1.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
2.
Walcha, New South Wales
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Walcha is a town at the south-eastern edge of the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia. The town serves as the seat of Walcha Shire, Walcha is located 425 kilometres by road from Sydney at the intersection of the Oxley Highway and Thunderbolts Way. The Apsley River passes through the town to tumble over the Apsley Falls before joining the Macleay River further on, originally the river caused flooding in the town prior to a levee bank being constructed and saving the town from more floods. At the 2011 census, Walcha had a population of 1,482 people, the Main North railway line is located some distance away, at a separate village called Walcha Road which serves as the railhead. This is served by the daily NSW TrainLink Xplorer service between Sydney and Armidale, the railway line was built at Walcha Road, because it was the closest point they could get to the town, due to the steep climb over the Great Dividing Range. The area is thought to have been occupied by the Danggadi Aborigines prior to European settlement, in 1818, John Oxley became the first white person to discover the area and the falls which were later to be named Apsley Falls. Hamilton Collins Sempill was the first settler in the New England area when he took up the Wolka run in 1832, other early runs around the district were Bergen-op-Zoom, Ohio, Europambela, Surveyor’s Creek, Emu Creek, Ingalba, Orandumbie, Tiara and Winterbourne. A severe depression from 1841 to 1843, and low demand for wool created hardship for many of early settlers. In 1848 Walcha run is recorded as being 64,000 acres, during 1854 Walcha was sold to Rundle and Dangar who held the mortgage for Jamison and Connal. Later John Fletcher acquired Walcha and moved from Branga Plains to Oorundumby, after being sold in 1905, Oorundumby was resumed for soldier settlement in 1947 and subdivided into 22 holdings. A ‘wool’ road to Port Macquarie was under construction in 1842 for the transportation of wool from New England to the coast, Walcha Post Office opened on 1 July 1850. The mail arrived from Macdonald River, Walcha was gazetted as a village site in 1852, when town allotments were sold, with annual sales following. At that time there was a shop, a general store. A Roman Catholic chapel was erected in 1854, a station and the first Presbyterian church was built in 1857. In 1861 the population was recorded at 355 and the Anglican church was built in 1862 of stone taken from the homestead, Villa Walcha. The old church has fine stained-glass windows which bear tribute to some of the towns pioneers, the population dropped in the 1860s but the town soon began to grow for two reasons, firstly, red cedar getters were active in the areas rainforests by about 1870. Gold was discovered near Walcha in the 1870s at Glen Morrison, Tia, The Cells River, antimony, copper, graphite, manganese, silver and high quality slate was also mined in the district. On 5 April 1878 Walcha was proclaimed a town, when it was gazetted, the boundaries defined, a rail link to Sydney and Uralla opened at Walcha Road in 1882
3.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
4.
Mount Royal Range
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The Mount Royal Range is a mountain range in the Hunter region of New South Wales, Australia. The Mount Royal Range is a spur on the side of the Great Dividing Range. It diverges from the Liverpool Range at a point north of Scone, New South Wales, the range generally extends to the southeast for about 45 kilometres and then generally to the south southwest for about 50 kilometres to Mount Royal. The range generally forms the divide between the Hunter River and Manning River drainage basins, both of which drain to the Tasman Sea. To provide water for the Bayswater Power Station, the Barnard River Scheme was constructed in the 1980s so water could be transported over the range into the Hunter River, the Mount Royal range forms the northern rim of the Hunter Region. The Barrington Tops, a plateau at the headwaters of the Barrington River, are part of the Mount Royal Range. The World Heritage listed Barrington Tops National Park includes this area
5.
