1.
Utrecht (city)
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Utrecht is the capital and most populous city in the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is located in the corner of the Randstad conurbation and is the fourth largest city in the Netherlands with a population of 330,772 in 2014. Utrechts ancient city centre features many buildings and structures several dating as far back as the High Middle Ages and it has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. It lost the status of prince-bishopric but remains the religious center in the country. Utrecht was the most important city in the Netherlands until the Dutch Golden Age, Utrecht is host to Utrecht University, the largest university in the Netherlands, as well as several other institutions of higher education. Due to its position within the country, it is an important transport hub for both rail and road transport. It has the second highest number of events in the Netherlands. In 2012, Lonely Planet included Utrecht in the top 10 of the world’s unsung places, a series of such fortresses was built after the Roman emperor Claudius decided the empire should not expand north. To consolidate the border the limes Germanicus defense line was constructed along the branch of the river Rhine. These fortresses were designed to house a cohort of about 500 Roman soldiers, near the fort settlements would grow housing artisans, traders and soldiers wives and children. In Roman times, the name of the Utrecht fortress was simply Traiectum, Traiectum became Dutch Trecht, with the U from Old Dutch uut added to distinguish U-trecht from Maas-tricht. In 11th-century official documents it was Latinized as Ultra Traiectum, around the year 200, the wooden walls of the fortification were replaced by sturdier tuff stone walls, remnants of which are still to be found below the buildings around Dom Square. From the middle of the 3rd century Germanic tribes regularly invaded the Roman territories, around 275 the Romans could no longer maintain the northern border and Utrecht was abandoned. Little is known about the next period 270–650, Utrecht is first spoken of again several centuries after the Romans left. Under the influence of the realms of the Franks, during Dagobert Is reign in the 7th century. In ongoing border conflicts with the Frisians this first church was destroyed, by the mid-7th century, English and Irish missionaries set out to convert the Frisians. The pope appointed their leader, Willibrordus, bishop of the Frisians, the tenure of Willibrordus is generally considered to be the beginning of the Bishopric of Utrecht. In 723, the Frankish leader Charles Martel bestowed the fortress in Utrecht, from then on Utrecht became one of the most influential seats of power for the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands
Utrecht (city)
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Aerial view of the
Dom Tower in the city centre
Utrecht (city)
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Many of the features in
Blaeu 's 1652 map of Utrecht can still be recognised in the city center
Utrecht (city)
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The
Dom tower, with – to the left behind it – the remaining section of the
Dom church. The two parts have not been connected since the collapse of the nave in 1674.
Utrecht (city)
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Prince Maurits in Utrecht, 31 July 1618
2.
Netherlands
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The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
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Flag
Netherlands
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The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
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An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
United Kingdom of the Netherlands
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The House of Orange-Nassau came to be the monarchs of this new state. The United Kingdom of the Netherlands collapsed after the 1830 Belgian Revolution, William I, King of the Netherlands, would refuse to recognize a Belgian state until 1839, when he had to yield under pressure by the Treaty of London. Only at this time were exact borders agreed upon, nowadays, the Benelux Union is in some ways a distant heir of the former United Kingdom of the Netherlands. Their respective political systems are similar and Dutch is the official. William returned to The Hague, where on 6 December he was offered the title of King and he refused, instead proclaiming himself Sovereign Prince of the Principality of the United Netherlands. During the Congress of Vienna in 1815 France had to give up its rule of the Southern Netherlands and these negotiations were not easy, because William tried to get as much out of it as he could. In 1789, after the Southern Netherlands declared themselves independent, Hendrik knew this was a fragile state, since then William had never forgotten this and after the fall of Napoleon he saw a chance. Three different scenarios were made, The Northern Netherlands restored within its old borders, if the Southern Netherlands would stay French, the Northern Netherlands should be extended to the Nete River or probably the whole of Flanders. In this scenario also portions of Germany would become Dutch, then the border would be the line Mechelen-Maastricht-Jülich-Cologne-Düsseldorf where it ends at the river Rhine. The first two came from Memorandum of Holland made in 1813 after the Battle of Leipzig. The last scenario came from William himself, the first scenario never made it because the Great Powers thought an independent Southern Netherlands/Belgium under an Austrian Prince was too weak and Austria was not interested in getting it back. The Dutch question became a problem, the Great Powers of Europe chose the last scenario, but didnt want to go as far in enlarging the Netherlands as William had wanted. It was later incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Duchy of Luxembourg was not fully granted to William, because it was a member of the German Confederation. William however demanded that Luxembourg become a part of the Netherlands, historically it had been a part of the Seventeen Provinces or Burgundian Netherlands up to 1648, but Luxembourg was still a part of the discussions. On 1 March 1815, while the Congress of Vienna was still going on, Napoleon escaped from Elba and he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by Prussian, British, Belgian, Dutch and Nassau troops. In response, on 16 March 1815, William proclaimed the Netherlands a kingdom, furthermore, on 31 May 1815, William concluded a treaty at the Congress of Vienna whereby he ceded the Principality of Orange-Nassau to the Kingdom of Prussia in exchange for the Duchy of Luxembourg. With the unification, William completed his familys three-century quest to unite the Low Countries under a single rule, Royaume uni des Pays-Bas never was the French official name of this short-lived kingdom. This French unofficial name stayed in the language to avoid any confusion with the rest of the Netherlands after the Belgian Revolution and secession
United Kingdom of the Netherlands
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Flag
5.
Steeple (architecture)
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A steeple, in architecture, is a tall tower on a building, topped by a spire and often incorporating a belfry and other components. Steeples are very common on Christian churches and cathedrals and the use of the term generally connotes a religious structure and they may be stand-alone structures, or incorporated into the entrance or center of the building. Clock towers were not a part of Christian churches until about AD600, at first they were fairly modest and entirely separate structures from churches. Over time, they were incorporated into the building and capped with ever-more-elaborate roofs until the steeple resulted. St. Martins church steeple, in Arbon, Switzerland, is an example of such an early church tower. Towers are an element of religious architecture worldwide and are generally viewed as attempts to reach skyward toward heavens. Some wooden steeples like the one in Kingston, New York pictured below are built with large wooden structural members arranged like tent poles and braced diagonally inside both with wood and steel. The steeple is clad with wooden boards and finished with slate tiles nailed to the boards using copper over gaps on corners where the slate would not cover. Steeples can be vulnerable to earthquakes, a number of Romanian churches feature unusually slender steeples and over half of these have been lost to earthquakes. Because of their height, steeples can also be vulnerable to lightning, an example of this is Holy Trinity Church in Luxemburg, Iowa, which lost its steeple in a fire which was believed to be started by a lightning strike. Bell-gable Media related to Church towers at Wikimedia Commons
Steeple (architecture)
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The steeple of
Church of the Covenant (Boston)
Steeple (architecture)
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Typical steeple with components
Steeple (architecture)
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The
Cathedral of San Agustin in
Laredo, Texas
Steeple (architecture)
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The steeple of the
Cathedral of the Good Shepherd, Singapore, designed by
Charles Alexander Dyce.
