1.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
2.
Interfluve
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An interfluve is a narrow, elongated and plateau-like or ridge-like landform between two valleys. Whittow, more generally, defines an interfluve as an area of ground between two rivers in the same drainage system. These landforms are created by earth flow and they can also be former river terraces that are subsequently bisected by fluvial erosion. In cases where there is a deposit of younger sedimentary beds the interfluves have a rounder, a consequence of interfluve formation is the so-called interfluvial landscape
3.
R. S. McGregor
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Ronald Stuart McGregor, commonly R. S. McGregor, was a philologist of the Hindi language. McGregor was born in New Zealand in 1929, after obtaining his BA, he studied early English philology at Oxford, and learned Hindi. He attended the University of Allahabad in 1959–60 to study Hindi and his Ph. D. thesis, The Language of Indrajit of Orchā – A Study of Early Braj Bhāsā Prose, was published in 1968. Outline of Hindi Grammar, With Exercises, the Language of Indrajit of Orchā, A Study of Early Braj Bhāsā Prose. McGregor, R. S. Devotional Literature in South Asia, Current Research, pauwels, Heidi, Review of The Oxford Hindi–English dictionary. Edited by R. S. McGregor, pp. xx,1083, Oxford and Delhi, Oxford University Press,1993, £50.00, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,5, 454–455, doi,10. 1017/s1356186300006969 Trivedi, Harish
4.
Ganges
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The Ganges, also Ganga is a trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh. It is the third largest river in the world by discharge, the Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus. It is also a lifeline to millions of Indians who live along its course and it is worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism. It has also important historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals located on its banks. The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007, pollution threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species,90 amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin. The levels of fecal coliform from human waste in the waters of the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the Indian governments official limit. The main stem of the Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi, the Bhagirathi is considered to be the source in Hindu culture and mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer, and, therefore, hydrologically the source stream. The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul, although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, the five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all along the Alaknanda. After flowing 250 km through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, the Ganges follows an 800 km arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an annual flow of about 500 m3/s. The Ganges joins the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, at their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges, contributing about 2,950 m3/s, or about 58. 5% of the combined flow. Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River, which flows north from the Kaimur Range, after the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an annual flow of about 234 m3/s. Then the Ghaghara River, also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, the Ghaghara, with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s, is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the Ghaghara confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son River, the Gandaki River, then the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about 1,654 m3/s and 2,166 m3/s, respectively. The Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara and Yamuna. Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur, Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur
5.
Yamuna
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It is the longest river in India which does not directly flow to the sea. Most importantly it creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain, nearly 57 million people depend on the Yamuna waters. With an annual flow of about 10,000 cubic billion metres and usage of 4,400 cbm, just like the Ganges, the Yamuna too is highly venerated in Hinduism and worshipped as goddess Yamuna, throughout its course. One official describes the river as a drain with biochemical oxygen demand values ranging from 14 to 28 mg/l. Yamunotri temple, a dedicated to the goddess, Yamuna is one of the holiest shrines in Hinduism. Also standing close to the temple, on its 13-kilometre trek route, that follows the bank of the river, lies the Markendeya Tirtha. Large terraces formed over a period of time can be seen in the lower course of the river. Kalanag is the highest point of the entire Yamuna basin, other tributaries in the region are the Giri, Rishi Ganga, Kunta, Hanuman Ganga and Bata tributaries, which drain the Upper Catchment Area of the vast Yamuna basin. Thereafter the river descends on to the plains of Doon Valley, the Yamuna also creates natural state borders between the Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand states, and further down between the state of Haryana, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh. The plain itself supports one-third of Indias population through its farming, here pilgrims travel by boats to platforms erected mid stream to offer prayers. During the Kumbh Mela, held every 12 years, the ghats around the Sangam are venue of large congregation of people, the cities of Baghpat, Delhi, Noida, Mathura, Agra, Firozabad, Etawah, Kalpi, Hamirpur, Allahabad lie on its banks. At Etawah, it meets it another important tributary, Chambal, followed by a host of tributaries further down, including, Sindh, the Betwa, and Ken. Tons River, Yamunas largest tributary, rises in the 20,720 ft high Bandarpoonch mountain and it meets Yamuna below Kalsi near Dehradun, Uttarakhand. Sasur Khaderi River, known as Sasur Khaderi is a tributary in Fatehpur district, the name Yamuna seems to be derived from the Sanskrit word yama, meaning twin, and it may have been applied to the river because it runs parallel to the Ganges. The Yamuna is mentioned at many places in the Rig Veda, 1700–1100 BC, and also in the later Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas including Aitareya Brahmana and Shatapatha Brahmana. In Rig Veda, the story of the Yamuna describes her love for her twin, Yama, who in turn asks her to find a suitable match for herself. It is also said that lord shiva was the reason for the colour of the Yamuna river. After the death of Sati Devi, lord shiva couldnt tolerate the sadness around him, and At last when he went to Yamuna river, it became so black as it absorbed all his sorrow
6.
Khadir and Bangar
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Khadar areas are prone to flooding and sometimes include portions of former river-beds that became available for agriculture when a river changed course. It is moisture retentive and sticky when wet Khadir soil consists of new alluvial soil deposits and is very fertile. Bangar plains are more upland, and consist of alluvial soil. Bangar area are prone to flooding but are usually more sandy. The centers of the doabs consist of bangar and the peripheries, in some areas, these terms have become incorporated in several village names themselves, such as Murshidpur Bangar and Ranchi Bangar-Khadir in Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh. Other places include Chilla Saroda Bangar, Gharonda Neemka Bangar, Pehlad Pur Bangar, Rampur Bangar and Salarpur Khadar
7.