Great Dividing Range
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The Great Dividing Range, or the Eastern Highlands, is Australias most substantial mountain range and the third longest land-based range in the world. The width of the range varies from about 160 km to over 300 km, the Dividing Range does not consist of a single mountain range. It consists of a complex of ranges, plateaus, upland areas and escarpments with an ancient. The physiographic division name for the landmass is called the East Australian Cordillera, in some places the terrain is relatively flat, consisting of very low hills. Typically the highlands range from 300 m to 1,600 m in height, the mountains and plateaus, which consist of limestones, sandstone, quartzite, schists and dolomite, have been created by faulting and folding processes. In the north, the rivers on the west side of the drain towards the Gulf of Carpentaria. The higher and more rugged parts of the range do not necessarily part of the crest of the range. At some places it can be up to 400 km wide, notable ranges and other features which form part of the range complex have their own distinctive names. The Great Dividing Range was formed during the Carboniferous period—over 300 million years ago—when Australia collided with what is now parts of South America, the range has experienced significant erosion since. For tens of thousands of years prior to British colonisation the ranges were home to various Aboriginal Australian nations and clans, evidence remains in some places of their traditional way of life including decorated caves, campsites and trails used to travel between the coastal and inland regions. Many descendants of these still exist today and remain the traditional owners. After British colonisation in 1788, the ranges were an obstacle to exploration, although not high, parts of the highlands were very rugged. Towns in the Blue Mountains were later named each of these men. This was the start of the development of the districts of inland New South Wales. A road was built to Blaxland by convicts within six months, easier routes to inland New South Wales were discovered towards Goulburn to the southwest, and westwards from Newcastle. Subsequent explorations were made across and around the ranges by Allan Cunningham, John Oxley, Hamilton Hume, Paul Edmund Strzelecki, Ludwig Leichhardt and these explorers were mainly concerned with finding and appropriating good agricultural land. By the late 1830s the most fertile rangelands adjacent to the ranges had been explored, appropriated from the traditional inhabitants. These included the Gippsland and Riverina regions in the south, up to the Liverpool Plains, various road and railway routes were subsequently established through many parts of the ranges, although many areas remain remote to this day
6.
Mantis
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Mantises are an order of insects that contains over 2,400 species in about 430 genera in 15 families. The largest family is the Mantidae, mantises are distributed worldwide in temperate and tropical habitats. They have triangular heads with bulging eyes supported on flexible necks, the closest relatives of mantises are the termites and cockroaches, which are all within the superorder Dictyoptera. Mantises are sometimes confused with insects, other elongated insects such as grasshoppers. Mantises are mostly predators, but a few ground-dwelling species are found actively pursuing their prey. They normally live for about a year, in cooler climates, the adults lay eggs in autumn then die. The eggs are protected by their hard capsules and hatch in the spring, females sometimes practice sexual cannibalism, eating their mates after copulation. Mantises were considered to have supernatural powers by early civilizations, including Ancient Greece, Ancient Egypt, a cultural trope popular in cartoons imagines the female mantis as a femme fatale. Mantises are among the insects most commonly kept as pets, over 2,400 species of mantis in about 430 genera are recognized. They are predominantly found in regions, but some live in temperate areas. The systematics of mantises have long been disputed, mantises, along with stick insects, were once placed in the order Orthoptera with the cockroaches and rock crawlers. Kristensen combined the Mantodea with the cockroaches and termites into the order Dictyoptera, the name mantodea is formed from the Ancient Greek words μάντις meaning prophet, and εἶδος meaning form or type. It was coined in 1838 by the German entomologist Hermann Burmeister, the order is occasionally called the mantes, using a Latinized plural of Greek mantis. The name mantid properly refers only to members of the family Mantidae, which was, historically, the only family in the order. The other common name, praying mantis, applied to any species in the order, the vernacular plural mantises was confined largely to the USA, with mantids predominantly used as the plural in the UK and elsewhere in 1996. The classification most commonly adopted is that proposed by Beier in 1968 and he divided the order into eight families. Klass, in 1997, studied the external genitalia and postulated that the families Chaeteessidae and Metallyticidae diverged from the other families at an early date. However, the Mantidae and Thespidae are both polyphyletic, so the Mantodea will have to be revised, the earliest mantis fossils are about 135 million years old, from Siberia
7.
