally, computer monitors were used for data processing while television receivers were used for entertainment. From the 1980s onwards, computers have used for both data processing and entertainment, while televisions have implemented some computer functionality. The common aspect ratio of televisions, and computer monitors, has changed from 4,3 to 16,10, to 16,9. Early electronic computers were fitted with a panel of light bulbs where the state of each particular bulb would indicate the state of a particular register bit inside the computer. This allowed the operating the computer to monitor the internal state of the machine. As early monitors were only capable of displaying a limited amount of information. Instead, a printer was the primary output device, while the monitor was limited to keeping track of the programs operation. Multiple technologies have used for computer monitors. Until the 21st century most used cathode ray tubes but they have largely superseded by LCD monitors. The first computer monitors used cathode ray tubes, high-resolution CRT displays were developed for specialized military, industrial and scientific applications but they were far too costly for general use. Either computer could be connected to the terminals of an ordinary color TV set or used with a purpose-made CRT color monitor for optimum resolution. In 1984 IBM introduced the Enhanced Graphics Adapter which was capable of producing 16 colors and had a resolution of 640 x 350, by the end of the 1980s color CRT monitors that could clearly display 1024 x 768 pixels were widely available and increasingly affordable. During the following decade maximum display resolutions gradually increased and prices continued to fall, CRT technology remained dominant in the PC monitor market into the new millennium partly because it was cheaper to produce and offered viewing angles close to 180 degrees. CRTs still offer some image quality advantages over LCDs but improvements to the latter have made much less obvious. There are multiple technologies that have used to implement liquid crystal displays. Commonly, the laptop would be offered with an assortment of display options at increasing price points, monochrome
5.
Display device
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A display device is an output device for presentation of information in visual or tactile form. When the input information is supplied has a signal, the display is called an electronic display. Common applications for visual displays are televisions or computer monitors. Some displays can show only digits or alphanumeric characters and they are called segment displays, because they are composed of several segments that switch on and off to give appearance of desired glyph. The segments are usually single LEDs or liquid crystals and they are mostly used in digital watches and pocket calculators. There are several types, Seven-segment display Fourteen-segment display Sixteen-segment display HD44780 LCD controller a widely accepted protocol for LCDs and they use electro-mechanical parts to dynamically update a tactile image so that the image may be felt by the fingers. Optacon, using metal rods instead of light in order to convey images to blind people by tactile sensation, in the history of display technology, a variety of display devices and technologies have been used
6.
Pixel
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The address of a pixel corresponds to its physical coordinates. LCD pixels are manufactured in a grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an image, more samples typically provide more accurate representations of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable, in color imaging systems, a color is typically represented by three or four component intensities such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. The word pixel is based on a contraction of pix and el, the word pixel was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the elements of video images from space probes to the Moon. Billingsley had learned the word from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, McFarland said simply it was in use at the time. The word is a combination of pix, for picture, the word pix appeared in Variety magazine headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies. By 1938, pix was being used in reference to pictures by photojournalists. The concept of a picture element dates to the earliest days of television, some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972. In graphics and in image and video processing, pel is often used instead of pixel, for example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for the original PC. A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image, however, the definition is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be printed pixels in a page, or pixels carried by electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital camera. This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as,2400 pixels per inch,640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart. For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on a 1200 dpi inkjet printer, even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution. The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original, the number of pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition.3 megapixels. The pixels, or color samples, that form an image may or may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels. In computing, a composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image
7.
Cathode ray tube
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The cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images. It modulates, accelerates, and deflects electron beam onto the screen to create the images, the images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets, or others. CRTs have also used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the fluorescent material is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual observer. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three beams, one for each additive primary color with a video signal as a reference. A CRT is constructed from an envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy. The interior of a CRT is evacuated to approximately 0.01 Pa to 133 nPa. evacuation being necessary to facilitate the flight of electrons from the gun to the tubes face. That it is evacuated makes handling an intact CRT potentially dangerous due to the risk of breaking the tube and causing a violent implosion that can hurl shards of glass at great velocity. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. Flat panel displays can also be made in large sizes, whereas 38 to 40 was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in 60. Cathode rays were discovered by Johann Hittorf in 1869 in primitive Crookes tubes and he observed that some unknown rays were emitted from the cathode which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines. In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, the earliest version of the CRT was known as the Braun tube, invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897. It was a diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen, which marked the first time that CRT technology was used for what is now known as television. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric and it was named by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1929. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, in oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the magnetic deflection commonly used with television and other large CRTs
8.
Flat-panel display
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They are far lighter and thinner than traditional cathode ray tube television sets and video displays and are usually less than 10 centimetres thick. Flat-panel displays can be divided into two display device categories, volatile and static, volatile displays require that pixels be periodically electronically refreshed to retain their state. A volatile display only shows an image when it has battery or AC mains power, static flat-panel displays rely on materials whose color states are bistable, and as such, flat-panel displays retain the text or images on the screen even when the power is off. As of 2016, flat-panel displays have almost completely replaced old CRT displays, most 2010s-era flat-panel displays use LCD and/or LED technologies. Most LCD screens are back-lit to make them easier to read or view in bright environments, flat-panel displays are thin and lightweight and provide better linearity and they are capable of higher resolution than typical consumer-grade TVs from earlier eras. The highest resolution for consumer-grade CRT TVs was 1080i, in contrast, many touchscreen-enabled devices can display a virtual QWERTY or numeric keyboard on the screen, to enable the user to type words or numbers. In many instances, an MFM also includes a TV tuner, the first engineering proposal for a flat-panel TV was by General Electric as a result of its work on radar monitors. Their publication of their findings gave all the basics of future flat-panel TVs, but GE did not continue with the R&D required and never built a working flat panel at that time. The first production flat-panel display was the Aiken tube, developed in the early 1950s and this saw some use in military systems as a heads up display, but conventional technologies overtook its development. Attempts to commercialize the system for television use ran into continued problems. The Philco Predicta featured a relatively flat cathode ray tube setup and would be the first commercially released flat panel upon its launch in 1958, the plasma display panel was invented in 1964 at the University of Illinois, according to The History of Plasma Display Panels. The first active-matrix addressed display was made by T Peter Brodys Thin-Film Devices department at Westinghouse Electric Corporation in 1968, in 1977, James P Mitchell prototyped and later demonstrated what was perhaps the earliest monochromatic flat panel LED television display LED Display. As of 2012, 50% of global market share in flat-panel display production is by Taiwanese manufacturers such as AU Optronics, Liquid crystal displays are lightweight, compact, portable, cheap, more reliable, and easier on the eyes than cathode ray tube screens. LCD screens use a thin layer of crystal, a liquid that exhibits crystalline properties. It is sandwiched between two conducting plates. The top plate has transparent electrodes deposited on it, and the plate is illuminated so that the viewer can see the images on the screen. By applying controlled electrical signals across the plates, various segments of the crystal can be activated. These segments can either transmit or block light, an image is produced by passing light through selected segments of the liquid crystal to the viewer
9.
