1.
President of Argentina
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The President of the Argentine Nation, usually known as the President of Argentina, is both head of state and head of government of Argentina. Under the national Constitution, the President is also the executive of the federal government. Through Argentine history, the office of the Head of State has undergone many changes, current President Mauricio Macri was sworn into office on 10 December 2015. The Constitution of Argentina, along with constitutional amendments, establishes the requirements, powers, and responsibilities of the president and term of office. The origins of Argentina as a nation can be traced to 1776, the Head of State continued to be the King, but he was represented locally by the Viceroy. These Viceroys were seldom natives of the country, by the May Revolution of May 25,1810, the first Argentine autonomous government, known as the Primera Junta, was formed in Buenos Aires. It was later known as the Junta Grande when representatives from the provinces joined and this power was vested in one man when the position of Supreme Director was created by the 1813 National Assembly. The Supreme Directors became Heads of State after Independence was declared on 9 July 1816, in 1819, Congress declared Independence and composed a Constitution. This established a figure, named Supreme Director, who was vested with presidential powers. This constitution gave the Supreme Director the power of appointing Governors of the provinces, due to political circumstances, this constitution never came into force, and the central power was dissolved, leaving the country as a federation of provinces. A new constitution was drafted in 1826 and this constitution was the first to create a President, although this office retained the powers described in the 1819 constitution. This constitution did come into force, resulting in the election of the first President, because of the Cisplatine War, Rivadavia resigned after a short time, and the office was dissolved shortly after. A civil war between unitarios and federales ensued in the following decades, in this time, there was no central authority, and the closest to that was the Chairman of Foreign Relations, typically the Governor of the Province of Buenos Aires. The last to bear this title was Juan Manuel de Rosas, in 1852, Rosas was deposed, and a constitutional convention was summoned. This constitution, still in force, established a federal government. The term was fixed as six years, with no possibility of reelection, the first elected President under the constitution was Justo José de Urquiza, but Buenos Aires seceded from the Argentine Confederation as the State of Buenos Aires. Bartolomé Mitre was the first president of the country, when Buenos Aires rejoined the Confederation. In 1930, and again in 1943,1955,1962,1966 and 1976, in 1966 and 1976, federal government was undertaken by a military junta, where power was shared by the chiefs of the armed forces
2.
Adolfo Alsina
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Adolfo Alsina Maza was an Argentine lawyer and Unitarian politician, and one of the founders of the Partido Autonomista and the National Autonomist Party. Alsina was born in Buenos Aires, the son of Unitarian politician Valentín Alsina and he moved to Montevideo, Uruguay when Juan Manuel de Rosas became Governor of Buenos Aires Province for the second time, in 1835. In the neighbouring country Alsina started his law studies, after the Battle of Caseros in 1852, his family returned to Argentina, and his father was named a Minister by president Vicente López y Planes. Adolfo finished law school and joined the Unitarian army in the civil war, in 1860, after the Battle of Pavón and the National Union Pact, he took part in the commission responsible for the constitution reform of 1860. He was elected a deputy in 1862, when the subject of federalisation, supported by Bartolomé Mitre, was considered in the Chamber of Deputies, Alsina provoked a split in the Partido Unitario and founded the Partido Autonomista. In 1866 he was elected governor of the Buenos Aires Province, Alsina considered running for president, but withdrew when he discovered he did not have the support of most of the province. Domingo Sarmiento was elected president, and named Alsina his vice-president, the first stage of the Conquest of the Desert began with the creation of a two meter deep, three meter wide trench called zanja de Alsina to prevent the free movement of horses and stolen cattle. Alsina also ordered the creation of forts intercommunicated by telegraph, trying to understand the native peoples, he decided to study the situation personally, but he fell ill while in the pampas town of Carhué, and died of renal failure, aged 48
3.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship
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The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship is the Argentine government ministry which oversees the foreign relations of Argentina. The Ministrys Department of Worship has several directorates, the Registry Directorate maintains the National Register of Religions, which compiles the mandatory registrations of all churches and religious communities, other than those of the Catholic Church. The Directorate General for Catholic Worship, is the liaison for the government of Argentina with the Catholic Church. It maintains relations with the archbishops, the conference and with the various monastic orders. The department also awards individuals and organizations that, through their work, have encouraged rich ecumenical, Foreign relations of Argentina List of Foreign Ministers of Argentina Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship
4.