6.
Architectural style
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An architectural style is characterized by the features that make a building or other structure notable or historically identifiable. A style may include such elements as form, method of construction, building materials, styles therefore emerge from the history of a society. They are documented in the subject of architectural history, at any time several styles may be fashionable, and when a style changes it usually does so gradually, as architects learn and adapt to new ideas. Styles often spread to places, so that the style at its source continues to develop in new ways while other countries follow with their own twist. A style may also spread through colonialism, either by foreign colonies learning from their home country, one example is the Spanish missions in California, brought by Spanish priests in the late 18th century and built in a unique style. After a style has gone out of fashion, revivals and re-interpretations may occur, for instance, classicism has been revived many times and found new life as neoclassicism. Each time it is revived, it is different, the Spanish mission style was revived 100 years later as the Mission Revival, and that soon evolved into the Spanish Colonial Revival. Vernacular architecture works slightly differently and is listed separately and it is the native method of construction used by local people, usually using labour-intensive methods and local materials, and usually for small structures such as rural cottages. It varies from region to region even within a country, as western society has developed, vernacular styles have mostly become outmoded due to new technology and to national building standards. Paul Jacobsthal and Josef Strzygowski are among the art historians who followed Riegl in proposing grand schemes tracing the transmission of elements of styles across great ranges in time and this type of art history is also known as formalism, or the study of forms or shapes in art. Terms originated to describe architectural periods were often applied to other areas of the visual arts, and then more widely still to music, literature. In architecture stylistic change often follows, and is possible by. While many architectural styles explore harmonious ideals, Mannerism wants to take style a step further and explores the aesthetics of hyperbole, Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial qualities. Mannerism favours compositional tension and instability rather than balance and clarity, the definition of Mannerism, and the phases within it, continues to be the subject of debate among art historians. An example of mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola. in the country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles, a center of Mannerist design was Antwerp during its 16th-century boom. Through Antwerp, Renaissance and Mannerist styles were introduced in England, Germany. During the Mannerist Renaissance period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid, the Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms
Architectural style
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The Architect's Dream by Thomas Cole (1840) shows a vision of buildings in the historical styles of the Western tradition, from Ancient Egypt through to Classical Revival
Architectural style
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The rhyolitic
tuff portal of the "church house" at
Colditz Castle,
Saxony, designed by Andreas Walther II (1584), is an example of the exuberance of "Antwerp Mannerism".
Architectural style
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Town Hall of
Zamość by
Bernardo Morando.
7.
Gothic architecture
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Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture and its characteristics include the pointed arch, the ribbed vault and the flying buttress. Gothic architecture is most familiar as the architecture of many of the cathedrals, abbeys. It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less prominent extent, private dwellings, for this reason a study of Gothic architecture is largely a study of cathedrals and churches. A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, the term Gothic architecture originated as a pejorative description. Hence, François Rabelais, also of the 16th century, imagines an inscription over the door of his utopian Abbey of Thélème, Here enter no hypocrites, slipping in a slighting reference to Gotz and Ostrogotz. Authorities such as Christopher Wren lent their aid in deprecating the old medieval style, the Company disapproved of several of these new manners, which are defective and which belong for the most part to the Gothic. Gothic architecture is the architecture of the medieval period, characterised by use of the pointed arch. As an architectural style, Gothic developed primarily in ecclesiastical architecture, the greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly associated with the cathedrals of Northern France. At the end of the 12th century, Europe was divided into a multitude of city states, norway came under the influence of England, while the other Scandinavian countries and Poland were influenced by trading contacts with the Hanseatic League. Angevin kings brought the Gothic tradition from France to Southern Italy, throughout Europe at this time there was a rapid growth in trade and an associated growth in towns. Germany and the Lowlands had large flourishing towns that grew in comparative peace, in trade and competition with other, or united for mutual weal. Civic building was of importance to these towns as a sign of wealth. England and France remained largely feudal and produced grand domestic architecture for their kings, dukes and bishops, the Catholic Church prevailed across Europe at this time, influencing not only faith but also wealth and power. Bishops were appointed by the lords and they often ruled as virtual princes over large estates. The early Medieval periods had seen a growth in monasticism, with several different orders being prevalent. Foremost were the Benedictines whose great abbey churches vastly outnumbered any others in France, a part of their influence was that towns developed around them and they became centers of culture, learning and commerce
Gothic architecture
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Façade of
Reims Cathedral, France
Gothic architecture
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The interior of the western end of Reims Cathedral
Gothic architecture
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Overview of Reims Cathedral from north-east
Gothic architecture
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South side of
Chartres Cathedral.
8.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
National Historic Landmark
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USS Constitution
National Historic Landmark
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Frank Lloyd Wright 's
Taliesin is a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
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The
American Legation in Tangiers, Morocco, was the first National Historic Landmark on foreign soil.
National Historic Landmark
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Navajo Nation Council Chamber, the seat of government for the
Navajo Nation,
Window Rock, Arizona.
9.
Rijksmonument
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A rijksmonument is a national heritage site of the Netherlands, listed by the agency Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed acting for the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science. To be designated, a place must be over 50 years old, there are around 51,000 designated rijksmonuments in the Netherlands. The program was started during the Hague Convention in 1954, the current legislation governing the monuments is the Monumentenwet van 1988. The organization responsible for caring for the monuments, which used to be called Monumentenzorg, was recently renamed, and is now called Rijksdienst voor het Cultureel Erfgoed. In June 2009, the Court of The Hague decided that individual purchasers of buildings that were listed as rijksmonuments would be exempt from paying transfer tax, previously this exemption had only applied to legal entities. Many Dutch tourist attractions are rijksmonuments, such as castles or windmills, among the rijksmonuments are also many churches. A provincial monument is a monument designated by a province, in the Netherlands there are only two provinces that assign monuments, North Holland and Drenthe. The designation allows the provinces to protect the monuments and are a base for the regulation of subsidy for restoring the monuments, a municipal monument is a monuments designated by a municipality. A municipal monument is not of importance but it is important for the region or city/village. List of Rijksmonuments List of heritage registers Monumentenregister, official database of heritage sites Monumenten. nl
Rijksmonument
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Distinctive emblem for the most important cultural property, listed in the
Hague Convention
Rijksmonument
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Emblem for national monument introduced in 2014
Rijksmonument
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Many windmills are listed as rijksmonuments, such as
De Schoolmeester, Westzaan
Rijksmonument
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Witte Huis, in Rotterdam
10.