Liquid-crystal display
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A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
10.
Plasma display
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A plasma display panel is a type of flat panel display common to large TV displays 30 inches or larger. They are called plasma displays because they use small cells containing electrically charged ionized gases, Plasma displays are bright, have a wide color gamut, and can be produced in fairly large sizes—up to 3.8 metres diagonally. They had a very low-luminance dark-room black level compared with the grey of the unilluminated parts of an LCD screen at least in the early history of the competing technologies. LED-backlit LCD televisions have been developed to reduce this distinction, the display panel itself is about 6 cm thick, generally allowing the devices total thickness to be less than 10 cm. The plasma that illuminates the screen can reach a temperature of at least 1200 °C, typical power consumption is 400 watts for a 127 cm screen. Most screens are set to shop mode by default, which draws at least twice the power of a setting of less extreme brightness. The lifetime of the latest generation of displays is estimated at 100,000 hours of actual display time. This is the time over which maximum picture brightness degrades to half the original value. Plasma screens are made out of glass. This may causes glare from reflected objects in the viewing area, currently, plasma panels cannot be economically manufactured in screen sizes smaller than 82 centimetres. Although a few companies have been able to make plasma enhanced-definition televisions this small, with the trend toward large-screen television technology, the 32 inch screen size is rapidly disappearing. Competing display technologies include cathode ray tube, organic light-emitting diode, AMLCD, Digital Light Processing DLP, SED-tv, LED display, field emission display, and quantum dot display. Capable of producing deeper blacks allowing for superior contrast ratio Wider viewing angles than those of LCD, images do not suffer from degradation at less than straight ahead angles like LCDs. LCDs using IPS technology have the widest angles, but they do not equal the range of plasma primarily due to IPS glow, LCD panel backlights nearly always produce uneven brightness levels, although this is not always noticeable. High-end computer monitors have technologies to try to compensate for the uniformity problem, unaffected by clouding from the polishing process. Some LCD panel types, like IPS, require a process that can introduce a haze usually referred to as clouding. Less expensive for the buyer per square inch than LCD, particularly when equivalent performance is considered, earlier generation displays were more susceptible to screen burn-in and image retention. Recent models have a pixel orbiter that moves the entire picture slower than is noticeable to the human eye, earlier generation displays had phosphors that lost luminosity over time, resulting in gradual decline of absolute image brightness. Newer models have advertised lifespans exceeding 100000 hours, far longer than older CRTs Uses more electrical power, on average, older CCFL backlights for LCD panels used quite a bit more power, and older plasma TVs used quite a bit more power than recent models
11.
Digital Light Processing
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Digital Light Processing is a display device based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments, while the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology, DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors, DLP rear projection television sets, and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection, smaller pico chipsets are used in mobile devices including cell phone accessories and projection display functions embedded directly into phones. In DLP projectors, the image is created by small mirrors laid out in a matrix on a semiconductor chip. These mirrors are so small that DMD pixel pitch may be 5.4 µm or less, each mirror represents one or more pixels in the projected image. The number of mirrors corresponds to the resolution of the projected image, 800×600, 1024×768, 1280×720, and 1920×1080 matrices are some common DMD sizes. These mirrors can be repositioned rapidly to light either through the lens or onto a heat sink. Rapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time, there are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image, those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors. A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is used in televisions manufactured by Samsung. The color wheel is divided into sectors, the primary additive colors, red, green, and blue. Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, the DLP chip is synchronized with the rotating motion of the color wheel so that the green component is displayed on the DMD when the green section of the color wheel is in front of the lamp. The same is true for the red, blue and other sections, the colors are thus displayed sequentially at a sufficiently high rate that the observer sees a composite full color image. In early models, this was one rotation per frame, now, most systems operate at up to 10x the frame rate. The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed, DLP projectors utilizing a mechanical spinning color wheel may exhibit an anomaly known as the rainbow effect. Common examples are the end credits of many movies. Brief visible separation of the colours can also be apparent when the viewer moves their eyes quickly across the projected image, some people perceive these rainbow artifacts frequently, while others may never see them at all. This effect is caused by the way the eye follows an object on the projection
12.
AMOLED
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AMOLED is a display technology used in smartwatches, mobile devices, laptops, and televisions. As of 2008, AMOLED technology was used in mobile phones, media players and digital cameras, TFT backplane technology is crucial in the fabrication of AMOLED displays. Red and green OLED films have longer lifespans compared to blue OLED films and this variation results in colour shifts as a particular pixel fades faster than the other pixels. AMOLED displays are prone to screen burn-in, which leaves a permanent imprint of overused colours represented by overused images, manufacturers have developed in-cell touch panels, integrating the production of capacitive sensor arrays in the AMOLED module fabrication process. In-cell sensor AMOLED fabricators include AU Optronics and Samsung, Samsung has marketed its version of this technology as Super AMOLED. Using custom modeling and analytic approaches, Samsung has developed short and long-range film-thickness control, AMOLED displays provide higher refresh rates than passive-matrix, often reducing the response time to less than a millisecond, and they consume significantly less power. This advantage makes active-matrix OLEDs well-suited for portable electronics, where power consumption is critical to battery life, the amount of power the display consumes varies significantly depending on the color and brightness shown. Because the black pixels turn completely off, AMOLED also has contrast ratios that are higher than LCD. AMOLED displays may be difficult to view in direct sunlight compared with LCDs because of their maximum brightness. Samsungs Super AMOLED technology addresses this issue by reducing the size of gaps between layers of the screen, flagship smartphones sold as of December 2011 used either Super AMOLED or IPS panel premium LCD. Super AMOLED displays, such as the one on the Galaxy Nexus and Samsung Galaxy S III have often compared to IPS panel premium LCDs, found in the iPhone 4S, HTC One X. For example, according to ABI Research the AMOLED display found in the Motorola Moto X draws just 92 mA during bright conditions and 68 mA while dim. On the other hand, compared with the IPS, the rate of AMOLED is low. Super AMOLED is a term for an AMOLED display with an integrated digitizer, according to Samsung, Super AMOLED reflects one-fifth as much sunlight as the first generation AMOLED. The display technology itself is not changed, Super AMOLED is part of the Pentile matrix family, sometimes abbreviated as SAMOLED. Super AMOLED Advanced features PenTile, which sharpens subpixels in between pixels to make a higher resolution display, but by doing this, some picture quality is lost and this display type is used on the Motorola Droid RAZR and HTC One S. This variant of AMOLED is brighter and therefore more efficient than Super AMOLED displays and produces a sharper. In comparison to AMOLED and Super AMOLED displays, they are more energy efficient
13.