Bernardo de Irigoyen
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Bernardo de Irigoyen was an Argentine lawyer, diplomat and politician. Born in Buenos Aires, Irigoyen enrolled at the University of Buenos Aires and he again negotiated with Chile over the disputed Straits of Magellan, and following Rosas overthrow, helped draft the 1852 San Nicolás Agreement. Irigoyen returned to life in 1870 as a provincial legislator. He was returned to the Foreign Ministers post by Avellanedas successor, President Julio Roca and he was elected to the Argentine Senate in 1884, and ran unsuccessfully for President in 1886. He later represented Argentina in talks with U. S. Irigoyen joined Bartolomé Mitre, Leandro Alem, formed to challenge the paramount National Autonomist Party, the Civic Union organized its first presidential ticket in 1892. Irigoyen was nominated as Mitres running mate, though before the campaign could begin in earnest, Irigoyen attempted to create a coalition of more conservative Civic Union figures and reformists from within the ruling PAN. The aging lawmaker ran instead, in 1898, for Governor of Buenos Aires Province, bernardo de Irigoyen retired afterwards and died in Buenos Aires in 1906. His death deprived the influential former President Roca of one of his most respected allies, and Rocas hegemony over national policy ended shortly afterwards
5.
San Juan Province, Argentina
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San Juan is a province of Argentina, located in the western part of the country. Neighbouring provinces are, moving clockwise from the north, La Rioja, San Luis and it borders with Chile at the west. The province has an area of 89,651 km2, covering a region with scarce vegetation, fertile oases. Throughout the entire province there are an important number of paleontological sites, similar to other regions in Argentina, agriculture is one of the most important economic activities, highlighting wine production and olive oil. Additionally, a variety of fruits and vegetables are produced in the fertile valleys irrigated by artificial channels in the western part and this is the second province in volume of wine production at the national level and in South America, and possesses outstanding varietal wines. It is also an important center of mining and oil production, before the arrival of Spanish conquistadores, different tribes like Huarpes, Diaguitas, Capazanes, Olongastas and Yacampis, highly influenced by the Inca empire, inhabited the area. The city of San Juan de la Frontera was founded by Juan Jufré y Montesa in 1562, in 1776, San Juan was annexed to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, becoming one of the cities of the Province of Cuyo. In the same year, the first recorded earthquake caused damage to the city. The father of Argentine independence, Gen. Jose de San Martin, was appointed Governor of the Province of Cuyo in 1814, from there, San Martin began his legendary crossing of the Andes, one of military historys great tactical decisions. San Juan, then a town, was a great supporter of the expedition supplying gold, men. In 1820, San Juan was granted autonomy from the Province of Cuyo, the remainder of Cuyo region became Mendoza Province. Following an era of isolation for Argentina, the advent of new. Among these, was a San Juan military officer and novelist named Domingo Sarmiento, Sarmiento was eventually elected governor in 1862, pursuing sorely needed public investments and enacting Argentinas first law mandating compulsory education. Once elected President of Argentina in 1868, those policies became national law, in 1944 a moderate, yet highly destructive earthquake near the capital destroyed most of the city and killed 10,000 people. A fundraiser was organized to raise money for the victims of the quake where Colonel Juan Perón met his eventual wife, a more powerful earthquake stuck the same city in 1977, however new construction codes put in effect following the 1944 incident kept damage to a relative minimum. The most noteworthy loss following this event was the destruction of the Cathedral of San Juan, a new, modernist house of worship was quickly put up in its place and inaugurated in 1979. Among the most rapidly growing provinces in Argentina after 1945, the government began the construction of the National University of San Juan. Inaugurated in 1980, it has contributed to the production of irrigated desert crops, like olives, figs and, most importantly
6.