Echidna
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Echidnas /ᵻˈkɪdnə/, sometimes known as spiny anteaters, belong to the family Tachyglossidae in the monotreme order of egg-laying mammals. The four extant species, together with the platypus, are the surviving members of the order Monotremata and are the only living mammals that lay eggs. The diet of species consists of ants and termites. Echidnas live in Australia and New Guinea, echidnas evidently evolved between 20 and 50 million years ago, descending from a platypus-like monotreme. This ancestor was aquatic, but echidnas adapted to life on land, the echidnas are named after Echidna, a creature from Greek mythology who was half-woman, half-snake, as the animal was perceived to have qualities of both mammals and reptiles. Echidnas are medium-sized, solitary mammals covered with hair and spines. Superficially, they resemble the anteaters of South America and other mammals such as hedgehogs. They are usually black or brown in colour, there have been several reports of albino echidnas, their eyes pink and their spines white. They have elongated and slender snouts that function as mouth and nose. They have very short, strong limbs with large claws, and are powerful diggers, echidnas have tiny mouths and toothless jaws. The echidna feeds by tearing open soft logs, anthills and the like, and using its long, sticky tongue, the echidnas ears are slits on the sides of their heads that are usually unseen due to the fact that they are blanketed by their spines. The external ear is created by a large funnel, deep in the muscle. The short-beaked echidnas diet consists largely of ants and termites, while the Zaglossus species typically eat worms, the tongues of long-beaked echidnas have sharp, tiny spines that help them capture their prey. They have no teeth, and break down their food by grinding it between the bottoms of their mouths and their tongues, echidnas faeces are 7 centimetres long and are cylindrical in shape, they are usually broken and unrounded, and composed largely of dirt and ant-hill material. Echidnas do not tolerate extreme temperatures, they use caves and rock crevices to shelter from weather conditions. Echidnas are found in forests and woodlands, hiding under vegetation and they sometimes use the burrows of animals such as rabbits and wombats. Individual echidnas have large, mutually overlapping territories, when swimming, they expose their snout and some of their spines. They are known to journey to water in order to groom, echidnas and the platypus are the only egg-laying mammals, known as monotremes
8.
Toona ciliata
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Toona ciliata is a forest tree in the mahogany family which grows throughout southern Asia from Afghanistan to Papua New Guinea and Australia. It is commonly known as the red cedar, toon or toona, Australian redcedar, Burma cedar, Indian cedar and it is also known as Indian mahogany. In Australia its natural habitat is now extensively cleared subtropical rainforests of New South Wales, the Australian population was formerly treated as distinct species under the name Toona australis. The species can grow to around 60 m in height and its trunk can reach 3 m in girth, the largest recorded T. ciliata tree in Australia grew near Nulla Nulla Creek, west of Kempsey, New South Wales and was felled in 1883. The southernmost limit of distribution is on basaltic soils, growing west of the Princes Highway near the village of Termeil, south of Ulladulla, southern Illawarra. It also naturally occurs at Norfolk Island and it is one of Australias few native deciduous trees. The timber is red in colour, easy to work and very highly valued and it was used extensively for furniture, wood panelling and construction, including shipbuilding, and was referred to as red gold by Australian settlers. Heavily and unsustainably exploited in the 19th Century and early 20th Century, almost all the trees have been cut out. Availability of this timber is now limited, timber is currently also harvested in New Guinea. Although it is not generally a viable plantation species, trees are harvested by Forestry in the Atherton region of Queensland. The tree exudes a chemical that the cedar tip moth seeks out. The red cedar is planted in subtropical and tropical parts of the world as a shade tree. It is grown in the Hawaiian Islands and southern and eastern Africa, in parts of Zimbabwe and South Africa, it has naturalised, growing to maturity and spreading from seed. It is a seed producer and establishes readily. Cedar wood Macleay River Toona sureni Australian timbers National Register of Big Trees Distribution Map
9.