Pixel density
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Horizontal and vertical density are usually the same, as most devices have square pixels, but differ on devices that have non-square pixels. PPI can also describe the resolution, in pixels, of an image file, the unit is not square centimeters—a 100×100 pixel image printed in a 1 cm square has a resolution of 100 pixels per centimeter. Used this way, the measurement is meaningful when printing an image and it has become commonplace to refer to PPI as DPI, even though PPI refers to input resolution. Industry standard, good quality photographs usually require 330 pixels per inch, at 100% size and this delivers a quality factor of 2, which is optimum. The lowest acceptable quality factor is considered 1.5, which equates to printing a 225 ppi image using a 150 lpi screen onto coated paper, screen frequency is determined by the type of paper the image is printed on. An absorbent paper surface, uncoated recycled paper for instance, lets ink droplets spread —so requires a more open printing screen, input resolution can therefore be reduced to minimize file size without loss in quality, as long as the quality factor of 2 is maintained. This is easily determined by doubling the line frequency, for example, printing on an uncoated paper stock often limits printing screen frequency to no more than 120 lpi, therefore, a quality factor of 2 is achieved with images of 240 ppi. The PPI of a display is related to the size of the display in inches. This measurement is referred to as dots per inch, though that measurement more accurately refers to the resolution of a computer printer. This figure is determined by dividing the width of the area in pixels by the width of the display area in inches. It is possible for a display to have different horizontal and vertical PPI measurements, the dot pitch of a computer display determines the absolute limit of possible pixel density. In January 2008, Kopin Corporation announced a 0.44 inch SVGA LCD with a density of 2272 PPI. In 2011 they followed this up with a 3760 DPI0. 21” diagonal VGA colour display, the manufacturer says they designed the LCD to be optically magnified, as in high-resolution eyewear devices. Holography applications demand even greater density, as higher pixel density produces a larger image size. Spatial light modulators can reduce pixel pitch to 2.5 μm, some observations indicate that the unaided human generally cant differentiate detail beyond 300 PPI. However, this figure depends both on the distance between viewer and image, and the visual acuity. The human eye also responds in a different way to a bright, high pixel density display technologies would make supersampled antialiasing obsolete, enable true WYSIWYG graphics and, potentially enable a practical “paperless office” era. For perspective, such a device at 15 inch screen size would have to more than four Full HD screens
14.
NTSC
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The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
15.
1080p
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1080p is a set of HDTV high-definition video modes characterized by 1080 horizontal lines of vertical resolution, the p stands for progressive scan, id est non-interlaced. The term usually assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. It is often marketed as full HD, to contrast 1080p with 720p resolution screens, 1080p video signals are supported by ATSC standards in the United States and DVB standards in Europe. Small camcorders, smartphones and digital cameras can capture still and moving images in 1080p resolution.485 Gbit/s to nominally 3 Gbit/s using uncompressed RGB encoding. Most current revisions of SMPTE 372M, SMPTE 424M and EBU Tech 3299 require YCbCr color space and 4,2,2 chroma subsampling for transmitting 1080p50 and 1080p60 signal. In the United States, the original ATSC standards for HDTV supported 1080p video, in July 2008, the ATSC standards were amended to include H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC compression and 1080p at 50,59.94 and 60 frames per second. Such frame rates require H. 264/AVC High Profile Level 4.2, in Europe, 1080p25 signals have been supported by the DVB suite of broadcasting standards. The 1080p50 format is considered to be a production format and, eventually. EBU requires that legacy MPEG-4 AVC decoders should avoid crashing in the presence of SVC and/or 1080p50 packets, the ITU-T BT.2100 standard that includes advanced 1080p video was subsequently published in July 2016. There is no word when any of the networks will consider airing at 1080p in the foreseeable future. However, satellite services utilize the 1080p/24-30 format with MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 encoding for pay-per-view movies that are downloaded in advance via satellite or on-demand via broadband. At this time, no pay service such as USA, HDNET, etc. nor premium movie channel such as HBO. For material that originates from a progressive scanned 24 frame/s source, MPEG-2 lets the video be coded as 1080p24 and these progressively-coded frames are tagged with metadata instructing a decoder how to perform a 3,2 pulldown to interlace them. In June 2016, Germany commenced terrestrial broadcasts of eight 1080p50 high-definition channels, using DVB-T2 protocol with HEVC encoding, a total of 40 channels will be available by March 2017. Blu-ray Discs are able to hold 1080p HD content, and most movies released on Blu-ray Disc produce a full 1080p HD picture when the player is connected to a 1080p HDTV via an HDMI cable. The Blu-ray Disc video specification allows encoding of 1080p23.976, 1080p24, 1080i50, generally this type of video runs at 30 to 40 megabits per second, compared to the 3.5 megabits per second for conventional standard definition broadcasts. Smartphones with 1080p FullHD display have been available on the market since 2012, as of the end of 2014, it is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of 2014 used even higher resolutions. Several websites, including YouTube, allow videos to be uploaded in the 1080p format, YouTube streams 1080p content at approximately 4 megabits per second compared to Blu-rays 30 to 40 megabits per second
16.
Overscan
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Overscan is the situation in which not all of a televised image is present on a viewing screen. It exists because cathode-ray tube television sets from the 1930s through to the early 2000s were highly variable in how the image was positioned within the borders of the screen. The solution was to have the show less than the full image. Early analogue televisions varied in the image because of manufacturing tolerance problems. There were also effects from the design limitations of power supplies. Because of this, TV producers could not be certain where the edges of the image would be. In order to compensate, they defined three areas, Title safe, An area visible by all reasonably maintained sets, where text was not to be cut off. Action safe, A larger area that represented where a set would cut the image off. Underscan, The full image area to the edge of the signal. Studio monitors and camera viewfinders were set to show this area, when used, this mode is called underscan. Todays TV sets are based on newer fixed-pixel technology like liquid crystal displays, as overscan reduces picture quality, it is undesirable for 1080i and 1080p sets, therefore,1,1 pixel mapping is preferred. On LCDs driven from a signal, no adjustment is necessary because all pixels are in fixed positions. Thus all modern computers can safely assume that all pixels are visible to the viewer, analog video signals such as VGA, however, are subject to timing variations and even when using an LCD panel do not have this exactness. When video or animation content is designed to be viewed on computers, CRTs made for computer display are set to underscan with an adjustable border, usually colored black. The border will change size and shape if required to allow for the tolerance of low precision, as such, computer CRTs use less physical screen area than TVs, to allow all information to be shown at all times. Computer CRT monitors usually have a black border —these can be seen in the video card timings, video game systems have been designed to keep important game action in the title safe area. Older systems did this with borders for example, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System windowboxed the image with a border, visible on some NTSC television sets. Newer systems frame content much as live action does, with the area filled with extraneous details
17.