List of tallest churches
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From the Middle Ages until the advent of the skyscraper, Christian church buildings were often the worlds tallest buildings. If it is completed, Barcelonas Sagrada Família will become the tallest church in the world and this list does not include church buildings that incorporate a significant portion of space to non-church uses, such as the Chicago Temple Building. It does not include structures from non-Christian religions, note, The church buildings are ordered based on their tallest recorded height in history. Those listed in italics and marked with H are church buildings no longer in existence or no longer as tall as their previous maximum height and these church buildings may appear a second time on the list if their current shorter height is still significant. In order to view the tallest present churches in a row click the button in the H column. List of tallest Orthodox churches List of largest church buildings in the world List of highest church naves History of St. Anthonys Parish, Toledo, Ohio, Anno Domini 1957, F. S
List of tallest churches
–
Ulm Muenster
11.
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht
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St. Martins Cathedral, Utrecht, or Dom Church, is a Gothic church dedicated to Saint Martin of Tours, which was the cathedral of the Diocese of Utrecht during the Middle Ages. It is the countrys only pre-Reformation cathedral, but has been a Protestant church since 1580 and it was once the Netherlands largest church, but the nave collapsed in a storm in 1674 and has never been rebuilt, leaving the tower isolated from the east end. The building is the one church in the Netherlands that closely resembles the style of classic Gothic architecture as developed in France, all other Gothic churches in the Netherlands belong to one of the many regional variants. Unlike most of its French predecessors, the building has one tower, the 112-metre-high Dom Tower. The first chapel in Utrecht was founded around 630 by Frankish clergy under the patronage of the Merovingian kings but was destroyed during an attack of the Frisians on Utrecht shortly thereafter, the site of this first chapel within Utrecht is unknown. Saint Willibrord, the Apostle to the Frisians, established a chapel devoted to Saint Martin on the site of the current building. This church was destroyed by the Normans in the 9th century during one of their raids on Utrecht. During this period St. Martins came to be the church of Utrecht. The church had its own small territorial close and was led by a chapter of canons. The church was destroyed by fires and then rebuilt. A Romanesque style church was built by Bishop Adalbold and consecrated in 1023 and it is thought to have been the center of a cross-shaped conglomeration of 5 churches, called a Kerkenkruis, built to commemorate Conrad II. The construction of the Gothic cathedral continued into the 16th century, the first part to be built was the choir. The Dom Tower was started in 1321 and finished in 1382, after 1515, steadily diminishing financing prevented completion of this building project, of which an almost complete series of building accounts exists. In 1566, the Beeldenstorm or Iconoclast Fury swept across much of the Low Countries, as a result, many of the ornaments on both the exterior and interior of the cathedral were destroyed. In 1580 the Utrecht city government devolved the cathedral from the Diocese of Utrecht to local Calvinists. From then on Protestant services were held in the building with one exception, in 1672 and 1673, during the Franco-Dutch War. A year after the French retreat, the unfinished and insufficiently supported nave collapsed on 1 August 1674 during a massive storm that caused a tornado. Over the subsequent centuries, much of the building fell into further neglect
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht
–
Utrecht Cathedral from the north, before the collapse of the nave. Etching after Steven van Lamsweerde, 1660
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht
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Print of 1697
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht
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Hendrick van Vliet, 1674, the year of the storm
Cathedral of Saint Martin, Utrecht
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Exterior of St. Martin's Cathedral in Utrecht
12.
Geert Groote
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Gerard Groote, otherwise Gerrit or Gerhard Groet, in Latin Gerardus Magnus, was a Dutch Roman Catholic deacon, who was a popular preacher and the founder of the Brethren of the Common Life. He was a key figure in the Devotio Moderna movement and he was born in the Hanseatic city Deventer in the Bishopric of Utrecht, where his father held a good civic position. He studied at Aachen, then went to the University of Paris when only fifteen, after a brilliant course he graduated in 1358. In 1362 he was appointed teacher at the Deventer chapter school, in 1366 his admiring countrymen sent him to Avignon on a secret mission to Pope Urban V. Soon after Groote settled in Cologne, teaching philosophy and theology, in 1374 Groote turned his family home in Deventer into a shelter for poor women and lived for several years as a guest of a Carthusian monastery. In 1379, having received ordination as a deacon, he became a preacher throughout the diocese of Utrecht. The bishop of Utrecht supported him warmly, and got him to preach against concubinage in the presence of the clergy assembled in synod. The bishop was induced to issue an edict which prohibited from preaching all who were not in orders. At the close of his life he was asked by some of the clerics who attached themselves to him to form them into a religious order, no time was lost in the effort to carry out the project, but Groote died before a foundation could be made. To initiation of movement was the great achievement of Grootes life, he lived to preside over the birth and first days of his other creation. He died of the plague at Deventer, which he had contracted while nursing the sick, young men especially flocked to him in great numbers. Some of these he sent to his schools, others he occupied at transcribing good books, Groote and Florence Radewyns, his favourite disciple, founded at Zwolle the Brethren of the Common Life. Henceforth his communities, which were spreading rapidly through the Netherlands, Lower Germany and he contemplated organizing his clerics into a community of canons regular, but it was left to Radewyns, his successor, to realize this plan at Windesheim two years later. A movement known as the Modern Devotion was founded in the Netherlands by Groote and Florens Radewyns, for Grote the pivotal point is the search for inner peace, which results from the denial of ones own self and is to be achieved by ardour and silence. This is the heart of the New Devotion, the Devotio moderna, solitary meditation on Christ’s Passion and redemption, on one’s own death, the Last Judgment, heaven, and hell was essential. In the course of the 15th century, the Modern Devotion found adherents throughout the Netherlands and its precepts were further disseminated in texts such as The Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis, which reached an increasingly literate public. In this context small works of art such as diptychs that provided a focus for private worship enjoyed wide popularity, geert Groote College is located in Amsterdam. Florens Radewyns Devotio Moderna This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Groot
Geert Groote
–
The beginning of the
Book of the Hours of Geert Groote
13.