Squatting (pastoral)
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In Australian history, a squatter was typically a man, either a free settler or ex-convict, who occupied a large tract of Crown land in order to graze livestock. Initially often having no rights to the land, they gained its usage by being the first Europeans in the area. Eventually, the term Squattocracy, a play on aristocracy, developed to refer to some of these squatters, the term ‘squatter’ derives from its English usage as a term of contempt for a person who had taken up residence at a place without having legal claim. In its early derogatory context the term was applied to the illegitimate occupation of land by ticket-of-leave convicts or ex-convicts. From the mid-1820s, however, the occupation of Crown land without legal title became more widespread, as wool began to be exported to England and the colonial population increased the occupation of pastoral land for raising cattle and sheep progressively became a more lucrative enterprise. ‘Squatting’ had become so widespread by the mid-1830s that Government policy in New South Wales towards the practice shifted from opposition to regulation, by that stage the term ‘squatter’ was applied to those who occupied Crown land under a lease or license, without the negative connotation of earlier times. The term soon developed an association, suggesting an elevated socio-economic status. By 1840 squatters were recognized as being amongst the wealthiest men in the colony of New South Wales, many of them from upper, as unoccupied land with frontage to permanent water became more scarce, the acquisition of runs increasingly required larger capital outlays. Eventually the term came to refer to a person of high social prestige who grazes livestock on a large scale. In Australia the term is used to describe large landowners. Hence the term, Squattocracy, a play on aristocracy, when the British settled at Sydney Cove in 1788 the colonial government in Australia claimed all lands for the Crown. Governors of New South Wales were given authority to make grants to free settlers, emancipists. When land grants were made they were subject to conditions such as a quit rent. In line with the British governments policy of concentrated land settlement for the colony Governors of New South Wales tended to be prudent in making land grants. By the end of Governor Macquarie’s tenure in 1821 less than 1,000 square miles of land had been granted in the colony of New South Wales, during Governor Brisbanes term, however, land grants were more readily made. In addition regulations introduced during Brisbane’s term enabled settlers to purchase up to 4,000 acres at 5s an acre, during Governor Brisbanes four years in office the total amount of land in private hands virtually doubled. The impetus for squatting activities during early phase was an expanding market for meat as the population of Sydney increased. The first steps in establishing wool production in New South Wales also created a demand for land
10.
Station (Australian agriculture)
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In Australia, a station is a large landholding used for producing livestock, predominantly cattle or sheep, that need an extensive range of grazing land. It corresponds to American ranches that operate under the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 on public lands, the owner of a station is called a pastoralist or a grazier. Originally station referred to the homestead – the owners house and associated outbuildings of a pastoral property, stations in Australia are on Crown land pastoral leases, and are known colloquially as sheep stations or cattle stations as most are stock specific, dependent upon the country and rainfall. The operators or owners are known as pastoralists. Sheep and cattle stations can be thousands of kilometres in area. Anna Creek Station in South Australia is the worlds largest working cattle station, because of the extended distances, there is a School of the Air so that children can attend classes from their homes, originally using pedal powered radios to communicate with the teachers. The larger stations have their own school and teacher to educate the children on the station until at least they commence high school, large isolated stations have their own stores to supply workers with their needs. A station hand is an employee, who is involved in duties on a station. Some stations are in areas that are not easy to access. Accommodation for couples and families may be limited, consequently, many station employees are young and temporary. An important example is the jackaroo or jillaroo, a person who works on a station for several years in a form of apprenticeship. Aborigines have played a big part in the cattle industry where they were competent stockmen on the cattle stations. Nowadays staff on these stations may work in the homestead and in stock camps, stockmen, especially ringers, may be seasonal employees. Others include boremen, managers, mechanics, machinery operators, station and camp cooks, veterinary surgeons also fly to some of the more distant cattle and sheep stations. The long-running television drama McLeods Daughters is set on an Australian cattle station, the film Australia was set on a fictional station Faraway Downs, but parts were filmed on Home Valley Station. Jeannie Gunn arrived at Elsey Station in 1902, leaving after her husband died, Elsey also featured in the 1946 film The Overlanders, the crew set up camp on the property for a month. The river crossing sequence was shot at the Roper River, pastoral lease List of ranches and stations § Australia List of the largest stations in Australia Outstation Station Media related to Sheep and cattle stations in Australia at Wikimedia Commons
11.