Image resolution
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Image resolution is the detail an image holds. The term applies to digital images, film images. Higher resolution means more image detail, image resolution can be measured in various ways. Resolution quantifies how close lines can be to other and still be visibly resolved. Resolution units can be tied to physical sizes, to the size of a picture. Line pairs are used instead of lines, a line pair comprises a dark line. A line is either a line or a light line. A resolution of 10 lines per millimeter means 5 dark lines alternating with 5 light lines, photographic lens and film resolution are most often quoted in line pairs per millimeter. The resolution of digital cameras can be described in different ways. Resolution is the capability of the sensor to observe or measure the smallest object clearly with distinct boundaries, there is a difference between the resolution and a pixel. A pixel is actually a unit of the digital Resolution depends upon the size of the pixel, usually, with any given lens setting, the smaller the size of the pixel, the higher the resolution will be and the clearer the object in the image will be. Images having smaller pixel sizes might consist of more pixels, the number of pixels correlates to the amount of information within the image. An image of N pixels height by M pixels wide can have any less than N lines per picture height. Other conventions include describing pixels per unit or pixels per area unit. None of these pixel resolutions are true resolutions, but they are referred to as such. Below is an illustration of how the image might appear at different pixel resolutions. An image that is 2048 pixels in width and 1536 pixels in height has a total of 2048×1536 =3,145,728 pixels or 3.1 megapixels, one could refer to it as 2048 by 1536 or a 3. 1-megapixel image. Or, you can think of it as a low quality image if printed at about 28.5 inches wide
18.
Optical resolution
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Optical resolution describes the ability of an imaging system to resolve detail in the object that is being imaged. An imaging system may have many components including a lens and recording. Each of these contributes to the resolution of the system. Resolution depends on the distance between two distinguishable radiating points, the sections below describe the theoretical estimates of resolution, but the real values may differ. The results below are based on models of Airy discs. In low-contrast systems, the resolution may be lower than predicted by the theory outlined below. Real optical systems are complex and practical difficulties often increase the distance between point sources. The resolution of a system is based on the distance r at which the points can be distinguished as individuals. Several standards are used to determine, quantitatively, whether or not the points can be distinguished. One of the methods specifies that, on the line between the center of one point and the next, the contrast between the maximum and minimum intensity be at least 26% lower than the maximum. This corresponds to the overlap of one disk on the first dark ring in the other. This standard for separation is known as the Rayleigh criterion. In symbols, the distance is defined as follows, r =1.22 λ2 n sin θ =0, in confocal laser-scanned microscopes, the full-width half half-maximum of the point spread function is often used to avoid the difficulty of measuring the Airy disc. This, combined with the illumination pattern, results in better resolution. R =0.4 λ N A Also common in the literature is a formula for resolution that treats the above-mentioned concerns about contrast differently. The resolution predicted by this formula is proportional to the Rayleigh-based formula, for estimating theoretical resolution, it may be adequate. R = λ2 n sin θ = λ2 N A When a condenser is used to illuminate the sample, the shape of the pencil of light emanating from the condenser must also be included. R =1.22 λ N A o b j + N A c o n d In a properly configured microscope, the above estimates of resolution are specific to the case in which two identical very small samples that radiate incoherently in all directions
19.
Aspect ratio (image)
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The aspect ratio of an image describes the proportional relationship between its width and its height. It is commonly expressed as two separated by a colon, as in 16,9.5 yards high. The most common ratios used today in the presentation of films in cinemas are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Two common videographic aspect ratios are 4,3, the video format of the 20th century. Other cinema and video aspect ratios exist, but are used infrequently, in still camera photography, the most common aspect ratios are 4,3,3,2, and more recently being found in consumer cameras 16,9. Other aspect ratios, such as 5,3,5,4, in motion picture formats, the physical size of the film area between the sprocket perforations determines the images size. The universal standard is a frame that is four perforations high, the film itself is 35 mm wide, but the area between the perforations is 24.89 mm×18.67 mm, leaving the de facto ratio of 4,3, or 1.33,1. A4,3 ratio mimics human eyesight visual angle of 155°h x 120°v, the motion picture industry convention assigns a value of 1.0 to the image’s height, an anamorphic frame is often incorrectly described as 2.40,1 or 2.40. After 1952, a number of aspect ratios were experimented with for anamorphic productions, a SMPTE specification for anamorphic projection from 1957 finally standardized the aperture to 2.35,1. An update in 1970 changed the ratio to 2.39,1 in order to make splices less noticeable. This aspect ratio of 2.39,1 was confirmed by the most recent revision from August 1993, in American cinemas, the common projection ratios are 1.85,1 and 2.39,1. Some European countries have 1.66,1 as the wide screen standard, the Academy ratio of 1.375,1 was used for all cinema films in the sound era until 1953. During that time, television, which had a aspect ratio of 1.33,1. Hollywood responded by creating a number of wide-screen formats, CinemaScope, Todd-AO. The flat 1.85,1 aspect ratio was introduced in May 1953, and became one of the most common cinema projection standards in the U. S. and elsewhere. The goal of these lenses and aspect ratios was to capture as much of the frame as possible, onto as large an area of the film as possible. In either case the image was squeezed horizontally to fit the frame size. Development of various film camera systems must ultimately cater to the placement of the frame in relation to the constraints of the perforations
20.
Native resolution
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The native resolution of a LCD, LCoS or other flat panel display refers to its single fixed resolution. An image where the number of pixels is the same as in the image source, while CRT monitors can usually display images at various resolutions, an LCD monitor has to rely on interpolation, which causes a loss of image quality. An LCD has to scale up an image to fit into the area of the native resolution. This is the principle as taking a smaller image in an image editing program and enlarging it. This is especially problematic as most resolutions are in a 4,3 aspect ratio but there are odd resolutions that are not, notably 1280×1024. If a user were to map 1024×768 to a 1280×1024 screen there would be distortion as well as some image errors and this results in noticeable quality loss and the image is much less sharp. In theory, some resolutions could work well, if they are multiples of smaller image sizes. For example, a 1600×1200 LCD could display an 800×600 image well, as each of the pixels in the image could be represented by a block of four on the larger display, since 800×600 is an integer factor of 1600×1200, scaling should not adversely affect the image. But in practice, most monitors apply a smoothing algorithm to all smaller resolutions and this is most often recognizable upon close inspection, as there will typically be black edges visible on either side of the panel horizon. 1,1 pixel mapping Gaming issues with TFT LCD Displays
21.
Image scaling
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In computer graphics and digital imaging, image scaling refers to the resizing of a digital image. In video technology, the magnification of digital material is known as upscaling or resolution enhancement, when scaling a vector graphic image, the graphic primitives that make up the image can be scaled using geometric transformations, with no loss of image quality. When scaling a raster image, a new image with a higher or lower number of pixels must be generated. In the case of decreasing the pixel number this usually results in a quality loss. Image scaling can be interpreted as a form of image resampling FIX or image reconstruction from the view of the Nyquist sampling theorem, the image is reduced to the information that can be carried by the smaller image. In the case of up sampling, a reconstruction filter takes the place of the anti-aliasing filter. A more sophisticated approach to up scaling treats the problem as a problem, solving the question of generating a plausible image which. A variety of techniques have been applied for this, including optimization techniques with regularization terms, an image size can be changed in several ways. Diagonal lines, for example, show a stairway shape, although this is desirable for continuous-tone images, this algorithm reduces contrast in a way that may be undesirable for line art. Bicubic interpolation yields substantially better results, with only an increase in computational complexity. Sinc and Lanczos resampling Sinc resampling in theory provides the best possible reconstruction for a perfectly bandlimited signal, in practice, the assumptions behind sinc resampling are not completely met by real-world digital images. Lanczos resampling, an approximation to the method, yields better results. Bicubic interpolation can be regarded as an efficient approximation to Lanczos resampling. Box sampling One weakness of bilinear, bicubic and related algorithms is that sample a specific number of pixels. The trivial solution to this issue is box sampling, which is to consider the target pixel a box on the original image and this ensures that all input pixels contribute to the output. The major weakness of this algorithm is that it is hard to optimize, mipmap Another solution to the downscale problem of bi-sampling scaling are mipmaps. A mipmap is a set of downscale copies. When downscaling the nearest larger mipmap is used as the origin and this is algorithm is fast, and easy to optimize
22.