Buttress
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A buttress is an architectural structure built against or projecting from a wall which serves to support or reinforce the wall. Buttresses are fairly common on more ancient buildings, as a means of providing support to act against the forces arising out of the roof structures that lack adequate bracing. The term counterfort can be synonymous with buttress, and is used when referring to dams, retaining walls. Early examples of buttresses are found on the Eanna Temple, dating to as early as the 4th millennium BCE, in addition to flying and ordinary buttresses, brick and masonry buttresses that support wall corners can be classified according to their ground plan. The gallery below shows views of various types of buttress supporting the corner wall of a structure
Buttress
Buttress
Buttress
Buttress
14.
Martinitoren
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The Martinitoren is the highest church steeple in the city of Groningen, Netherlands and the bell tower of the Martinikerk. The tower is located at the corner of the Grote Markt. It contains a spiral staircase consisting of 260 steps. The tower is considered one of the main tourist attractions of Groningen and offers a view over the city, the front of the tower shows three pictures above the entrance, the blind poet Bernlef, Saint Martinus and Rudolf Agricola. All three are men are linked to the history of Groningen, the tower is tilting about 0.6 m, according to reports the tower has a foundation of only three metres deep. The citizens of Groningen call their tower dOlle Grieze, meaning the old one in the local dialect. Twice before a tower has stood on the site of the current Martinitoren, the first was built in the 13th century, this was approximately 30 metres high and built in the Romanesque style. This tower was destroyed by lightning, in the 15th century a second tower was built, approximately 45 metres high, but it also was devastated by lightning in a storm. The third and current tower was built between 1469 and 1482 from blocks of Bentheimer sandstone. The steeple was not finished until the mid-16th century and this tower was initially an estimated 102 metres high. Its architecture was influenced by the Dom Tower of Utrecht, the lighting of celebratory fires on the third gallery, after the departure of Spanish and Walloon troops in 1577, caused the tower to partially collapse. However, the portion kept a height of 69 meters. In the 17th century the tower was repaired up to the current 97 metre height, later the tower was damaged several times by natural violence and several wars. There is a hole in one of the bells, a result of heavy fighting when the Canadian Forces liberated Groningen at the end of World War II. Media related to Martinitoren at Wikimedia Commons
Martinitoren
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The Martinitoren
Martinitoren
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The view from the Martinitoren
Martinitoren
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Martinitoren in 1945
Martinitoren
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Martinitoren in 2010
15.
Groningen (city)
–
Groningen is the main municipality as well as the capital city of the eponymous province in the Netherlands. With a population of 201,865 as of 2016, it is the largest city in the north of the Netherlands, an old city, Groningen was the regional power of the northern Netherlands, a semi-independent city-state and member of the German Hanseatic League. Groningen is a university city, it houses the University of Groningen, the city was founded on the northernmost point of the Hondsrug area. The oldest document referring to Groningens existence dates from 1040, in the 13th century, when Groningen was an important trade centre, its inhabitants built a city wall to underline its authority. The city had a influence on the surrounding lands and made its dialect a common tongue. The most influential period of the city was the end of the 15th century, during these years, the Martinitoren was built, which loomed over the city at 127 metres tall. The citys independence came to an end when in 1536, it chose to accept Emperor Charles V, later, it joined the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. In 1614, the University of Groningen was founded, initially only for religious education, in the same period the city expanded rapidly and a new city wall was built. That same city wall was tested during the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672, the city walls resisted, an event that is still celebrated with music and fireworks on August the 28th. The city did not escape the devastation of World War II, in particular, the main square, the Grote Markt, was largely destroyed in April 1945 in the Battle of Groningen. However, the Martinitoren, its church, the Goudkantoor, the University of Groningen has a rich academic tradition that dates back to 1614. After the University of Leiden, it is the second oldest Dutch university,200,000 people were either students, teachers or researchers at the university. Groningen has the highest percentage of students by total population, approximately 25 percent, the city is nationally known as the Metropolis of the North and as Martinistad referring to the tower of the Martinitoren, named after its patron saint Martin of Tours. The large number of living in Groningen also contributes to a diverse cultural scene for a city of its size. The most important and most famous museum in Groningen is the Groninger Museum, with the construction of its current building, designed by Alessandro Mendini, the museum has been transformed into one of the most modern and innovative of its kind in the Netherlands. In addition, the city has a museum, a university museum, a comics museum. Groningen is also home of Noorderlicht, a photographic platform that runs a photo gallery. Groningen has a city theatre, located on the Turfsingel, a big theatre and concert venue called Martini Plaza, vera is located on the Oosterstraat, the Grand Theatre on the Grote Markt, and Simplon on the Boterdiep
Groningen (city)
–
Top row: Gasunie Building and Grote Markt Square; middle row: Groningen City Theater/Korenbeurs and
Aa Church,
Martini Tower and
Goudkantoor; bottom row:
Groninger Museum.
Groningen (city)
–
Boroughs of Groningen, which have no political or physical significance
Groningen (city)
–
Main building of the
University of Groningen (2004)
Groningen (city)
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Groninger Museum (2006)
16.
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht
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The Archdiocese of Utrecht is an archdiocese of the Catholic Church in the Netherlands. It is the see of the Netherlands. The Archbishop of Utrecht is the Metrolitan of the Ecclesiastical province of Utrecht, there are six suffragan dioceses in the province, Breda, Groningen-Leeuwarden, Haarlem-Amsterdam, Roermond, Rotterdam, and s-Hertogenbosch. The cathedral church of the archdiocese is Saint Catherine Cathedral which replaced the cathedral, Saint Martin Cathedral. Goswin Haex von Loenhout, O. Carm, nicolas Van Nienlant Theodorus Gerardus Antonius Hendriksen Johannes Bernardus Niënhaus Johannes Antonius de Kok, O. F. M. org information
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht
–
Saint Catherine's Cathedral in
Utrecht
Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Utrecht
–
Archdiocese of Utrecht Archidioecesis Ultraiectensis Aartsbisdom Utrecht
17.
Geert van Wou
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Geert van Wou was a well-known Dutch bellfounder. He is best known today for the Maria Gloriosa of Erfurt Cathedral, the son of a bellfounder, he is considered one of the most important bellfounders of the Middle Ages, though records suggest he participated in other casting. The most famous bells for the cathedrals include those in Erfurt, Braunschweig, Naumburg, Utrecht, and the St. Michaels Church in Kampen and that of todays new tower in Kampen. A Van Wou bell also hangs in Zeerijp and another there by him was recast in 1955 by van Bergen because of a crack in the bell foundry and he cast two other bells hanging in the Lamberti Church in Munster. In Eernewoude also a Van Wou-bell from the year 1500, for St. Michael and St. Nicolai in Lüneburg he also poured bells and for St. Mary in Stendal and the St. Marys Cathedral in Hamburg. Another bell hangs in the minster Mildam roads in the church of St. Gudula, cast in 1492, the Regina Bell of Osnabrück Cathedral, already cast in 1485, is now in the tower of Holy Cross Church at Osnabrück. The Grote Kerk, Haarlem in Haarlem houses another van Wou bell, the Roelant cast in 1503, weighing in at almost 5000kg
Geert van Wou
–
Background and terminology
18.