Australian frontier wars
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The Australian frontier wars were a series of conflicts that were fought between Indigenous Australians and mainly British settlers that spanned a total of 146 years. The first fighting took place months after the landing of the First Fleet in January 1788. The most common estimates of fatalities in the fighting are at least 20,000 Indigenous Australians, however, recent scholarship on the frontier wars in what is now the state of Queensland indicates that Indigenous fatalities may have been significantly higher. Far more devastating in their impact on the Aboriginal population, however, were the effects of disease, infertility, loss of hunting grounds, in 1770 a British expedition under the command of then-Lieutenant James Cook made the first voyage by Europeans along the Australian east coast. On 29 April Cook and a landing party fired on a group of Tharawal people who sought to prevent the British from landing near their camp at Botany Bay. Two Tharawal men made threatening gestures and a stone was thrown to underline that the whites were not welcome to land at that spot, Cook then ordered a musket to be fired with small-shot and the elder of the two was hit in a leg. This caused the two Tharawal men to run to their huts and seize their spears and shields, subsequently a single spear was thrown at the whites which happily hurt nobody. This then caused Cook to order a third musket with small-shots to be fired, upon one of them threw another lance. Cook, in his voyage up the east coast of Australia, some historians argue that under prevailing European law such land was deemed terra nullius or land belonging to nobody or land empty of inhabitants. Cook claimed the east coast of the continent for Britain on 23 August 1770, the British Government decided to establish a prison colony in Australia in 1786. The colonys Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip, was instructed to live in amity and kindness with Indigenous Australians and sought to avoid conflict. Instead, nomadic hunter-gatherers seemed, to the Europeans, to be concerned only with the right to hunt and kill the wild game, which was their principal source of food. The British settlement of Australia commenced with the First Fleet in mid-January 1788 in the south-east in what is now the state of New South Wales. This process then continued into Tasmania and Victoria from 1803 onward, since then the population density of white people has remained highest in this section of the Australian continent. The Australian frontier wars however, were never as intense and bloody in the colonies as they were in Queensland or the north-eastern sections of the continent. More settlers as well as Indigenous Australians were killed on the Queensland frontier than any other Australian colony, the reason is simple, and is reflected in all evidence and sources dealing with this subject, There were more Aborigines in Queensland. Violence between Indigenous Australians and Europeans began several months after the First Fleet established Sydney on 26 January 1788, the local Indigenous people became suspicious when the British began to clear land and catch fish, and in May 1788 five convicts were killed and an Indigenous man was wounded. The British grew increasingly concerned when groups of up to three hundred Indigenous people were sighted at the outskirts of the settlement in June, despite this, Phillip attempted to avoid conflict, and forbade reprisals after being speared in 1790
12.
Cattle raiding
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Cattle raiding is the act of stealing cattle. In Australia, such stealing is often referred to as duffing, in North America, especially in cowboy culture, cattle theft is dubbed rustling and an individual who engages in it is a rustler. The act of cattle rustling is quite ancient, historically, the first suspected raids occurred over seven thousand years ago. Cattle raiding is one of the oldest known aspects of Proto-Indo-European culture with a modern legacy, abduction of women and theft of livestock were and are practiced in many pastoral cultures. These myths are often paired with myths of the abduction of women, in the American frontier, rustling was considered a serious offense, and in some cases resulted in vigilantes hanging the thieves. One cause of tensions between Mexico and the United States in the leading up to the Mexican–American War was the frequent raiding of cattle by Native Americans from north of the border. Mexicos military and diplomatic capabilities had declined after it attained independence and left the northern half of the vulnerable to the Apache, Comanche. The Indian raids left thousands of dead and devastated northern Mexico. When American troops entered northern Mexico in 1846 they found a people and little resistance from the civilian population. Mexican rustlers were an issue during the American Civil War. American rustlers also stole Mexican cattle from across the border, failure to brand new calves facilitated theft. Conflict over alleged rustling was an issue in the Johnson County War in the U. S. state of Wyoming. The transition from open range to fenced grazing gradually reduced the practice of rustling in North America, in the 20th century, so called suburban rustling became more common, with rustlers anesthetizing cattle and taking them directly to auction. This often takes place at night, posing problems for law enforcement, the Pokot and Samburu Nilotic populations in northwestern Kenya often raid each other for cattle. Cattle rustling is a problem in rural areas of South Sudan. In the state of Jonglei, cattle raids in August 2011 left around 600 people dead. Once again in January 2012, ethnic clashes related to cattle theft killed between 2,000 and 3,000 people and displaced as many as 34,500 in the area around Pibor. Several indigenous groups and outlaws, such as the Boroano and Ranquel peoples, to prevent the cattle raiding, the Argentine government built a system of trenches called Zanja de Alsina in the 1870s
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