Sivalik Hills
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The Sivalik Hills is a mountain range of the outer Himalayas identified as Manak Parbat in some Sanskrit texts. Shivalik literally means tresses of Shiva’, the width of the Sivalik Hills varies from 10 to 50 km, their average elevation is 1,500 to 2,000 m. Other spelling variations used include Shivalik and Siwalik, originating from the Hindi, other names include Churia hills, Chure hills, and Margalla hills. Geologically, the Sivalik Hills belong to the deposits of the outer Himalayas. They are chiefly composed of sandstone and conglomerate formations, which are the solidified detritus of the great mountain range to their north. The remnant magnetization of siltstones and sandstones suggests an age of 16-5.2 million years with Karnali River exposing the oldest part of the Sivalik Hills in Nepal. They are the southernmost and geologically youngest east-west mountain chain of the Himalayas and they have many sub-ranges and extend west from Arunachal Pradesh through Bhutan to West Bengal, and further westward through Nepal and Uttarakhand, continuing into Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir. The hills are cut through at wide intervals by numerous rivers flowing south from the Himalayas. They are bounded on the south by a system called the Main Frontal Thrust. Below this, the coarse alluvial Bhabar zone makes the transition to the level plains. North of the Sivalik Hills the 1, 500-3,000 meter Lesser Himalayas also known as the Mahabharat Range rise steeply along fault lines, in many places the two ranges are adjacent but in other places structural valleys 10–20 km wide separate them. Sivapithecus is among many fossil finds in the Siwalik region, the Siwalik Hills are also among the richest fossil sites for large animals anywhere in Asia. The Hills had revealed that all kinds of animals lived there and they were early ancestors to the sloth bear, Sivatherium, an ancient giraffe, Colossochelys atlas, a giant tortoise named the Siwaliks giant tortoise Megalochelys atlas amongst other creatures. The remains of the Lower Paleolithic Soanian culture have found in the Siwalik region. Contemporary to the Acheulean, the Soanian culture is named after the Soan Valley in the Siwalik Hills of Pakistan, the bearers of this culture were Homo erectus. People of the Lepcha tribe inhabit the Sikkim and Darjeeling areas, the Indian Navys Shivalik class frigate is named after these ranges
8.
Vedic period
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The Vedic period was the period in Indian history during which the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed. During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo-Aryans settled into northern India, scholars consider Vedic civilisation to have been a composite of the Indo-Aryan and Harappan cultures. The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so-called Hindu synthesis. The commonly proposed period of earlier Vedic age is dated back to 2nd millennium BCE, after the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which ended c.1900 BCE, groups of Indo-Aryan peoples migrated into north-western India and started to inhabit the northern Indus Valley. The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda-samhita, which was composed between c and they brought with them their distinctive religious traditions and practices. The Vedic beliefs and practices of the era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo-European immigrants in the zone between the Zeravshan River and Iran. It was a mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo-European elements. At least 383 non-Indo-European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra, Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda. He was associated more than any other deity with Soma, a stimulant drug probably borrowed from the BMAC religion and his rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. These migrations may have been accompanied with violent clashes with the people who inhabited this region. The Rig Veda contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus, the Rig Veda describes Dasas and Dasyus as people who do not perform sacrifices or obey the commandments of gods. Their speech is described as mridhra which could variously mean soft, uncouth, hostile, other adjectives which describe their physical appearance are subject to many interpretations. Internecine military conflicts between the tribes of Vedic Aryans are also described in the Rig Veda. Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni. The battle was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by their chief Sudas, against a confederation of ten tribes— Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Bhalanas, Paktha, Siva, Vishanin. Bharatas lived around the regions of the river Saraswati, while Purus, their western neighbours. The other tribes dwelt north-west of the Bharatas in the region of Punjab, division of the waters of Ravi could have been a reason for the war
9.
Uttarakhand
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Uttarakhand, officially the State of Uttarakhand, formerly known as Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Devbhumi due to many Hindu temples, Uttarakhand is known for its natural beauty of the Himalayas, the Bhabhar and the Terai. On 9 November 2000, Uttarakhand became the 27th state of the Republic of India, being created from the Himalayan, the state is divided into two divisions, Garhwal and Kumaon, with a total of 13 districts. The interim capital of Uttarakhand is Dehradun, the largest city in the region, the High Court of the state is in Nainital. Archaeological evidence supports the existence of humans in the region since prehistoric times, the region formed a part of the Kuru and the Panchal kingdoms during the Vedic age of Ancient India. Among the first major dynasties of Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised a form of Shaivism. Ashokan edicts at Kalsi show the presence of Buddhism in this region. During the medieval period, the region was consolidated under the Kumaon Kingdom, in 1816, most of modern Uttarakhand was ceded to the British as part of the Treaty of Sugauli. The natives of the state are generally called Uttarakhandi, or more specifically either Garhwali or Kumaoni by their region of origin, according to the 2011 Census of India, Uttarakhand has a population of 10,116,752, making it the 19th most populous state in India. Uttarakhands name is derived from the Sanskrit words uttara meaning north, the name finds mention in early Hindu scriptures as the combined region of Kedarkhand and Manaskhand. Uttarakhand was also the ancient Puranic term for the stretch of the Indian Himalayas. Chosen for its allegedly less separatist connotations, the name change generated enormous controversy among many activists for a separate state who saw it as a political act, the name Uttarakhand remained popular in the region, even while Uttaranchal was promulgated through official usage. In August 2006, Union Cabinet of India assented to the demands of the Uttaranchal state assembly, legislation to that effect was passed by the Uttarakhand Legislative Assembly in October 2006, and the Union Cabinet brought in the bill in the winter session of Parliament. The bill was passed by Parliament and signed into law by then President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam in December 2006, and since January 1,2007 the state has been known as Uttarakhand. Ancient rock paintings, rock shelters, paleolithic stone tools, there are also archaeological remains which show the existence of early Vedic practices in the area. The Pauravas, Kushanas, Kunindas, Guptas, Gurjara-Pratihara, Katyuris, Raikas, Palas, Chands, Parmars or Panwars, at that time, present-day Uttarakhand also served as a habitat for Rishis and Sadhus. It is believed that the sage Vyasa scripted the Hindu epic Mahabharata in the state, among the first major dynasties of Garhwal and Kumaon were the Kunindas in the 2nd century BCE who practised an early form of Shaivism and traded salt with Western Tibet. It is evident from the Ashokan edict at Kalsi in Western Garhwal that Buddhism made inroads in this region, folk shamanic practices deviating from Hindu orthodoxy also persisted here
10.