San Juan, Argentina
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It is a modern city with wide streets and well drawn avenues with wide sidewalks and vegetation of different species of trees irrigated by canals, from which it derives its nickname oasis town. It has an important accommodation infrastructure and transportation and it highlights modern buildings and the surroundings, the reservoir and Ullum dam, spas, museums, large plantations of vines, and various types of agriculture, with wine being the most important. Before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadores, the Huarpe Indians inhabited this area, San Juan de la Frontera was founded on June 13,1562 by Juan Jufré at the shore of the San Juan River. In 1593 flooding damaged the town, for which reason its setting was moved 2.5 kilometres south to its current location, on January 15,1944, a powerful earthquake devastated the city, killing around 10,000 people and leaving half of the provincial population homeless. Another quake,7.4 in the Richter magnitude scale, struck 80 km northeast of the city on November 23,1977, causing considerable damage and killing 65 people around the province. After the disaster of 1944, the city was reconstructed on concentric boulevards, with straight, well-lit, tree-lined avenues and it has mostly lost its colonial aspect, but retains an open, sunny Mediterranean look. The city of San Juan is located in a valley within a rocky mountainous area. Winter temperatures are mild, averaging between 1 °C and 16 °C, but can drop below −9 °C. Summers are hot, with temperatures between 19 °C and 35 °C, and a record maximum of 46.7 °C on December 20,1995. Under the Köppen climate classification, San Juan has a desert climate, since very little rain falls in the region, the San Juan River has been dammed to provide a regular source of water to the city. The resulting reservoir is located in Ullum, and is known as the Quebrada de Ullum Dam, the dam also provides electrical power to the region. Sixty-five percent of the areas agricultural production is related to wine production. The city is located within the Capital District, which was planned in the form of a checkerboard anchored by Las Heras Avenue,25 de Mayo Av.9 de Julio Av. and these four avenues form a perfect rectangle of 16 blocks in width by 10 blocks long. This center of this rectangle is a square of 7 blocks in length by 6 blocks wide, delimited by Leandro N. Alem, Córdoba, Libertador San Martín and Rioja Avenues. This area is the downtown and, as such, is the most densely populated. The most important perpendicular avenues are Mitre, José Ignacio de la Roza, commercial Santa Fe Avenue, Rivadavia street, the more important parallel arteries are Mendoza Avenue, General Mariano Acha Av. and Rioja Avenue. Some of the citys most important landmarks are, Cathedral Designed by architect Daniel Ramos Correa, the bell tower is a steeple of 51 meters in height, and features a British clock and a German carillon which sounds every 15 minutes. The park also features 19th century-era monuments to President Domingo Sarmiento, the central fountain, dating from 1871, was remodeled on several occasions
7.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
8.
Argentine Army
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The Argentine Army is the land armed force branch of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic and the senior military service of the country. Under the Argentine Constitution, the President of Argentina is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, the Armys official foundation date is May 29,1810, four days after the Spanish colonial administration in Buenos Aires was overthrown. Several armed expeditions were sent to the Upper Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile to fight Spanish forces and secure Argentinas newly gained independence. The most famous of these expeditions was the one led by General José de San Martín, however, the Army was briefly re-unified during the war with the Brazilian Empire. It was only with the establishment of a Constitution and a government recognized by all the provinces that the Army became a single force. The Army went on to fight the War of the Triple Alliance in the 1860s together with Brazil, after that war, the Army became involved in Argentinas Conquista del Desierto, the campaign to occupy Patagonia and root out the natives, who conducted looting raids throughout the country. The Army prevented the fall of the government in a number of Radical-led uprisings, meanwhile, the military in general and the Army in particular contributed to develop Argentinas unsettled southern frontier and its nascent industrial complex. The main foreign influence during this period was, by and large, partly because of that, during both World Wars most of the officers supported the Germans, more or less openly, while the Argentine Navy favored the British instead. In 1930, a group of Army forces deposed President Hipólito Yrigoyen without much response from the rest of the Army. This was the beginning of a history of political intervention by the military. Another coup, in 1943, was responsible for bringing an obscure colonel into the political limelight and it should be noted that political infighting eroded discipline and cohesion within the army, to the extent that there was armed fighting between contending military units during the early 1960s. The military government which ruled Argentina between 1966 and 1973 saw the activities of groups such as Montoneros and the ERP. During Héctor Cámporas first months of government, a moderate and left-wing Peronist, approximatively 600 social conflicts, strikes. But Isabel Perón herself was ousted during the March 1976 coup by a military junta, batallón de Inteligencia 601 became infamous during this period. It was a military intelligence service set up in the late 1970s, active in the Dirty War and Operation Condor. Its personnel collected information on and infiltrated guerrilla groups and human rights organisations, the unit also participated in the training of Nicaraguan Contras with US assistance, including from John Negroponte. It started the campaign with no more than 100 men and women of the Marxist ERP guerrilla force and ended with about 300 in the mountains, which the Argentine Army managed to defeat, but at a cost. On 5 January 1975, an Army DHC-6 transport plane was downed near the Monteros mountains, all thirteen on board were killed
9.