Royal Eijsbouts bell foundry
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Royal Eijsbouts is a bell foundry located in Asten, Netherlands. The workshop was founded in 1872 by Bonaventura Eijsbouts as a factory for tower clocks, in 1893 Eijsbouts was joined by his 15-year-old son, Johan, and the workshop expanded to begin supplying striking and swinging bells, which were cast at other foundries, with their clocks. As interest in increased, Johan Eijsbouts purchased bells from two English foundries, John Taylor Bellfounders and Gillett & Johnston, and installed them in carillons. In 1924, Johans oldest son, Tuur Eijsbouts, joined the company, Tuur was technically minded and inventive. He took the initiative to learn how to cast bells himself, after years of experimentation, an in-house bell foundry was installed in 1947. The company is recognized for their cast bells, which are used in carillons. In 2006 Eijsbouts cast the largest swinging bell in the world, Royal Eijsbouts has been involved in extensive research programs in campanology for decades. Those efforts have resulted in applications with which all aspects of bell sound. Besides bell casting, Royal Eijsbouts also manufactures custom made tower clocks and they also operate an art foundry, using several techniques to cast sculptures and statues. In 2014 Notre Dame celebrated its 850th anniversary, on this occasion, it was decided to restore the bells of the Cathedral to its former glory with a new set of bells. The order was given to the French foundry Cornille-Havard and Royal Eijsbouts in Asten, the casting of Marie took place in Asten on September 14,2012, in the presence of the bishops of s-Hertogenbosch, Hasselt and the archbishop of Paris. After inspection, the 6 ton heavy bell was put in a truck to Paris. Cardinal André Vingt-Trois, archbishop of Paris, dedicated on February 2,2013, the day after, the new bells were hung in the belfries. On March 23, thirty thousand listeners followed the first loud creations the renewed sound of Notre Dame, Royal Eijsbouts web site Royal Eijsbouts Bells distributed and installed in the US by Chime Master
Royal Eijsbouts bell foundry
–
New bell in the
Notre Dame de Paris (2013), made by Eijsbouts
19.
Jacob van Eyck
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Jonkheer Jacob van Eyck was a Dutch nobleman and musician. He was one of the musicians in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century as a carillon player, organist, recorder virtuoso. He was an expert in casting and tuning, and taught the Hemony brothers how to tune a carillon. He is credited in developing the modern carillon with them when they cast the first tuned carillon in 1644, Van Eyck was born blind into a noble family in the small town of Heusden. In 1625 he left home and became player of the Dom Tower of Utrecht. René Descartes, Isaac Beeckman and other scientists praised his knowledge of acoustics, bell casting and tuning, Jacob van Eyck composed the Der Fluyten Lust-hof. Editions of this appeared in 1644,1646,1649,1654. Der Fluyten Lust-hof is an extensive collection of about 140 melodies, each with a number of diminutions or variations. The themes include folk songs, dance tunes, church works, Psalms, some of the variations are considered challenging even for an experienced recorder player. Jacob van Eyck’s Der Fluyten Lust-Hof, Utrecht, Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis,1991. Edited by Winfried Michel and Hermien Teske, Jacob Van Eyck and the Others, Dutch Solo Repertoire for Recorder in the Golden Age. Utrecht, Koninklijke Vereniging voor Nederlandse Muziekgeschiedenis,2011, internet site devoted to Jacob van Eyck and Der Fluyten Lust-hof Music by Jacob Van Eyck Free scores by Jacob van Eyck at the International Music Score Library Project
Jacob van Eyck
–
Jacob van Eyck
20.
Carillon
–
A carillon is a musical instrument that is typically housed in the bell tower of a church or municipal building. The instrument consists of at least 23 cast bronze, cup-shaped bells, a traditional manual carillon is played by striking a keyboard – the stick-like keys of which are called batons – with the fists, and by pressing the keys of a pedal keyboard with the feet. Although unusual, real carillons have occasionally been fitted to theatre organs, such as the Christie organ installed at the Regal Cinema, Marble Arch, a carillon-like instrument with fewer than 23 bells is called a chime. The carillon is the second heaviest of all extant musical instruments, the heaviest carillon in the world weighs over 100 tons, whereas the Wanamaker organ in Philadelphia weighs 287 tons. The word carillon is from the French quadrillon, meaning four bells, in German, a carillon is also called a Glockenspiel, while the percussion instrument called a glockenspiel by English speakers is often called a carillon in French. In medieval times, swinging bells were first used as a way of notifying people of imminent church services, however, the use of bells to play melodic musical compositions originated in the 16th century in the Low Countries. The first carillon was in Flanders, where a fool performed music on the bells of Oudenaarde Town Hall in 1510 by using a baton keyboard, major figures in the evolution of the modern carillon were Pieter and François Hemony working in the 17th century. They are credited as being the greatest carillon bell founders in the history of the Low Countries, since each separate note is produced by an individual bell, a carillons musical range is determined by the number of bells it has. Different names are assigned to instruments based on the number of bells they comprise, players of these instruments often use music arranged specifically for their limited range of notes. A concert carillon has a range of at least four octaves and this is sometimes referred to as the standard-sized carillon. The Riverside Carillon in New York City has the largest tuned bell in the world. Travelling or mobile carillons are not placed in a tower, some of them can even be played indoors—in a concert hall or church—like the mobile carillon of Frank Steijns. The World Carillon Federation defines a carillon as A musical instrument composed of tuned bronze bells which are played from a baton keyboard, only those carillons having at least 23 bells may be taken into consideration. The carillonneur or carillonist is the title of the musician who plays the carillon, the carillonneur/carillonist usually sits in a cabin beneath the bells and presses down, with a loosely closed fist, on a series of baton-like keys arranged in the same pattern as a piano keyboard. The batons are almost never played with the fingers as one does a piano, though this is sometimes used as a special carillon playing technique. The keys activate levers and wires that directly to the bells clappers, thus, as with a piano. In addition to the keys, the heavier bells are also played with a pedal keyboard. These notes can either be played with the hands or the feet, poorly tuned bells often give an out of tune impression and also can be out of tune with themselves
Carillon
–
The carillon in
Munich 's
Olympiapark
Carillon
–
The
Cast in Bronze traveling carillon at the Colorado Renaissance Festival in June 2008
Carillon
–
The 56-bell carillon at the
Plummer Building,
Rochester, Minnesota
Carillon
–
Machinery for playing automated music on a carillon, inside the
Belfry,
Ghent, Belgium
21.