Dehradun district
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Dehradun district is a district of Uttarakhand state in northern India. The district headquarters is Dehradun, which has served as the provisional capital of Uttaranchal since its founding in 2000. The district has 6 tehsils,6 community development blocks,17 towns and 764 inhabited villages, as of 2011 it is the second most populous district of Uttarakhand, after Haridwar. Dehradun district also includes the prominent towns of Rishikesh, Mussoorie, Landour, the district stretches from the Ganges river in the east to the Yamuna river in the west, and from the Terai and Shivaliks in the south and southeast to the Great Himalaya in the northwest. Dehradun is located 230 km from the capital, Delhi. The national Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Survey of India, basmati rice, tea and litchi orchards are some of the major agricultural crops. Dehradun includes various Puranic stories and cultures and it is mentioned in the Ramayana that Lord Rama, along with brother Lakshmana, came to the area after defeating Ravana, the Rakshasa king of Lanka. The area is linked to Dronacharya, the guru of the Kauravas and Pandavas in the Mahabharata. The area of Rishikesh is mentioned in the Skanda Purana as having given to rishis by Lord Vishnu after killing the asuras Madhu-Kaitabh. Ancient temples, statues and archaeological remains have been found at the sites in and around the area that are mentioned in the Ramayana and these remains have been dated to be approximately 2000 years old. The Pandavas held influence over the region after the battle of the Mahabharata, the discovery of Ashokan edicts at Kalsi near Dehradun show that the area was quite prosperous. Huen Tsang also observed Kalsi as Sudhnagar in the 7th century AD, archaeological remains from the time of Raja Rasaal have been found at Haripur near Kalsi. The area was attacked by Mahmud Ghaznavi, Timur in 1368 and he founded his own Udasi Panth and received support from Auragnzeb. Rohilla chieftain Najeebuchhaula in 1757 and Ghulam Qadir in 1785. This kept the area in disarray till 1801, the British captured the area in 1816 and found the cities of Landour and Mussourie in 1827-28. The district was added to the Garhwal division in the 1970s and it was established as the capital of Uttarakhand after the establishment of the state as Uttaranchal in the year 2000. As of 2011 Indian census provisional figures, the Dehradun district has a population of 16,98,560 the second highest in Uttarakhand after Haridwar, the Decadal growth rate has jumped up from 25% to 32. 48%. This is the third highest in Uttarakhand after Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar, the district has a gender ratio of 902 as against a state average of 963. This has however improved from 887 in the 2001 census, the population density is 550, again the 3rd highest after Haridwar and Udham Singh Nagar
11.
Haridwar district
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Haridwar district also spelled as Hardwar is a district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. It is headquartered at Haridwar which is also its largest city, the district is ringed by the districts Dehradun in the north and east, Pauri Garhwal in the east and the Uttar Pradesh districts of Muzaffarnagar and Bijnor in the south and Saharanpur in the west. A paradise for nature lovers and one of the seven holiest places of Hinduism, Haridwar presents a kaleidoscope of Indian culture, as of 2011 it is the most populous district of Uttarakhand. Important towns in the district are Haridwar, BHEL Ranipur, Roorkee, Manglaur, Dhandera, Jhabrera, Laksar, Landhaura, Haridwara district, covering an area of about 2,360 km², is in the southwestern part of Uttarakhand state of India. Its latitude and longitude are 29. 96-degree north and 78. 16-degree east respectively, the river Ganges flows through it in a series of channels separated from each other called aits, most of which are well wooded. Other minor seasonal streams are Ranipur Rao, Pathri Rao, Rawii Rao, Harnaui Rao, a large part of the district is forested. Temperatures, Summers,35 °C –42 °C Winters,6 °C –16.6 °C The district receives Monsoon rains, mostly during the summer. The wooded Rajaji National Park, a sanctuary, is within the bounds of the district and is accessible through different gates, Ranipur. It is a destination for wildlife and adventure lovers. Sureshvari Devi Mandir, a temple of Goddess Sureshwari, is situated in the midst of Rajaji National Park, cheela Dam is a picnic spot with a dam and a man-made lake nearby, elephants and other wild animals could be easily spotted here. According to the 2011 census Haridwar district has a population of 1,927,029 and this gives it a ranking of 244th in India. The district has a density of 817 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001–2011 was 33. 16%, Haridwar has a sex ratio of 879 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 74. 62%. The Haridwar district is ringed by Saharanpur in the west, Dehradun in the north west and north, Pauri Garhwal in the east, Muzaffarnagar in south and Bijnor in the south-east. Prior to its inclusion in the newly created state of Uttarakhand in 2000, the district is administratively subdivided into three tehsils, Haridwar, Roorkee, and Laksar. It is further divided into six development blocks, Bhagwanpur, Roorkee, Narsan, Bahadrabad, Laksar, the district headquarters is in Roshnabad, at a distance of about 12 km from Haridwar railway station. The office of Chief Development Officer is in Vikas Bhawan, Roshnabad, the Collectorate, Vikas Bhawan, District Judiciary, S. S. P. Office, Police line, District Jail, District sports stadium, many other administration offices like Lok Seva Ayog and Sanskrit Academy are established here
12.