Divisional general
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Divisional general is a rank of general in command of a division. Examples would include the Spanish general de división, the French général de division, for convenience such ranks are often translated into English as major-general, the equivalent rank used by most English-speaking nations. The corresponding NATO code is OF-7, or a two-star rank, some countries of Latin America such as Brazil and Chile use divisional general as the equivalent of lieutenant-general. This corresponding NATO code is OF-8, or a rank for these countries. In Japan and Taiwan the rank of lieutenant-general is equivalent to divisional general, the rank is mostly used in countries where it is used as a modern alternative to a previous older rank of major-general. The rank is almost always above a rank corresponding to command of a brigade, a French Army général de division translates as a general of division. The French Air Force equivalent is général de division aérienne, rank insignia is that of 3 white stars on the epaulette, sleeve mark or shoulder board. As well as commanding a division, a général de division may be appointed as général de corps darmée commanding a corps, or as a général darmée. These are not ranks, but appointments of the same rank, the insignia of a général de corps darmée is four stars in a diamond formation, and that of a général darmée is five stars in a cross-shaped arrangement. The arrangement for the air force is the same, but the ranks are called général de corps darmée aérien, the Italian army and Carabineer rank of generale di divisione translates as divisional general. The air force equivalent is generale di divisione aerea, the Polish equivalent is generał dywizji. The symbols of rank are the generals wavy line and two stars, featured both on the rogatywka, on the sleeves of the uniform and above the breast pocket of a field uniform. The Brazilian rank general-de-divisão translates literally as general of division, and is used by the army and this rank is equivalent to lieutenant-general. The air force equivalent is major-brigadeiro. The Spanish rank general de división translates literally as general of division, and is used by the army, the air force, the Swiss military use 4 languages, German, French, Romansh and Italian. The names of the OF-7 rank are divisionär, divisionnaire, divisiunari, in all cases, these are abbreviated as Div, and in all cases represent the head of a division, and hence can be translated as divisional general
10.
Argentines
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Argentines are the citizens of the Argentine Republic, or their descendants abroad. Argentina is a society, which means that it is home to people of many different ethnic backgrounds. As a result, Argentines do not consider their nationality as an ethnicity, aside from the Indigenous population, nearly all Argentines or their ancestors immigrated within the past five centuries. According to the 2010 census, Argentina had a population of 40,091,359 inhabitants, of which 1,805,957 or 4. 6%, were born abroad. The population growth rate in 2008 was estimated to be 0. 917% annually, with a rate of 16.32 live births per 1,000 inhabitants. Argentinas population has long had one of Latin Americas lowest growth rates, strikingly, though, its fertility rate is still nearly twice as high as that in Spain or Italy, despite comparable religiosity figures. The median age is approximately 30 years and life expectancy at birth is 76 years, Argentina is a multiethnic society, which means that it is home to people of many different ethnic backgrounds. As a result, the people usually treat their nationality as a citizenship. Argentines usually refer to their country as a crisol de razas, or, Argentina is, along with other areas of new settlement like the United States, Canada, Australia or Brazil, a melting pot of different peoples. The main immigration sources were from Europe, the countries from the Near and Middle East, Russia, eventually Argentina became the second country that received the most immigrants in the world, only second to the United States. The most common groups are Italian and Spanish. It is estimated that up to 25 million Argentines, up to 60% of the population, have Italian ancestry. There are also Germanic, Slavic, British and French populations, smaller Jewish, Native, Arab, Asian, Gypsy, and African communities contribute to the melting pot. Recent decades immigration includes mainly Paraguayans, Bolivians and Peruvians, among other Latin Americans, a large majority of Argentines have at least partial Criollo origin, i. e. descendants of the Spaniards who settled Argentina during colonial times. Many of these intermarried with local Amerindian populations and later waves of European migrants, primarily from Italy, Argentines of European descent constitute the majority of Argentinas population. 9%, to as high as 96% of Argentinas population. The current most numerous immigrant European communities are, Italian, Spanish, German, Nordic, Slavic, French, Irish, Portuguese, Dutch, arabs and Argentines with partial Arab ancestry comprise around 4. 2% of Argentinas population. Contemporary Native cultures are represented in the country mainly by the Mapuche, Kolla, Wichí, according to the provisional data of INDECs Complementary Survey of Indigenous Peoples 2004 –2005,600,329 Natives reside in Argentina. The most numerous of these communities are the Mapuches, who live mostly in the south, the Kollas and Wichís, from the northwest, and the Tobas, some Mestizo population may identify with Native ethnicity
11.