Zutphen
–
Zutphen is a town in the province of Gelderland in the Netherlands. It lies some 30 km north-east of Arnhem, on the Eastern bank of the river IJssel at the point where it is joined by the Berkel, the name Zutphen appears to mean zuid-veen, or in English, south-fen. In 2005, the municipality of Zutphen was merged with the municipality of Warnsveld, the municipality had a population of 47,052 in 2014. About 300 AD a Germanic settlement was the first permanent town on a complex of low river dunes, whereas many such settlements were abandoned in the early Middle Ages, Zutphen on its strategic confluence of IJssel and Berkel stayed. After the incorporation of the IJssel lands in Charlemagnes Francia, Zutphen became a centre of governance under a count. The Normans raided and ravaged it in 882, afterwards a circular fortress was built to protect the budding town against Viking attacks. In the eleventh century Zutphen was a residence for a number of years, a pfalz was built, together with a large chapter church. The counts of Zutphen acquired a lot of power, until the line of counts became extinct in the twelfth century. After the death of her father and her brother, Ermgard, the settlement received town rights between 1191 and 1196, making it one of the oldest towns in the country. This allowed it to govern and have a judicial court. Only Utrecht, and Deventer preceded it in receiving town rights, Zutphen, in turn, became the mother town of several other towns in Guelders, such as Arnhem, Doetinchem, Doesburg, Lochem, Harderwijk, Venlo and Emmerich. It also became part of the Hanseatic League, a group of towns with great wealth, during the 12th century coins were minted in Zutphen by the Counts of Guelders and Zutphen, Henry I and Otto I. Although the city had minting rights for a few centuries this was actively used during four periods, 1478-1480, 1582-1583, 1604–1605. The largest and oldest church of the city is the St. Walburgis church, the present Gothic building contains monuments of the former counts of Zutphen, a fourteenth-century candelabrum, an elaborate copper font, and a monument to the Van Heeckeren family. The chapter-house of library contains a library which includes some valuable manuscripts. It is considered one of only 5 remaining medieval libraries in Europe and its fortifications were dismantled in 1874. In World War II the town was bombed several times by the allied forces because the bridge over the IJssel was vital to support the German troops at Arnhem after the Operation Market Garden, after two weeks of battle the town was liberated on 14 April 1945. After the war a renovation program started, the city center includes many monumental buildings dating back to the 14th and 15th centuries, and some even date back to the 13th century such as a retirement home area
Zutphen
–
St Walburga's Church
Zutphen
–
Netherlands, Snaphaanschelling, struck in Zutphen
Zutphen
–
Dutch Topographic map of Zutphen (city), June 2014
Zutphen
–
1649 map of Zutphen in
Willem and
Joan Blaeu 's "Toonneel der Steden"
22.
Nave
–
The nave /ˈneɪv/ is the central aisle of a basilica church, or the main body of a church between its western wall and its chancel. It is the zone of a church accessible by the laity, the nave extends from the entry — which may have a separate vestibule — to the chancel and may be flanked by lower side-aisles separated from the nave by an arcade. If the aisles are high and of a width comparable to the central nave and it provides the central approach to the high altar. The term nave is from medieval Latin navis, a ship was an early Christian symbol. The term may also have suggested by the keel shape of the vaulting of a church. The earliest churches were built when builders were familiar with the form of the Roman basilica and it had a wide central area, with aisles separated by columns, and with windows near the ceiling. Old St. Peters Basilica in Rome is a church which had this form. It was built in the 4th century on the orders of Roman emperor Constantine I, the nave, the main body of the building, is the section set apart for the laity, while the chancel is reserved for the clergy. In medieval churches the nave was separated from the chancel by the rood screen, medieval naves were divided into bays, the repetition of form giving an effect of great length, and the vertical element of the nave was emphasized. During the Renaissance, in place of dramatic effects there were more balanced proportions, longest nave in Denmark, Aarhus Cathedral,93 metres. Longest nave in England, St Albans Cathedral, St Albans,84 metres, longest nave in Ireland, St Patricks Cathedral, Dublin,91 metres. Longest nave in France, Bourges Cathedral,91 metres, including choir where a crossing would be if there were transepts, longest nave in Germany, Cologne cathedral,58 metres, including two bays between the towers. Longest nave in Italy, St Peters Basilica in Rome,91 metres, longest nave in Spain, Seville,60 metres, in five bays. Longest nave in the United States, Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, New York City, highest vaulted nave, Beauvais Cathedral, France,48 metres high but only one bay of the nave was actually built but choir and transepts were completed to the same height. Highest completed nave, Rome, St. Peters, Italy,46 metres high, abbey, with architectural discussion and groundplans Cathedral architecture Cathedral diagram List of highest church naves
Nave
–
The nave of the
Saint-Sulpice Church in Paris, France
Nave
–
Schematical illustration of a plan view of a cathedral, with the coloured area showing the nave.
Nave
–
The Romanesque nave of the abbey church of
Saint-Georges-de-Boscherville, Normandy, France, has a triforium passage above the aisle vaulting.
Nave
–
A fresco showing Old St Peter's Basilica, built in the 4th century: the central area, illuminated by high windows, is flanked by aisles.
23.