Uttar Pradesh
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Uttar Pradesh, abbreviated as UP, is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The state, located in the region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, Lucknow is the capital city of Uttar Pradesh. Ghaziabad, Kanpur, Bhadohi, Raebareli, Moradabad, Bareilly, Aligarh, Sonbhadra, on 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttarakhand, was carved out from the Himalayan hill region of Uttar Pradesh. It covers 243,290 square kilometres, equal to 7. 33% of the area of India. Hindi is the official and most widely spoken language in its 75 districts, Uttar Pradesh is the third largest Indian state by economy, with a GDP of ₹9,763 billion. Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the states economy, the service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies. Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India, the two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and Yamuna, join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east. Modern human hunter-gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85,000 and 72,000 years ago, the kingdom of Kosala, in the Mahajanapada era, was located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hindu legend, the divine king Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya, the aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi, during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture, most of the invaders of south India passed through the Gangetic plains of what is today Uttar Pradesh. Control over this region was of importance to the power and stability of all of Indias major empires, including the Maurya, Kushan, Gupta. Following the Huns invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj, during the reign of Harshavardhana, the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and it included parts of central India, north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. Many communities in parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj. Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty, in the Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi, in 1540 an Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior, after the death of Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal
13.
Shamli district
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Shamli is a district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. This district was carved out from Muzaffarnagar District on 28 September 2011 as Prabudh Nagar, Shamli is the headquarters of the district. Shamli is located along the Delhi–Saharanpur, Meerut-Karnal and Muzaffarnagar-Panipat Highways, the district lies in the fertile Doab region and hence the major occupation is agriculture. The district is known for its mills and supplies sugar to neighbouring areas. Shamli is a land of farmers but youngsters from almost all the castes like Jat, Prajapati, Gujjar, Brahamin, the area was prominent during the first struggle for freedom against the East India Company in 1857, but the British army later recaptured the area. The town also witnessed important wars such as the first, second and third Battles of Panipat, the district was carved out of Muzaffarnagar district in September 2011 and named Prabudh Nagar. Shamli and Kairana tehsils of Muzaffarnagar formed the new district and it was renamed Shamli in July 2012 by the Uttar Pradesh government. Shamli is located at 29. 45°N77. 32°E and it has an average elevation of 248 metres. It is around 92 km from Delhi,38 km from Panipat,66 km from Meerut,40 km from Karnal and 65 km from Saharanpur and it lies to the east of the Yamuna River, which marks the borders of two Indian states, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. The district lies in the fertile Doab region between the Ganges and Yamuna. Shamli is main marketing centre for 40km surrounding circle, people of the area adhere to Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Sikhism and Christianity, although the majority of the population are either Hindu or Muslim. According to the 2001 census, males constitute 54 percent of the population, Shamli has an average literacy rate of 59.5 percent, which is lower than the national average of 64 percent. Male literacy is 70 percent and female literacy is 57 percent, in Shamli,15 percent of the population is under 6 years of age. Major industries include agriculture and retail and it is also famous for its steel and paper industry. It is known as a maker of wheel rims. Hanuman Tilla, one of the most revered temples of West Uttar Pradesh, is located in Shamli and it is believed to have been built by the great warrior Bhima, one of the Pandavas in the epic Mahabharata. It is also rumored to have been a place where Lord Krishna had a halt during his last attempt to avoid Mahabharata. Another fable describes Shamli as a place where Lord Hanuman rested during his journey to fetch Sanjivani Booti from the Himalayas for Laxman
14.
Hapur district
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Hapur district, formerly known as Panchsheel Nagar, was announced on 28 September 2011 as one of three new districts of the Uttar Pradesh state of India. Hapur district is a part of Meerut division and it is undergoing changes for development into a fully realised district. Soon it will be developed and more administrative facilities will be available. Hapur consists of the tehsils of Hapur, Garhmukteshwar and Dhaulana and it had been part of Ghaziabad district
15.
Delhi
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Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi or NCT, is a city and a union territory of India. It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east, the NCT covers an area of 1,484 square kilometres. According to 2011 census, Delhis city population was about 11 million, Delhis urban area is now considered to extend beyond the NCT boundary to include an estimated population of over 26 million people making it the worlds second largest urban area. As of 2016 recent estimates of the economy of its urban area have ranked Delhi either the top or second most productive metro area of India. Delhi is the second wealthiest city after Mumbai in India, with a wealth of $450 billion. Delhi has been inhabited since the 6th century BC. Through most of its history, Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and it has been captured, ransacked and rebuilt several times, particularly during the medieval period, and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region. New Delhi is jointly administered by the government of India and the local government of Delhi. Delhi is also the centre of the National Capital Region, which is a unique interstate regional planning area created by the National Capital Region Planning Board Act of 1985, Delhi ranks among the cities with the worst air pollution in the world. There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi, one of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu, a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself. The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal, according to the Bhavishya Purana, King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern-day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom. He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali, another theory suggests that the citys original name was Dhillika. The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas, the city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo-Aryan languages. Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large-hearted/daring, aas-paas barse, Dilli pani tarse, literally meaning it pours all around, while Delhi lies parched. An allusion to the sometimes semi-arid climate of Delhi, it refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty. The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC, the city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata. According to Mahabharata, this land was initially a huge mass of forests called Khandavaprastha which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha, the earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period, in 1966, an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka was discovered near Srinivaspuri. Remains of eight cities have been discovered in Delhi
16.