Shadow mask
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The shadow mask is one of the technologies used to manufacture cathode ray tube televisions and computer displays that produce color images. Another approach is the grille, better known by its trade name. All early color televisions and the majority of CRT computer monitors used shadow mask technology, both of these technologies are largely obsolete, having been increasingly replaced since the 1990s by the liquid-crystal display. A shadow mask is a metal plate punched with holes that separate the colored phosphors in the layer behind the front glass of the screen. Three electron guns at the back of the sweep across the mask. The screen is patterned with dots of colored phosphor positioned so that each can only be hit by one of the coming from the three electron guns. For instance, the phosphor dots are hit by the beam from the blue gun after passing through a particular hole in the mask. The other two guns do the same for the red and green dots and this arrangement allows the three guns to address the individual dot colors on the screen, even though their beams are much too large and too poorly aimed to do so without the mask in place. The red, green, and blue phosphors for each pixel are generally arranged in a triangular shape, for television use, modern displays use rectangular slots instead of circular holes, improving brightness. The shadow masking technique uses raster scan, color television had been studied even before commercial broadcasting became common, but it was not until the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered. At the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used red, green and blue signals. Most experimental systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a filter that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black. Each frame encoded one color of the picture, and the wheel spun in sync with the signal so the correct gel was in front of the screen when that colored frame was being displayed. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black, another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. RCA worked along different lines entirely, using the system first introduced by Georges Valensi in 1938. This system did not directly encode or transmit the RGB signals, instead it combined these colors into one overall brightness figure and this closely matched the black and white signal of existing broadcasts, allowing the picture to be displayed on black and white televisions. The remaining color information was encoded into the signal as a high-frequency modulation to produce a composite video signal. On a black and white television this extra information would be seen as a slight randomization of the image intensity, on color sets the extra information would be noticed, filtered out and added to the luminance to re-create the original RGB for display
23.
Trinitron
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Trinitron is Sonys brand name for its line of aperture-grille-based CRTs used in television sets and computer displays. Constant improvement in the technology and attention to overall quality allowed Sony to charge a premium for Trinitron devices into the 1990s. Patent protection on the basic Trinitron design ran out in 1996, Sony responded by introducing their flat-screen FD Trinitron designs, which maintained their premier position in the market into the early 2000s. However, these designs were surpassed relatively quickly by plasma and LCD designs, Sony removed the last Trinitron televisions from their product catalogs in 2006, and ceased production in early 2008. Color television had been studied, but it was only in the late 1940s that the problem was seriously considered, at the time, a number of systems were being proposed that used separate red, green and blue signals, broadcast in succession. Most systems broadcast entire frames in sequence, with a filter that rotated in front of an otherwise conventional black. Because they broadcast separate signals for the different colors, all of these systems were incompatible with existing black, another problem was that the mechanical filter made them flicker unless very high refresh rates were used. In spite of problems, the United States Federal Communication Commission selected a sequential-frame 144 frame/s standard from CBS as their color broadcast in 1950. RCA worked along different lines entirely, using the luminance-chrominance system and this system did not directly encode or transmit the RGB signals, instead it combined these colors into one overall brightness figure, the luminance. Luminance closely matched the black and white signal of existing broadcasts and this was a major advantage over the mechanical systems being proposed by other groups. On color sets the signal would be extracted, decoded back into RGB, although RCAs system had enormous benefits, it had not been successfully developed because it was difficult to produce the display tubes. Black and white TVs used a signal and the tube could be coated with an even deposit of phosphor. With Valensis system, the color was changing continually along the line, instead, the phosphor had to be broken down into a discrete pattern of colored spots. RCA eventually solved the problem of displaying the images with their introduction of the shadow mask. The shadow mask consists of a sheet of steel with tiny holes photo etched into it. Three guns, arranged in a triangle, were all aimed at the holes, stray electrons at the edge of the beam were cut off by the mask, creating a sharply focused spot that was small enough to hit a single colored phosphor on the screen. Since each of the guns was aimed at the hole from a different angle. The disadvantage of this approach was that for any amount of gun power
24.
Interlaced video
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Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
25.
Nintendo DS
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The Nintendo DS or simply, DS, is a 32-bit dual-screen handheld game console developed and released by Nintendo. The device went on sale in North America on November 21,2004, both screens are encompassed within a clamshell design similar to the Game Boy Advance SP. The Nintendo DS also features the ability for multiple DS consoles to directly interact with each other over Wi-Fi within a short range without the need to connect to a wireless network. Alternatively, they could interact online using the now-closed Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service and its main competitor was Sonys PlayStation Portable as part of the seventh generation era. Prior to its release, the Nintendo DS was marketed as an experimental, third pillar in Nintendos console lineup, meant to complement the Game Boy Advance and GameCube. However, backward compatibility with Game Boy Advance titles and strong sales ultimately established it as the successor to the Game Boy series, on March 2,2006, Nintendo launched the Nintendo DS Lite, a slimmer and lighter redesign of the original Nintendo DS with brighter screens. On November 1,2008, Nintendo released the Nintendo DSi, another redesign with several hardware improvements and new features. All Nintendo DS models combined have sold 154.02 million units, making it the best selling game console to date. The Nintendo DS line was succeeded by the Nintendo 3DS line in 2011, on November 13,2003, Nintendo announced that it would be releasing a new game product in 2004. The company did not provide details, but stated it would not succeed the Game Boy Advance or GameCube. On January 20,2004, the console was announced under the codename Nintendo DS. Nintendo released only a few details at that time, saying that the console would have two separate, 3-inch TFT LCD display panels, separate processors, and up to 1 gigabit of semiconductor memory. He also expressed optimism that the DS would help put Nintendo back at the forefront of innovation, in March 2004, a document containing most of the consoles technical specifications was leaked, also revealing its internal development name, Nitro. In May 2004, the console was shown in prototype form at E32004, on July 28,2004, Nintendo revealed a new design that was described as sleeker and more elegant than the one shown at E3 and announced Nintendo DS as the devices official name. On September 20,2004, Nintendo announced that the Nintendo DS would be released in North America on November 21,2004 for US$149.99. It was set to release on December 2,2004 in Japan, on February 24,2005 in Australia, the console was released in North America with a midnight launch event at Universal CityWalk EB Games in Los Angeles, California. The console was launched quietly in Japan compared to the North America launch, the Nintendo DS was seen by many analysts to be in the same market as Sonys PlayStation Portable, although representatives from both companies have said that each system targets a different audience. At one point, Time magazine awarded the DS a Gadget of the Week award, at the time of its release in the United States, the Nintendo DS retailed for US $149.99
26.