Tornado
–
A tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air that spins while in contact with both the surface of the Earth and a cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Most tornadoes have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour, are about 250 feet across, the most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 miles per hour, are more than two miles in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles. Various types of tornadoes include the multiple vortex tornado, landspout and waterspout, waterspouts are characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current, connecting to a large cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. They are generally classified as non-supercellular tornadoes that develop over bodies of water and these spiraling columns of air frequently develop in tropical areas close to the equator, and are less common at high latitudes. Other tornado-like phenomena that exist in nature include the gustnado, dust devil, fire whirls, downbursts are frequently confused with tornadoes, though their action is dissimilar. Tornadoes have been observed and documented on every continent except Antarctica, however, the vast majority of tornadoes occur in the Tornado Alley region of the United States, although they can occur nearly anywhere in North America. There are several scales for rating the strength of tornadoes, the Fujita scale rates tornadoes by damage caused and has been replaced in some countries by the updated Enhanced Fujita Scale. An F0 or EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees, an F5 or EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes, Doppler radar data, photogrammetry, and ground swirl patterns may also be analyzed to determine intensity and assign a rating. The word tornado is a form of the Spanish word tronada. This in turn was taken from the Latin tonare, meaning to thunder and it most likely reached its present form through a combination of the Spanish tronada and tornar, however, this may be a folk etymology. A tornado is also referred to as a twister, and is also sometimes referred to by the old-fashioned colloquial term cyclone. The term cyclone is used as a synonym for tornado in the often-aired 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the term twister is also used in that film, along with being the title of the 1996 tornado-related film Twister. A tornado is a rotating column of air, in contact with the ground, either pendant from a cumuliform cloud or underneath a cumuliform cloud. For a vortex to be classified as a tornado, it must be in contact with both the ground and the cloud base. Scientists have not yet created a definition of the word, for example. Tornado refers to the vortex of wind, not the condensation cloud and this results in the formation of a visible funnel cloud or condensation funnel. There is some disagreement over the definition of cloud and condensation funnel
Tornado
–
A tornado near
Anadarko, Oklahoma. The funnel is the thin tube reaching from the cloud to the ground. The lower part of this tornado is surrounded by a
translucent dust cloud, kicked up by the tornado's strong winds at the surface. The wind of the tornado has a much wider radius than the funnel itself.
Tornado
–
A tornado near
Seymour, Texas 1987
Tornado
–
This tornado has no funnel cloud; however, the rotating dust cloud indicates that strong winds are occurring at the surface, and thus it is a true tornado.
Tornado
–
A wedge tornado, nearly a mile wide, which hit
Binger, Oklahoma in 1981
24.
Algorithmically
–
In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a self-contained sequence of actions to be performed. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks, an algorithm is an effective method that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic, some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem. In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term, but it wasnt until the late 19th century that algorithm took on the meaning that it has in modern English. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled Carmen de Algorismo composed by Alexandre de Villedieu and it begins thus, Haec algorismus ars praesens dicitur, in qua / Talibus Indorum fruimur bis quinque figuris. Which translates as, Algorism is the art by which at present we use those Indian figures, the poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new style of Indian dice, or Talibus Indorum, or Hindu numerals. An informal definition could be a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations, which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually, but humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets, They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. An enumerably infinite set is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers, the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a set of axioms. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, from such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete and abstract usage of the term. Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data, thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments, in its favor are hard to refute. Gurevich. Turings informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis, according to Savage, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from a source, written to an output device. Stored data are regarded as part of the state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures, for some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined, specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be dealt with, case-by-case
Algorithmically
–
Alan Turing's statue at
Bletchley Park.
Algorithmically
25.
FM radio
–
FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation technology. Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, it is used worldwide to provide high-fidelity sound over broadcast radio, FM broadcasting is capable of better sound quality than AM broadcasting, the chief competing radio broadcasting technology, so it is used for most music broadcasts. FM radio stations use the VHF frequencies, the term FM band describes the frequency band in a given country which is dedicated to FM broadcasting. Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions, In the former Soviet republics, and some former Eastern Bloc countries, assigned frequencies are at intervals of 30 kHz. This band, sometimes referred to as the OIRT band, is slowly being phased out in many countries, in those countries the 87. 5–108.0 MHz band is referred to as the CCIR band. In Japan, the band 76–95 MHz is used, the frequency of an FM broadcast station is usually an exact multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines, in some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used, in Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in countries, including 1,10,30,74,500. Random noise has a triangular spectral distribution in an FM system and this can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, the amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used, in the Americas and South Korea,75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions, for stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier, systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis, e. g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all. Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong who invented FM was the first to experiment with multiplexing and these original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated
FM radio
–
A commercial 35 kW FM radio transmitter built in the late 1980s. It belongs to FM radio station KWNR in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, and broadcasts at a frequency of 95.5 MHz.
FM radio
–
FM Radio Broadcasting: Big Picture in Full Electromagnetic Spectrum
FM radio
–
A dramatic demonstration by
General Electric in 1940 of FM's superior rejection of static (
RFI). The radio had both AM and FM receivers. With a million volt arc as a source of interference behind it, the AM receiver produced only a roar of static, while the FM receiver clearly reproduced a music program from Armstrong's experimental FM transmitter in New Jersey.
FM radio
–
Armstrong's first prototype FM broadcast transmitter, located in the
Empire State Building, New York City, which he used for secret tests of his system between 1934 and 1935. Licensed as experimental station W2XDG, it transmitted on 41 MHz at a power of 2 kW
26.
Transmitter
–
In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which generates a radio frequency alternating current. When a connected antenna is excited by this current, the antenna emits radio waves. The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes, or radiolocation, such as radar and navigational transmitters. Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes, such as ovens or diathermy equipment, are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits. The term is used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter. This usage typically includes both the proper, the antenna, and often the building it is housed in. A transmitter can be a piece of electronic equipment, or an electrical circuit within another electronic device. A transmitter and a receiver combined in one unit is called a transceiver, the term transmitter is often abbreviated XMTR or TX in technical documents. The purpose of most transmitters is radio communication of information over a distance, the transmitter combines the information signal to be carried with the radio frequency signal which generates the radio waves, which is called the carrier signal. The information can be added to the carrier in several different ways, in an amplitude modulation transmitter, the information is added to the radio signal by varying its amplitude. In a frequency modulation transmitter, it is added by varying the signals frequency slightly. Many other types of modulation are used, the radio signal from the transmitter is applied to the antenna, which radiates the energy as radio waves. The antenna may be enclosed inside the case or attached to the outside of the transmitter, as in portable devices such as phones, walkie-talkies. In more powerful transmitters, the antenna may be located on top of a building or on a tower, and connected to the transmitter by a feed line. The first primitive radio transmitters were built by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in 1887 during his investigations of radio waves. These generated radio waves by a high voltage spark between two conductors, beginning in 1895 Guglielmo Marconi developed the first practical radio communication systems using spark transmitters. These spark-gap transmitters were used during the first three decades of radio, called the wireless telegraphy or spark era, vacuum tube transmitters took over because they were inexpensive and produced continuous waves, which could be modulated to transmit audio using amplitude modulation. This made possible commercial AM radio broadcasting, which began in about 1920, experimental television transmission had been conducted by radio stations since the late 1920s, but practical television broadcasting didnt begin until the 1940s
Transmitter
–
Continental 816R-5B 35 kW FM transmitter, belonging to American FM radio station KWNR broadcasting on 95.5 MHz in Las Vegas
Transmitter
–
Commercial
FM broadcasting transmitter at radio station
WDET-FM, Wayne State University, Detroit, USA. It broadcasts at 101.9
MHz with a radiated power of 48
kW.