1837 generation
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The 1837 generation was an Argentine intellectual movement named after the date a literary hall with most of its members was established. Influenced by the new ideas, they rejected the cultural Spanish heritage of the country. They considered themselves sons of the May Revolution, they were shortly after it. The group established a hall in 1837 in Buenos Aires. This Salón Literario closed six months after it was created because of the warnings from the government. Their efforts to install a full democratic Republic and guarantees of the rights by means of a peaceful propaganda were vains. They were called unitarians in a sense and by Rosas propaganda. Dogma Socialista de la Asociación de Mayo, precedido de una ojeada retrospectiva sobre el movimiento intelectual en el Plata desde el año 1837
12.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
13.
Facundo
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Facundo, Civilization and Barbarism is a book written in 1845 by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, a writer and journalist who became the seventh president of Argentina. It is a cornerstone of Latin American literature, a work of creative non-fiction that helped to define the parameters for thinking about the development, modernization, power. Subtitled Civilization and Barbarism, Facundo contrasts civilization and barbarism as seen in early 19th-century Argentina, Literary critic Roberto González Echevarría calls the work the most important book written by a Latin American in any discipline or genre. Facundo describes the life of Juan Facundo Quiroga, a gaucho who had terrorized provincial Argentina in the 1820s and 1830s, Kathleen Ross, one of Facundos English translators, points out that the author also published Facundo to denounce the tyranny of the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas. Juan Manuel de Rosas ruled Argentina from 1829 to 1832 and again from 1835 to 1852, it was because of Rosas that Sarmiento was in exile in Chile, where he wrote the book. Sarmiento sees Rosas as heir to Facundo, both are caudillos and representatives of a barbarism that derives from the nature of the Argentine countryside, throughout the text, Sarmiento explores the dichotomy between civilization and barbarism. It is in the way that Facundo articulates this opposition that Sarmientos book has had such a profound influence, the first edition of Facundo was published in instalments in 1845. Sarmiento removed the last two chapters of the edition, but restored them in the 1874 edition, deciding that they were important to the books development. The first translation into English, by Mary Mann, was published in 1868, a modern and complete translation by Kathleen Ross appeared in 2003 from the University of California Press. While exiled in Chile, Sarmiento wrote Facundo in 1845 as an attack on Juan Manuel de Rosas, the Argentine dictator at the time. The book was an analysis of Argentine culture as he saw it, represented in men such as Rosas and the regional leader Juan Facundo Quiroga. For Sarmiento, Rosas and Quiroga were caudillos—strongmen who did not submit to the law, however, if Facundos portrait is linked to the wild nature of the countryside, Rosas is depicted as an opportunist who exploits the situation to perpetuate himself in power. Sarmientos book is a critique and also a symptom of Argentinas cultural conflicts, in 1810, the country had gained independence from the Spanish Empire, but Sarmiento complains that Argentina had yet to cohere as a unified entity. The countrys chief political division saw the Unitarists, who favored centralization, counterposed against the Federalists and this division was in part a split between the city and the countryside. Then as now, Buenos Aires was the country’s largest and wealthiest city as a result of its access to trade routes. Buenos Aires was exposed not only to trade but to fresh ideas and these economic and cultural differences caused tension between Buenos Aires and the land-locked regions of the country. Despite his Unitarian sympathies, Sarmiento himself came from the provinces, Argentinas divisions led to a civil war that began in 1814. Supporters of decentralized government challenged the Unitarist Party, leading to the outbreak of violence, Federalists Juan Facundo Quiroga and Manuel Dorrego wanted more autonomy for the provinces and were inclined to reject European culture
14.