576i
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576i is a standard-definition video mode originally used for broadcast television in most countries of the world where the utility frequency for electric power distribution is 50 Hz. Because of its association with the colour encoding system, it is often referred to as simply PAL, PAL/SECAM or SECAM when compared to its 60 Hz NTSC-colour-encoded counterpart. The 576 identifies a vertical resolution of 576 lines, and the i identifies it as an interlaced resolution and its basic parameters common to both analogue and digital implementations are,576 scan lines or vertical pixels of picture content,25 frames per second. Digital information not to be displayed as part of the image can be transmitted in the lines, teletext and other services. Analogue television signals have no pixels, they are rastered in scan lines, in digital applications, the number of pixels per line is an arbitrary choice as long as it fulfils the sampling theorem. Values above about 500 pixels per line are enough for conventional broadcast television, DVB-T, DVD and DV allow better values such as 704 or 720. The video format can be transported by major digital television formats, ATSC, DVB and ISDB, and on DVD, when 576i video is transmitted via baseband, most of the differences between the one-letter systems are no longer significant, other than vertical resolution and frame rate. Digital video uses its own separate space, so even the minor colour space differences between PAL and SECAM become moot in the digital domain. When 576i is used to transmit content that was composed of 25 full progressive frames per second. This is the opposite of NTSC, motion pictures are typically shot on film at 24 frames per second. When telecined and played back at PALs standard of 25 frames per second and this also applies to most TV series that are shot on film or digital 24p. Depending on the system in use, it also slightly increases the pitch of the soundtrack by 70.67 cents. More recently, digital conversion methods have used algorithms which preserve the pitch of the soundtrack. Conversion methods exist that can convert 24 frames per second video to 25 frames per second with no speed increase, however image quality suffers when conversions of this type are used. This method is most commonly employed through conversions done digitally, and is employed in situations where the importance of preserving the speed of the video outweighs the need for image quality. Many movie enthusiasts prefer PAL over NTSC despite the formers speed-up, because the results in telecine judder. States the majority of authorities on the subject favour PAL over NTSC for DVD playback quality, also DVD reviewers often make mention of this cause. For example, in his PAL vs. NTSC article, the founder of MichaelDVD says, Personally, I find all but intolerable and find it very hard to watch a movie on an NTSC DVD because of it
27.
PAL
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Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
28.
720p
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720p is a progressive HDTV signal format with 720 horizontal lines and an aspect ratio of 16,9, normally known as widescreen HDTV. The number 720 stands for the 720 horizontal scan lines of display resolution. The p stands for progressive scan, i. e. non-interlaced, when broadcast at 60 frames per second, 720p features the highest temporal resolution possible under the ATSC and DVB standards. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. 720i is a term found in numerous sources and publications. Typically, it is an error in which the author is referring to the 720p HDTV format. However, in cases it is incorrectly presented as an actual alternative format to 720p. No proposed or existing broadcast standard permits 720 interlaced lines in a frame at any frame rate. Progressive scanning reduces the need to prevent flicker by anti-aliasing single high contrast horizontal lines and it is also easier to perform high-quality 50↔60 Hz conversion and slow-motion clips with progressive video. A 720p60 video has advantage over 480i and 1080i60 in that it reduces the number of 3,2 artifacts introduced during transfer from 24 frame/s film. However, 576i and 1080i50, which are common in Europe, generally do not suffer from pull down artifacts as film frames are simply played at 25 frames and the audio pitch corrected by 25/24ths. As a result, 720p60 is used for U. S. broadcasts while European HD broadcasts often use 1080i50 24* frame, arte, a dual-language French-German channel produced in collaboration by ARD, ZDF and France Télévisions, broadcasts in German at 720p50 but in French at 1080i50. EBU Technical paper on HDTV formats
29.
1080i
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1080i is an abbreviation referring to a combination of frame resolution and scan type, used in high-definition television and high-definition video. The number 1080 refers to the number of lines on the screen. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9, so the 1080 lines of vertical resolution implies 1920 columns of horizontal resolution. A1920 pixels ×1080 lines screen has a total of 2.1 megapixels and this format is used in the SMPTE 292M standard. The choice of 1080 lines originates with Charles Poynton, who in the early 1990s pushed for square pixels to be used in HD video formats, within the designation 1080i, the i stands for interlaced scan. A frame of 1080i video consists of two fields of 1920 horizontal and 540 vertical pixels. The first field consists of all odd-numbered TV lines and the second all even numbered lines, 1080i differs from 1080p, where the p stands for progressive scan, where all lines in a frame are captured at the same time. In native or pure 1080i, the two fields of a frame correspond to different instants, so motion portrayal is good and this is true for interlaced video in general and can be easily observed in still images taken of fast motion scenes. However, when 1080p material is captured at 25 or 30 frames/second, it is converted to 1080i at 50 or 60 fields/second, respectively, in this situation both fields in a frame do correspond to the same instant. The field-to-instant relation is more complex for the case of 1080p at 24 frames/second converted to 1080i at 60 fields/second. Both field rates can be carried by digital television broadcast formats such as ATSC, DVB. The frame rate can be implied by the context, while the rate is generally specified after the letter i. In this case 1080i60 refers to 60 fields per second, the European Broadcasting Union prefers to use the resolution and frame rate separated by a slash, as in 1080i/30 and 1080i/25, likewise 480i/30 and 576i/25. Resolutions of 1080i60 or 1080i50 often refers to 1080i/30 or 1080i/25 in EBU notation, 1080i is directly compatible with some CRT HDTVs on which it can be displayed natively in interlaced form, but for display on progressive-scan—e. g. Most new LCD and plasma TVs, it must be deinterlaced, depending on the televisions video processing capabilities, the resulting video quality may vary, but may not necessarily suffer. For example, film material at 25fps may be deinterlaced from 1080i50 to restore a full 1080p resolution at the frame rate without any loss. Preferably video material with 50 or 60 motion phases/second is to be converted to 50p or 60p before display, worldwide, most HD channels on satellite and cable broadcast in 1080i. This also allows local newscasts on these ABC affiliates to be produced in the resolution to match the picture quality of their 1080i competitors
30.