Auraiya district
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Auraiya district is one of the districts of Uttar Pradesh state of India, and Auraiya town is the district headquarters. It lies on the portion of Uttar Pradesh and also forms a part of the Kanpur Division. On 17 September 1997 two tehsils named Auraiya and Bidhuna were separated from district Etawah to form the new district named as Auraiya and it is situated on National Highway 2 and 64 km in the east of district headquarters of Etawah and 105 km in west of Kanpur. Under the Rohillas In 1760 AD Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India, he was opposed in 1761 by the Marathas on the field of Panipat, among other Maratha chieftains Govind Rao Pandit lost his life in the action. This was then in the possession of the Marathas, and accordingly in 1762 a Rohilla force was sent under Mullah Mohsin Khan to wrest the assigned property from the Marathas. This force was opposed near the town of Etawah by Kishan Rao and Bala Rao Pandits, siege was then laid to the fort of Etawah by Mohsin Khan, but the fort was soon surrendered by its commander, and the district fell into the hands of the Rohillas. The occupation, however, was nominal at first, the zamindars refused to pay revenue to Inayat Khan and. Hafiz Rahmat and Inayat Khan then came in person to Etawah, ultimately an annual tribute was agreed to by the latter. Hafiz Rahmat then departed to Bareilly, and Rohilla garrisons were established at convenient places in the district, but the wazirs hostility to the Farrukhabad Afghans had not abated one jot, and in 1762 he persuaded Najib-ud-daula to join him in an attack on Farrukhabad. The attack was beaten off by the aid of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, on receipt of this news Hafiz Rahmat advanced from Bareilly to oppose the Marathas. He was joined near Phaphund by Sheikh Kuber, the Rohilla governor of Etawah, and prepared to give battle, accordingly, a Maratha army was invited to Delhi for the purpose of first wresting Farrukhabad from Ahmad Khan and of afterwards invading Rohikhand. The united forces of Najib-ud-daula and the Marathas advanced from Delhi, Zabita Khan however, was by no means disposed to fight against his brother Afghans. The Marathas, knowing this, kept him practically a prisoner in their camp, Hafiz Rahmat Khan was not disposed to agree to those terms, and while negotiations were proceeding for buying off the Marathas Zabita Khan escaped. Several desultory engagements now took place between the Marathas and the Afghan forces, Inayat khan was summoned by his father to Farrukhabad in order that he might be consulted regarding the surrendering of his jagirs. But although Dhunde Khan agreed to give up Shikohabad Inayat Khan refused to surrender Etawah, the Marathas now marched to Etawah, but as the orders had not yet reached him Sheikh Kuber gave them battle. Later in the year,1771 AD, the Marathas advanced to Delhi and reinstated the emperor Shah Alam. They were now masters of the empire and Zabita Khan determined to oppose them, under the Government of Oudh Zabita Khan then solicited the aid of Shuja-ud-daula, Nawab Wazir of Oudh, but the Nawab declined to interfere unless Hafiz Rahmat Khan applied on his behalf. Negotiations were commenced with Shah Alam and the Marathas for the restoration of Zabita Khans family, to this Hafiz Rahmat Khan consented, the bond was signed and the Marathas retired from Rohilkhand
17.
Mathura district
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Mathura district situated along the banks of the river Yamuna is a district of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. The historic town of Mathura is the district headquarters, the District is part of Agra division. Mathura is bounded on the northeast by Aligarh District, on the southeast by Hathras District, on the south by Agra District, Mathura district is an important pilgrimage centre of Hindus. According to the Archaeological Survey of India plaque at the Mathura Museum, the city is mentioned in the oldest Indian epic, in the epic, the Ikshwaku prince Shatrughna slays a demon called Lavanasura and claims the land. Afterwards, the place came to be known as Madhuvan as it was wooded, then Madhupura. In the 6th century BCE Mathura became the capital of the Surasena mahajanapada. The city was ruled by the Maurya empire. It may have come under the control of Indo-Greeks some time between 180 BCE and 100 BCE and it then reverted to local rule before being conquered by the Indo-Scythians during the 1st century BCE. Mathuran art and culture reached its zenith under the Kushan dynasty which had Mathura as one of their capitals, the dynasty had kings with the names of Kujula Kadphises, Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva I. Megasthenes, writing in the early 3rd century BCE, mentions Mathura as a city under the name Μέθορα. The Indo-Scythians conquered the area of Mathura over Indian kings around 60 BCE, the findings of ancient stone inscriptions in Maghera, a town 17 kilometres from Mathura, provide historical artifacts giving more details on this era of Mathura. The opening of the 3 line text of these inscriptions are in Brahmi script and were translated as, the Indo-Scythian satraps of Mathura are sometimes called the Northern Satraps, as opposed to the Western Satraps ruling in Gujarat and Malwa. Mathura served as one of the Kushan Empires two capitals from the first to the third centuries, the city was sacked and many of its temples destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 and again by Sikandar Lodhi, who ruled the Sultanate of Delhi from 1489 to 1517. Sikander Lodhi earned the epithet of But Shikan, the Destroyer of Hindu deities, the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb, built the citys Jami Masjid. According to the 2011 census Mathura district has a population of 2,541,894 and this gives it a ranking of 167th in India. The district has a density of 761 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 22. 53%, Mathura has a sex ratio of 858 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 72. 65%. Mathura is a Jat dominated region with around 5.30 lakh Jat, Mathura receives a large number of daily visitors besides pilgrims who stay for an average of 3 days. Mathura’s urban areas floating population on normal days is between 100,000 to 125,000 per day, whereas on festive and auspicious days it is twice the population of urban area
18.