Juan Manuel de Rosas
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Juan Manuel de Rosas, nicknamed Restorer of the Laws, was a politician and army officer who ruled Buenos Aires Province and briefly the Argentine Confederation. Although born into a family, Rosas independently amassed a personal fortune. Rosas enlisted his workers in a militia, as was common for rural proprietors. Victorious in warfare, personally influential, and with vast landholdings and he eventually reached the rank of brigadier general, the highest in the Argentine army, and became the undisputed leader of the Federalist Party. In December 1829, Rosas became governor of the province of Buenos Aires, in 1831, he signed the Federal Pact, recognising provincial autonomy and creating the Argentine Confederation. When his term of office ended in 1832, Rosas departed to the frontier to wage war on the indigenous peoples, after his supporters launched a coup in Buenos Aires, Rosas was asked to return and once again took office as governor. Rosas reestablished his dictatorship and formed the repressive Mazorca, an armed parapolice that killed thousands of citizens, elections became a farce, and the legislature and judiciary became docile instruments of his will. Rosas created a cult of personality and his regime became totalitarian in nature, Rosas faced many threats to his power during the late 1830s and early 1840s. Rosas persevered and extended his influence in the provinces, exercising control over them through direct and indirect means. By 1848, he had extended his power beyond the borders of Buenos Aires and was ruler of all of Argentina, Rosas also attempted to annex the neighbouring nations of Uruguay and Paraguay. When the Empire of Brazil began aiding Uruguay in its struggle against Argentina, Rosas declared war in August 1851 and this short conflict ended with the defeat of Rosas and his flight to Britain. His last years were spent in living as a tenant farmer until his death in 1877. Rosas garnered a public perception among Argentines as a brutal tyrant. In 1989, his remains were repatriated by the government in an attempt to promote unity, seeking forgiveness for him. Rosas remains a figure in Argentina in the 21st century. Juan Manuel José Domingo Ortiz de Rosas was born on 30 March 1793 at his familys house in Buenos Aires. He was the first child of León Ortiz de Rosas and Agustina López de Osornio, León Ortiz was the son of an immigrant from the Spanish Province of Burgos. A military officer with a career, León Ortiz had married into a wealthy Criollo family
15.
Gaucho
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Gaucho or gaúcho is a word with several meanings. Because historical gauchos were reputed to be brave, if unruly, the word is also applied metaphorically to mean Noble, brave and generous, in its purest sense, gaucho referred to the nomadic, often outlaw inhabitants of the great plains of Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. In current usage, gaucho usually designates the rural working class in general, the gaucho is a national symbol in both Argentina and Uruguay. Gauchos became greatly admired and renowned in legends, folklore and literature, beginning late in the 19th century, after the heyday of the gauchos, they were celebrated by South American writers. There are several hypotheses concerning the origin of the term and it may derive from the Spanish term chaucho, in turn derived from a Turkish low-rank military term Chiaus, through Arabic Shawsh which became broadly applied to any guard/watcher or aide. The first recorded use of the dates to Argentine independence in 1816. The 18th century chronicler Alonso Carrió de la Vandera speaks of Gauderios when it mentions the Gauchos or Huasos as poorly dressed men, another plausible origin is from a South American indigenous language, such as Mapudungun cauchu, kauču, or Quechua wahcha. It could also derive from Arabic wahcha which means the state of being lonely in the wilderness, an essential attribute of a gaucho was that he was a skilled horseman. Without a horse the gaucho felt himself unmanned, a gaucho could ride as soon as he could walk. The naturalist William Henry Hudson recorded that the gauchos of his childhood used to say and he described meeting a blind gaucho who was obliged to beg for his food yet behaved with dignity and went about on horseback. By reputation the quintessential gaucho caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas could throw his hat on the ground and scoop it up while galloping his horse, without touching the saddle with his hand. A popular copla was, Mi caballo y mi mujer viajaron para Salta, el que se vuelva. It was the passion to own all his steeds in matching colours. Recalled Hudson, The gaucho, from the poorest worker on horseback to the largest owner of lands and cattle, has, or had in those days, the caudillo El Chacho Peñalosa described the low point of his life as In Chile − and on foot. The gaucho plays an important symbolic role in the nationalist feelings of this region, especially that of Argentina, Paraguay, the epic poem Martín Fierro by José Hernández used the gaucho as a symbol against corruption and of Argentine national tradition, pitted against Europeanising tendencies. Martín Fierro, the hero of the poem, is drafted into the Argentine military for a war, deserts. The image of the gaucho is often contrasted to the slaves who worked the northern Brazilian lands. Further literary descriptions are found in Ricardo Güiraldes Don Segundo Sombra, the gaucho tendency to violence over petty matters is also recognized as a typical trait
16.