Ultra-high-definition television
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From just 30 in Q32015, the forum published a list up to 55 commercial services available around the world offering 4K resolution. Ultra-high-definition television is also known as Ultra HD, UHD, in Japan, 8K UHDTV will be known as Super Hi-Vision since Hi-Vision was the term used in Japan for HDTV. In the consumer electronics market companies had only used the term 4K at the 2012 CES. Two resolutions are defined as UHDTV, 4K UHDTV is 3840 pixels wide by 2160 pixels tall, NHK advocates the 8K UHDTV format with 22.2 surround sound as Super Hi-Vision. The human visual system has an ability to discern improvements in resolution when picture elements are already small enough or distant enough from the viewer. UHDTV, however, allows other image enhancements than pixel density, specifically, dynamic range and color are greatly enhanced, and these impact saturation and contrast differences that are readily resolved and greatly improve the experience of 4KTV compared to HDTV. UHDTV allows the use of the new Rec.2020 color space which can reproduce colors that cannot be shown with the current Rec.709 color space. UHDTVs increases in dynamic range allow not only brighter highlights but also increased detail in the greyscale, UHDTV also allows for frame rates up to 120 frames per second. 2020, higher range, and higher frame rates to work on HD services without increasing resolution to 4K. NHK researchers built a UHDTV prototype which they demonstrated in 2003 and they used an array of 16 HDTV recorders with a total capacity of almost 3.5 TB that could capture up to 18 minutes of test footage. The camera itself was built with four 2.5 inch CCDs, using two CCDs for green and one each for red and blue, they then used a spatial pixel offset method to bring it to 7680x4320. A review of the NAB2006 demo was published in a Broadcast Engineering e-newsletter, individuals at NHK and elsewhere project that the timeframe for UHDTV to be available in domestic homes varies between 2015 and 2020 but Japan may get it in the 2016 time frame. On November 2,2006, NHK demonstrated a live relay of a UHDTV program over a 260 kilometer distance by a fiber-optic network, using dense wavelength division multiplex, 24 Gbit/s speed was achieved with a total of 16 different wavelength signals. On December 31,2006, NHK demonstrated a live relay of their annual Kōhaku Uta Gassen over IP from Tokyo to a 450 in screen in Osaka. Using a codec developed by NHK, the video was compressed from 24 Gbit/s to 180–600 Mbit/s, uncompressed, a 20-minute broadcast would require roughly 4 TB of storage. The SMPTE first released Standard 2036 for UHDTV in 2007, UHDTV was defined as having two levels called UHDTV1 and UHDTV2. In May 2007, the NHK did a demonstration at the NHK Open House in which a UHDTV signal was compressed to a 250 Mbit/s MPEG2 stream. The signal was input to a 300 MHz wide band modulator and this on the air transmission had a very limited range, but shows the feasibility of a satellite transmission in the 36,000 km orbit
31.
Computer display standard
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Computer display standards are a combination of aspect ratio, display size, display resolution, color depth, and refresh rate. They are associated with expansion cards, video connectors and monitors. Various computer display standards or display modes have been used in the history of the personal computer and they are often a combination of aspect ratio, display resolution, color depth, and refresh rate. Associated with the resolution and refresh rate is a display adapter. Earlier display adapters were simple frame-buffers, but later display standards also specified a more set of display functions. Beyond display modes, the VESA industry organization has defined several standards related to management and device identification. A number of common resolutions have been used with computers descended from the original IBM PC, some of these are now supported by other families of personal computers. Video standards associated with IBM-PC-descended personal computers are shown in the diagram and table below, alongside those of early Macintosh, although the common standard prefixes super and ultra do not indicate specific modifiers to base standard resolutions, several others do, Quarter A quarter of the base resolution. QVGA, a term for a 320x240 resolution, half the width and height of VGA, the Q prefix usually indicates Quad in higher resolutions, and sometimes q is used instead of Q to specify quarter, but this usage is not consistent. Quad Four times as many compared to the base resolution. Hex Sixteen times as many compared to the base resolution. Given the use of X in XGA, it is not often used as an additional modifier unless its meaning would be unambiguous, display resolution, this also lists the display resolutions of standard and HD televisions, which are sometimes used as computer monitors.3 or later. Large image of graphic card history tree
32.
Computer-aided design
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Computer-aided design is the use of computer systems to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design. CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD is also used and its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation, or EDA. In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation or computer-aided drafting, however, it involves more than just shapes. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in space, or curves, surfaces. CAD is also used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles, because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics, and discrete differential geometry. The design of models for object shapes, in particular, is occasionally called computer-aided geometric design. Eventually CAD provided the designer with the ability to perform engineering calculations, during this transition, calculations were still performed either by hand or by those individuals who could run computer programs. CAD was a change in the engineering industry, where draftsmen, designers. It did not eliminate departments, as much as it merged departments and empowered draftsman, CAD is just another example of the pervasive effect computers were beginning to have on industry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid, modern CAD packages can also frequently allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of mathematical modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CAD. CAD technology is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings and it can also be used to design objects. Furthermore, many CAD applications now offer advanced rendering and animation capabilities so engineers can better visualize their product designs, 4D BIM is a type of virtual construction engineering simulation incorporating time or schedule related information for project management. CAD has become an important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs. CAD enables designers to layout and develop work on screen, print it out, computer-aided design is one of the many tools used by engineers and designers and is used in many ways depending on the profession of the user and the type of software in question. Document management and revision control using Product Data Management, potential blockage of view corridors and shadow studies are also frequently analyzed through the use of CAD
33.
MacBook Pro
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The MacBook Pro is a line of Macintosh portable computers introduced in January 2006 by Apple Inc. Replacing the PowerBook G4, the MacBook Pro was the model to be announced during the Apple–Intel transition. It is the model of the MacBook family and is currently available in 13-. A 17-inch version was available between April 2006 and June 2012, the first generation MacBook Pro appeared externally similar to the PowerBook G4, but used Intel Core processors instead of PowerPC G4 chips. The 15-inch model was introduced first, in January 2006, the 17-inch model followed in April, both received several updates and Core 2 Duo processors later that year. The products second iteration, known as the model, has a casing made from a single piece of aluminum. It debuted in October 2008 in 13- and 15-inch screen sizes, in January 2009, the 17-inch model was updated with the same unibody design. Subsequent updates brought upgraded Intel Core i5 and i7 processors and introduced Intels Thunderbolt technology, Apple released the third generation of MacBook Pro with a 15-inch screen during WWDC2012 and discontinued the 17-inch variant. The previous generation 13- and 15-inch unibody models continued to sell with updated processors, the third generation model was a quarter thinner than its predecessor and introduced the Retina Display with a much higher screen resolution. A 13-inch variant was released in October 2012, the fourth generation MacBook Pro was announced on October 27,2016. It replaced the function keys with an interactive, multi-touch Touch Bar, the 15-inch notebook started at $2,399, compared to $1,999 for the previous iteration. The original 15-inch MacBook Pro was announced on January 10,2006 by Steve Jobs at the Macworld Conference & Expo, the 17-inch model was unveiled on April 24,2006. The first design was largely a carryover from the PowerBook G4, the 15-inch MacBook Pro weighs the same as the 15-inch aluminum PowerBook G4, but is 0.1 inches deeper,0.4 inches wider, and 0.1 inches thinner. Other changes from the PowerBook include a built-in iSight webcam and the inclusion of MagSafe and these features were later brought over to the MacBook. The optical drive was reduced in size in order to fit into the slimmer MacBook Pro, hence it runs slower than the drive in the PowerBook G4. Both the original 15- and 17-inch model MacBook Pros come with ExpressCard/34 slots, all first generation 15-inch models have two USB2.0 ports and one FireWire 400 port, while the 17-inch models have three USB2.0 ports as well as one FireWire 400 port. S-Video capability can be attained through the use of a DVI to S-Video adapter, external displays with up to a 2,560 ×1,600 pixel resolution are supported through a dual-link DVI port. All models include a built-in Gigabit Ethernet port, Bluetooth 2.0, later models include support for the draft 2.0 specification of 802. 11n and Bluetooth 2.1
34.