Braj
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Brij is a region mainly in Uttar Pradesh of India, around Mathura-Vrindavan. Brij, though never a defined political region in India, is very well demarcated culturally. The area stretches from Mathura, Jalesar, Agra, Hathras and Aligarh right up to Etah, Mainpuri and it is considered to be the land of Krishna and is derived from the Sanskrit word vraja. The main cities in the region are Mathura, Jalesar, Bharatpur, Agra, Hathras, Dholpur, Aligarh, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah, Kasganj, Brajbhoomi falls right in the middle of the Doab. The area was an important part of the Madhya-desha or Aryavarta or midlands, the region lies well within the golden triangle of Delhi-Jaipur-Agra. The land of Braj starts from Kotban near Hodel and it covers Agra, Aligarh, Hathras Bharatpur bareilly and Dholpur, in broader terms Firozabad Mainpuri Etah kasganj Etawah and Gwalior Morena Bhind area are also part of Brajbhoomi or Braj Pradesh. The residents or natives of Braj are called Brijwasi, Braj bhasha or Brij bhasha, closely related to spoken Hindi with a soft accent, is spoken throughout the region. Braj is famous for its sweets and Chaat, Hathras is also known for its sindoor and heeng. The region is related to the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Krishna is said to have spent his childhood and adolescence in Braj and therefore, Krishna performed his numerous popularly called his lilas in the 137 sacred forests, at the 1000 Kunds, on the numerous holy hills and on the banks of the river Yamuna. In Srimad Bhagawat, he says to his foster father, Nandbaba that Braj is a culture of forests and hills. Nowhere in the history of mankind, can one find such an emphasis on the harmony of life with the environment. Thus, the Brajbhasa, the language of Braj was the language of choice of the Bhakti movement, or the neo-Vaishnavite religions, therefore, most of the literature in this language pertains to Krishna composed in medieval times. Many international Hindu communities and disciplic successions established temples in the heart of Braj, in May of 2014, Braj was added to the lexicon. As The 2014 word had already selected, Braj had an early selection for the 2015 Word of the Day of the Year. It has since become the best received and most welcome Word of the Day of the Year in the 10 year WOTDOTY history, the vast heritage of the region is thought to be deteriorating. Out of the 137 forests, only 3 are left and the rest have been cut down, out of the 27 picturesque ghats on the banks of river Yamuna, only one remains and rest have been encroached upon and smuggled out. Due to the wide scale illegal mining of Braj hills, the spots associated with Krishna are being lost
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Allahabad district
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Allahabad District is one of the major & largest districts of Uttar Pradesh state of India, and Allahabad city is the district headquarters. Allahabad district is a part of Allahabad Division, Allahabad District is divided into blocks within tehsils. As of 2011, there are 20 blocks in eight tehsils, the Allahabad division includes the districts of Fatehpur, Kaushambi and Allahabad, with the western Allahabad District becoming part of the new Kaushambi district. The administrative divisions are Phulpur, Koraon, Meja, Sadar, Soraon, Handia, Bara, the three rivers of India - Ganges, Yamuna and the mythical river of Sarasvati - meet at a point in the Allahabad District, known as Sangam, considered holy by Hindus. Allahabad was once the capital of United Province before independence, according to the 2011 census Allahabad District has a population of 5,959,798, roughly equal to the nation of Eritrea or the US state of Missouri. This gives it a ranking of 13th in India, as of 2011 it is the most populous district of Uttar Pradesh. The district has a density of 1,087 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 20. 74%, Allahabad District has a sex ratio of 902 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 74. 41% which is close to the all-India average of 74%. This rate is the highest in the region, hinduism is majority religion in Allahabad city with 76. 03% followers. Islam is second most popular religion in city of Allahabad with approximately 21. 94% following it, in Allahabad city, Christianity is followed by 0. 68%, Jainism by 0. 10%, Sikhism by 0. 28% and Buddhism by 0. 28%. Around 0. 02% stated Other Religion, approximately 0. 90% stated No Particular Religion, Allahabad is one of the largest Religious gathering city and Religious Parliament of the world
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Punjab region
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The Punjab, also spelled Panjab, panj-āb, land of five rivers, is a geographical and cultural region in the northern part of South Asia, comprising areas of eastern Pakistan and northern India. Not being a unit, the extent of the region is the subject of debate. The foreign invaders mainly targeted the most productive region of the Punjab known as the Majha region. The people of the Punjab today are called Punjabis and their language is called Punjabi. The main religions of the Punjab region are Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism, other religious groups are Christianity, Jainism and Buddhism. The name of the region is a compound of two Persian words Panj and āb and was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India, Punjab literally means Five Waters referring to the rivers, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas. All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Chenab being the largest, there are two main definitions of the Punjab region, the 1947 definition and the older 1846–1849 definition. The third definition incorporates both the 1947 and the definitions but also includes northern Rajasthan on a linguistic basis. 1947 definition The 1947 definition defines the Punjab region with reference to the dissolution of British India whereby the then British Punjab Province was partitioned between India and Pakistan, in Pakistan, the region now includes the Punjab province and Islamabad Capital Territory. In India, it includes the Punjab state, Chandigarh, Haryana, Using the 1947 definition, the Punjab region borders Kashmir to the north, Sindh and Rajasthan to the south, the Pashtun region and Balochistan to the west, and the Hindi belt to the east. Accordingly, the Punjab region is diverse and stretches from the hills of the Kangra Valley to the plains. Present day maps Major cities Using the 1947 definition of the Punjab region, some of the cities of the area include Lahore, Faisalabad. Older 1846–1849 definition The older definition of the Punjab region focuses on the collapse of the Sikh Empire, According to this definition, the Punjab region incorporates, in Pakistan, Azad Kashmir including Bhimber and Mirpur and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. In India the wider definition includes parts of Delhi and Jammu Division, the formation of the Himalayan Range of mountains to the east and north-east of the Punjab is the result of a collision between the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate. The plates are moving together, and the Himalayas are rising by about 5 millimetres per year. The upper regions are snow-covered the whole year, Lower ranges of hills run parallel to the mountains. The Lower Himalayan Range runs from north of Rawalpindi through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, the mountains are relatively young, and are eroding rapidly. The Indus and the five rivers of the Punjab have their sources in the range and carry loam, minerals and silt down to the rich alluvial plains