Transmitter
–
Modern
amateur radio transceiver, the ICOM IC-746PRO. It can transmit on the amateur bands from 1.8 MHz to 144 MHz with an output power of 100 W
Transmitter
–
A
CB radio transceiver, a
two way radio transmitting on 27 MHz with a power of 4 W, that can be operated without a license
27.
Centraal Museum
–
The Centraal Museum is the main museum in Utrecht, Netherlands, founded in 1838. The museum has a collection, mainly of works produced locally. The collection of the paintings by the Northern Mannerist Joachim Wtewael is by a way the largest anywhere in the world. Other highlights are many significant paintings by the Utrecht Caravaggisti, such as Gerard van Honthorst, both of them travelled to Rome in the early 17th century to study the works of the Italian master Caravaggio. In the previous generation, as well as Wtewael, Abraham Bloemaert, initially, the collection - exhibited on the top floor of the Utrecht townhall - was limited to art related to the city of Utrecht. In 1921 the collection merged with various collections in the new centralised museum located in the former medieval monastery at the Nicolaaskerkhof. Currently, the collection comprises pre-1850 art, modern art, applied art, fashion, since 2006, the museum also runs the dick bruna huis, a museum across the street dedicated to Dick Bruna and his rabbit character Miffy. Amongst the highlights of the museum is the one-thousand-year-old Utrecht Ship, the ship is part of the collection Stadsgeschiedenis. The ship was found in 1930 near the Van Hoornekade in Utrecht and was put in the cellar of the 16th-century part of the museum building, official site of the Centraal Museum Utrecht
Centraal Museum
–
The main building at centre; the dick bruna huis is on the left, with the yellow banner
Centraal Museum
–
The good Samaritan, 1537
28.
Leidsche Rijn
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Leidsche Rijn is a neighbourhood in the west of Utrecht in the central Netherlands. It consists of two parts, Leidsche Rijn and Vleuten-De Meern, the neighbourhood is expected to be completed in 2025 and will have approximately 80,000 inhabitants. By 2007 the neighbourhoods of Veldhuizen, Parkwijk, Langerak and large parts of Terwijde were inhabited, during construction several archeological remains were discovered. In 1997 and in 2003 Roman ships were discovered in the neighbourhood of De Balije, in 2002 and 2003 Roman watchtowers were discovered in the neighbourhoods of Vleuterweide and Het Zand. The centre of this new neighbourhood will be situated above the Rijksweg A2, there are about 35,000 people living in Leidsche Rijn as of the end of 2015. In 2015 Castellum Hoge Woerd opened its doors, on the spot where Romans guarded the river from a fort, now a modern interpretation of the fort with ramparts of six metres high has been build, Castellum Hoge Woerd. Behind the high walls are a museum, stables and an educational centre for nature and environmental education, a theater. Leidsche Rijn is connected to the old city of Utrecht via several bridges over the Amsterdam-Rhine canal. The most important of these roads are the Vleutenseweg, the Zuilense Ring. Leidsche Rijn is also connected to two highways in the Netherlands, The A12 and the A2. The A2 highway, a barrier between the old city and Leidsche Rijn, is currently under reconstruction. A new tunnel is being built for the section between the Utrecht - The Hague railroad and the Leidsche Rijn river in order to take this barrier away. Leidsche Rijn currently has three stations, Utrecht Leidsche Rijn, Utrecht Terwijde and Vleuten. All stations are serviced at least twice an hour, with Utrecht Terwijde and Vleuten being serviced every 15 minutes during workdays
Leidsche Rijn
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This article is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2010)
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Huis Ten Bosch (theme park)
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Huis Ten Bosch is a theme park in Sasebo, Nagasaki, Japan, which recreates the Netherlands by displaying real size copies of old Dutch buildings. The name Huis Ten Bosch translates into English as House in the Woods/bush and it is named after Huis ten Bosch, one of the three official residences of the Dutch Royal Family, located in The Hague in the Netherlands and former home to Princess Beatrix. The park features many Dutch-style buildings such as hotels, villas, theatres, museums, shops and restaurants, along canals, windmills, amusement rides. Huis Ten Bosch, which opened on March 25,1992, is located on Hario Island in the part of Sasebo. Its location reflects historical relations between the Netherlands and Japan, which began in 1609 when a trading post was opened by the Dutch in Hirado, the park is open daily from 9.00 a. m. to 9.30 p. m. A day passport ticket, covering entry and a number of attractions within the park costs 5,600 yen for adults and 4,400 yen for children, the park can be reached by JR train or bus from Nagasaki. It can also be reached by boat from Nagasaki Airport or from Sasebo, the park recorded the peak of 4.25 million visitors in 1996. However, due to the fall of the number of visitors caused by economic slump in Japan, the rebuilding plan was sponsored by Nomura Principal Finance Company until March 2010, when H. I. S. A travel agency, took over the management by injecting 2 billion yen, the park was featured in the 2010 series of the Dutch TV show Wie is. The park was the setting for the 2004 anime series, The Marshmallow Times, in 2015, the Henna Hotel opened on site. It is the worlds first hotel staffed by robots, although humans will work alongside them
Huis Ten Bosch (theme park)
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Huis Ten Bosch
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Joost Cornelisz. Droochsloot
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Joost Cornelisz Droochsloot or Droogsloot, was a Dutch Golden Age painter. Droochsloot was born and died in Utrecht, according to Houbraken his village scenes were as popular as flower pieces by Bartholomeus Assteyn. Houbraken thought he was born in Gorinchem or Dordrecht, and claimed he worked for a time in Dordrecht. He felt his work was always according to a set pattern and it is unclear why Houbraken would have thought he was from Dordrecht, especially since Houbrakens data on painters from Dordrecht was generally quite accurate. Droochsloot and his son were highly respected citizens of Utrecht with a large workshop, according to the RKD his monogram was JCODS and he became a member of the Utrecht Guild of Saint Luke in 1616. He later became deacon of the guild in 1623 and regent of the St. Jobs Gasthuis in 1638, deacon of the Dutch Reformed church, and in 1665 officer of the Utrecht schutterij. He was the father of the painter Cornelis Droochsloot whose paintings are hard to distinguish from his own, and the teacher of Jacob Duck. A a 107.5 by 179 cm oil on canvas, The Princes of Orange leaving the Buitenhof and passing the western side of the Hofvijver in The Hague, was sold for GBP242,500 in 2013 at Sothebys
Joost Cornelisz. Droochsloot
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Selfportrait, 1627
Joost Cornelisz. Droochsloot
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Village street, 1654
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