Steam (software)
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Steam is a digital distribution platform developed by Valve Corporation, which offers digital rights management, multiplayer gaming, video streaming and social networking services. Though initially developed for use on Microsoft Windows operating systems, versions for OS X, mobile apps with connected functionality with the main software were later released for iOS, Android, and Windows Phone devices in the 2010s. The Steam platform is considered to be the largest digital platform for PC gaming. By the end of 2015, the service had over 125 million registered accounts, the success of the Steam platform has led to the development of a line of Steam Machine micro-console, as well as SteamOS, a Valve developed fork of the Debian operating system. Valve decided to create a platform that would update automatically and implement stronger anti-piracy. Valve approached several companies, including Microsoft, Yahoo. and RealNetworks to build a client with these features, Steams development began in 2002, with working titles for the platform being Grid and Gazelle. It was first revealed to the public on March 22,2002, at the Game Developers Conference, to demonstrate the ease of integrating Steam with a game, Relic Entertainment created a special version of Impossible Creatures. However, the game was not released on Steam until 2015, Valve partnered with several companies, including AT&T, Acer, and GameSpy Industries. The first mod released on the system was Day of Defeat, the Steam client was first made available for public beta testing in January 2003 during the beta period for Counter-Strike 1.6, for which it was mandatory to install and use. At the time, Steams primary function was streamlining the patch process common in computer games. Steam was a component for all other games. 80, 000–300,000 gamers tested the system when it was in its beta period, the system and website choked under the strain of thousands of users simultaneously attempting to play the latest version of Counter-Strike. In 2004, the World Opponent Network was shut down and replaced by Steam, the online features of games which required World Opponent Network ceased to work unless they were converted to Steam. Around that time, Valve began negotiating contracts with publishers and independent developers to release their products, including Rag Doll Kung Fu and Darwinia. Canadian publisher Strategy First announced in December 2005 that it would partner with Valve for digital distribution of current, in 2002, the managing director of Valve, Gabe Newell, said he was offering mod teams a game engine license and distribution over Steam for US$995. Valves Half-Life 2 was the first game to require installation of the Steam client to play and this decision was met with concerns about software ownership, software requirements, and issues with overloaded servers demonstrated previously by the Counter-Strike rollout. During this time users faced multiple issues attempting to play the game, although digital distribution could not yet match retail volume, profit margins for Valve and developers were far larger on Steam. Large developer-publishers, including id Software, Eidos Interactive, and Capcom, by May that year,13 million accounts had been created on the service, and 150 games were for sale on the platform
35.
Virtual desktop
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This compensates for a limited desktop area and can also be helpful in reducing clutter. There are two approaches to expanding the virtual area of the screen. Switchable virtual desktops allow the user to make copies of their desktop view-port. Another approach is to expand the size of a virtual screen beyond the size of the physical viewing device. Typically, scrolling/panning a subsection of the virtual desktop into view is used to navigate a virtual desktop. Switchable desktops were designed and implemented at Xerox PARC as Rooms by Austin Henderson and this work was covered by a US patent. Switchable desktops were introduced to a larger audience by Tom LaStrange in swm in 1989. Rather than simply being placed at an x, y position on the computers display and they are then only accessible to the user if that particular context is enabled. A switching desktop provides a pager for the user to switch between contexts, or pages of screen space, only one of which can be displayed on the display at any given time. Several X window managers provide switching desktops and this facility is sometimes referred to as panning, scrolling desktops or view-port. For example, if a card has a maximum resolution that is higher than the monitors display resolution. The user can scroll to them by moving the mouse pointer to the edge of the display. The visible part of the virtual screen is called a viewport. The first platform to implement multiple desktop display as a feature was Amiga 1000. The Amiga moved on to succeed in the consumer and video production market, all Amigas supported multiple in-memory screens displayed concurrently via the use of the graphics co-processor, AKA the Copper. The Copper was a processor that could wait for a screen position. Using the GUI implemented in system ROM APIs, programs could transparently display multiple independent screens, from non-consecutive memory and this hardware-based scrolling does not use blitting, but something more like what is sometimes called hardware panning. The video output is simply told where to display and from what screen memory address, a screen can move to any position, or display any portion, by modifying the wait, or fetch position
36.
Digital cinematography
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Digital cinematography is the process of capturing film using digital image sensors rather than through film stock. As digital technology has improved in recent years, this practice has become dominant, since the mid 2010s most of the movies across the world are captured as well as distributed digitally. Some filmmakers still prefer to use analogue picture formats to achieve the desired results, beginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of electronic cinematography, utilizing its analog Sony HDVS professional video cameras. The effort met with little success. However, this led to one of the earliest digitally shot feature movies, rainbow was the worlds first all digital film. The Digital High Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative via electron beam recorder for theatrical release, shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature-length video shot and edited entirely on consumer-level digital equipment. The digital footage blended seamlessly with the shot on film. Also in 1999, digital projectors were installed in four theaters for the showing of The Phantom Menace, in June 2000, Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones began principal photography shot entirely using a Sony HDW-F900 camera as Lucas had previously stated. The film was released in May 2002, two lesser-known movies, Vidocq and Russian Ark, had also been shot with the same camera, the latter notably consisting of a single long take. Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC, at the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely, anchorman 2 was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while The Wolf of Wall Street was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally. Digital cinematography captures motion pictures digitally in an analogous to digital photography. The term is applied when digital acquisition is substituted for video acquisition. Independent filmmakers have also pressed low-cost consumer and prosumer cameras into service for digital filmmaking, Digital cinematography cameras capture images using CMOS or CCD sensors, usually in one of two arrangements. Single chip cameras designed specifically for the digital cinematography market often use a single sensor and their large sensors also let these cameras achieve the same shallow depth of field as 35 or 65 mm motion picture film cameras, which many cinematographers consider an essential visual tool. Unlike other video formats, which are specified in terms of vertical resolution, here the K has a customary meaning corresponding to the binary prefix kibi. For instance, a 2K image is 2048 pixels wide, and this led to a plethora of motion-picture related video resolutions, which is quite confusing and often redundant with respect to nowadays few projection standards. All formats designed for digital cinematography are progressive scan, and capture usually occurs at the same 24 frame per second rate established as the standard for 35mm film
37.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