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Todar Mal
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Raja Todar Mal was the Finance Minister of the Mughal empire during Akbars reign. He was one of the Navaratnas in Akbars durbar, Todar Mal was born in Laharpur, Uttar Pradesh in a Hindu family, considered by historians as either Agarwal, Khatri or Kayastha. Todar Mals father died when he was young leaving no means of livelihood for him. After the Sur dynasty was overthrown by the Mughals, Todar Mal continued in the service of the ruling power, under Akbar, he was placed in charge of Agra. Later, he was governor of Gujarat. At various times, he also managed Akbars Mint at Bengal, Todar Mals most significant contribution, which is appreciated even today, is that he overhauled the revenue system of Akbars Mughal empire. Raja Todarmal built a fortress-palace at Laharpur in the Sitapur district of Uttar Pradesh, Todar Mal also translated Bhagavata Purana into Persian. Following Todar Mals death on 8 November 1589 in Lahore, his body was cremated according to the Hindu traditions, Raja Bhagwan Das, his colleague in the charge of Lahore, was present at the ceremony. Of his two sons, Dhari was killed in a battle in Sindh, another son, Kalyan Das, was sent by Todar Mal to subdue the Raja of Kumaon in the Himalayas. He rose to become the Finance Minister in Akbars Darbar, Todar Mal is recognized as an able warrior, who led in various battles. In 971, he was employed under Muzaffar and in 972, in the 19th year, after the conquest of Patna, he got an Salam and naqqara and was ordered to accompany MunSim Khan to Bengal. He was the soul of the expedition, in the battle with Daud Khan-i-Kharani, when Khan Alam had been killed, and Munsim Khans horse had run away, the Raja held his ground bravely, and not only was there no defeat but an actual victory. What harm said Todar Mal, if Khan Alam is dead, what if the Khan Khanans horse has run away. Todar Mal succeeded Khwaja Malik Itimad Khan in 1560, Raja Todar Mal introduced standard weights and measures, a land survey and settlement system, revenue districts and officers. This system of maintenance by Patwari is still used in Indian Subcontinent which was improved by British, Also now GOI had launched Patwari Information system based on GIS for this purpose. Raja Todar Mal, as minister of Akbar, introduced a new system of revenue known as zabt. He took a survey of crop yields and prices cultivated for a 10-year period 1570-1580. On this basis tax was fixed on each crop in cash, each province was divided into revenue circles with their own rates of revenue and a schedule of individual crops
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Mughal Empire
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The dynasty, though ethnically Turco-Mongol, was Persianate in terms of culture. The Mughal empire extended over parts of the Indian subcontinent. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the victory by its founder Babur over Ibrahim Lodi, the Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from both Genghis Khan and Timur. During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by the Sur Empire, the classic period of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his son Jahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as harmony. Akbar was a warrior who also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, the reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628 and 1658 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi. By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, during the following century Mughal power had become severely limited, and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city of Shahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon. Contemporaries referred to the empire founded by Babur as the Timurid empire, which reflected the heritage of his dynasty, another name was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari, and which has been described as the closest to an official name for the empire. In the west, the term Mughal was used for the emperor, and by extension, the use of Mughal derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of Mongol, and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists, similar terms had been used to refer to the empire, including Mogul and Moghul. Nevertheless, Baburs ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture, ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass, Baburs forces occupied much of northern India after his victory at Panipat in 1526. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India, the instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun, who was driven out of India and into Persia by rebels. Humayuns exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the Mughal Empire, the restoration of Mughal rule began after Humayuns triumphant return from Persia in 1555, but he died from a fatal accident shortly afterwards. Humayuns son, Akbar, succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River
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Akbar
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Abul-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad, popularly known as Akbar I and later Akbar the Great, was a Mughal Emperor from 1556 until his death. He was the ruler of the Mughal Dynasty in India. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, under a regent, Bairam Khan, a strong personality and a successful general, Akbar gradually enlarged the Mughal Empire to include nearly all of the Indian Subcontinent north of the Godavari river. His power and influence, however, extended over the country because of Mughal military, political, cultural. To unify the vast Mughal state, Akbar established a system of administration throughout his empire and adopted a policy of conciliating conquered rulers through marriage. To preserve peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire, Mughal India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and greater patronage of culture. Akbar himself was a patron of art and culture, holy men of many faiths, poets, architects and artisans adorned his court from all over the world for study and discussion. Akbars courts at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became centres of the arts, letters, perso-Islamic culture began to merge and blend with indigenous Indian elements, and a distinct Indo-Persian culture emerged characterised by Mughal style arts, painting, and architecture. A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a prophet, for which he drew the ire of the ulema, many of his courtiers followed Din-i-Ilahi as their religion as well, as many believed that Akbar was a prophet. One famous courtier who followed this religion was Birbal. Akbars reign significantly influenced the course of Indian history, during his rule, the Mughal empire tripled in size and wealth. He created a military system and instituted effective political and social reforms. By abolishing the tax on non-Muslims and appointing them to high civil and military posts, he was the first Mughal ruler to win the trust. He had Sanskrit literature translated, participated in festivals, realising that a stable empire depended on the co-operation. Thus, the foundations for an empire under Mughal rule was laid during his reign. Akbar was succeeded as emperor by his son, Jahangir, defeated in battles at Chausa and Kannauj in 1539–40 by the forces of Sher Shah Suri Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh. There he met and married the then 14-year-old Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a teacher of Humauyuns younger brother Hindal Mirza. Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar was born the year on 15 October 1542 at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh
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Indus River
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The Indus River, also called Sindhū or Abāsīn, is a major south-flowing river in South Asia. The total length of the river is 3,180 km which makes it one of the longest rivers in Asia and it is the longest river and national river of Pakistan. The river has a drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2. Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow, the Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left tributary is the Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, the Jhelum, the Ravi, the Beas. Its principal right tributaries are the Shyok, the Gilgit, the Kabul, the Gomal. Beginning in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas. The Indus forms the delta of present-day Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rigveda as Sapta Sindhu, the river has been a source of wonder since the Classical Period, with King Darius of Persia sending his Greek subject Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river as early as 510 BC. In Pali, Síndhu means river, stream and refers to the Indus River in particular, the word Indus is the romanised form of the ancient Greek word Indós, borrowed from the old Persian word Hinduš which is in turn borrowed from the Sanskrit word Sindhu. Megastheness book Indica derives its name from the rivers Greek name, Indós, the ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indói, literally meaning the people of the Indus. The country of India and the Pakistani province of Sindh owe their names to the river, Rigveda also describes several mythical rivers, including one named Sindhu. The Rigvedic Sindhu is thought to be the present-day Indus river and is attested 176 times in its text –95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, Sindhu is seen as a strong warrior amongst other rivers which are seen as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter. The Indus River provides key resources for Pakistans economy – especially the breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nations agricultural production. The word Punjab means land of five rivers and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, the Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet, the river begins at the confluence of the Sengge Zangbo and Gar Tsangpo rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri, the Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river and it gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi
25.
Jhelum River
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Jehlam River or Jhelum River is a river that flows in the Indian and Pakistani controlled portions of Kashmir, and Punjab in Pakistan. It is the westernmost of the five rivers of Punjab, and it is a tributary of the Chenab River and has a total length of about 725 kilometres. Anjum Sultan Shahbaz recorded some stories of the name Jhelum in his book Tareekh-e-Jhelum as, one suggestion is that in ancient days Jhelumabad was known as Jalham. The word Jhelum is reportedly derived from the words Jal and Ham, the name thus refers to the waters of a river which have their origins in the snow-capped Himalayas. With the passage of time it became Jhelum from Ja-e-Alam, the Sanskrit name of this river is Vitasta. The river got this name from the incident regarding the origin of the river as explained in Nilamata Purana. Goddess Parvati was requested by sage Kasyapa to come to Kashmir for purification of the land from evil practices and impurities of Pisachas living there, Goddess Parvati then assumed the form of a river in the Nether World. Then Lord Shiva made a stroke with his spear near the abode of Nila, by that stroke of the spear, Goddess Parvati came out of the Nether World. Shiva himself named her as Vitasta and he had excavated with the spear a ditch measuring one Vitasti, through which the river - gone to the Nether World - had come out, so she was given the name Vitasta by him. The river Jhelum is called Vitastā in the Rigveda and Hydaspes by the ancient Greeks, the Vitasta is mentioned as one of the major rivers by the holy scriptures — the Rigveda. It has been speculated that the Vitastā must have one of the seven rivers mentioned so many times in the Rigveda. The name survives in the Kashmiri name for this river as Vyeth, according to the major religious work Srimad Bhagavatam, the Vitastā is one of the many transcendental rivers flowing through land of Bharata, or ancient India. He was the brother of Iris, the goddess of the rainbow, and half-brother to the Harpies, the snatching winds. Since the river is in a country foreign to the ancient Greeks, it is not clear whether they named the river after the god, or whether the god Hydaspes was named after the river. Alexander the Great and his army crossed the Jhelum in BC326 at the Battle of the Hydaspes River where he defeated the Indian king and it is thought that ancient Bukephala was near the site of modern Jhelum City. They say that the name Phalia was the distortion of the word Bucephala, the waters of the Jhelum are allocated to Pakistan under the terms of the Indus Waters Treaty. India is working on a project on a tributary of Jhelum river to establish first-use rights on the river water over Pakistan as per the Indus waters Treaty. The river Jhelum rises from Verinag Spring situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the part of the valley of Kashmir