Caudillo
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A caudillo is a type of personalist leader wielding political power. There is no definition of caudillo, which is often used interchangeably with dictator. The term is associated with Spain, and with Spanish America after virtually all of that region won independence in the early nineteenth century. The term is used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spains General Francisco Franco proudly took the title as his own, during, Spanish censors during his rule went after publishers who applied the term to Latin American strongmen. Caudillos exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian, most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Latin America has had many more, the majority of whom were not self-described caudillos. However, scholars have applied the term to a variety of Latin American leaders, the roots of caudillismo may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquest from the Moors. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown asserted its power, historian John Lynch argues that the rise of caudillos in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence. Those wars threw off colonial rule and left a vacuum in the early nineteenth century. Caudillos were very influential in the history of Spanish America and have a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era, since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of caudillos and the duration of their rule. Brazils transition to independence was the establishment of the Brazilian Empire, weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered the continuation of caudillismo from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexicos Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 effectively ended caudillismo there, men characterized as caudillos have ruled in Cuba, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Paraguay, Argentina, and Chile. Caudillos have been the subject of literature in Spanish America, Latin America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. Historian John Lynch states that “Before 1810 the caudillo was unknown… The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain. ”He gained in power by his success as a military leader. In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy and his local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing material rewards reinforced his own position. Caudillos could also maintain their position by protecting the interests of regional elites, a local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to becoming a national caudillo, taking control of the state. In this situation, caudillos could bestow patronage on a large retinue of clients, in general, caudillos’ power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the classes, recruiting them into the power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves
17.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
18.
Cuyo (Argentina)
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Cuyo is the name given to the wine-producing, mountainous area of central-west Argentina. Historically it comprised the provinces of San Juan, San Luis, the modern term New Cuyo indicates both Cuyo proper and the province of La Rioja. New Cuyo is a political and economic macroregion, but culturally La Rioja is part of the North-West rather than of Cuyo, the soil is arid and reddish, crossed by few rivers. Most of the rivers are fed by the thawing of snow on the peaks, the Desaguadero River is the main collector, receiving waters from the Bermejo, Vinchina and Salado before reaching the Colorado River. Viticulture is one of the activities of the area. The wine production of the region represents almost 80% of national production, olives, potatoes, tomatoes and some fruits are also cultivated, and there is production of sweets and preserved foodstuffs. Quarrying and oil exploitation are other important industries, the cities and towns in the region are characterised by colonial low houses and churches, and narrow streets, contrasting in the principal cities with the modern parts. The Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, founded in 1939, is the most important within these provinces, and has its campus in Mendoza, the table below includes data for the year 2013 for the 23 provinces Table of Cuyo provinces according to the 2001 census. The region of Cuyo has a climate or a semi-arid climate with an average annual precipitation of about 100 to 500 millimetres that is generally unreliable from year to year. The region, which encompasses a range of latitudes combined with altitudes ranging from 500 m to nearly 7,000 m means that it has a diverse range of different climates. In general, most of the region has a climate with higher altitude valleys having a more milder climate. At the highest altitudes, icy conditions persist year round, the diurnal range is very large with very hot temperatures during the day followed by cold nights. Amongst all locations in Argentina, the region has the largest diurnal range in the country areas in San Juan Province having a diurnal range exceeding 19.1 °C. The Andes prevent rain–bearing clouds from the Pacific Ocean from coming in, with very low humidity, abundant sunshine throughout the year, and a temperate climate, the region is suitable for wine production. Droughts are often frequent and prolonged, more than 85% of the annual rainfall occurs from October to March, which represents the warm season. In contrast, the months are dry due to these systems weakening. Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than the areas since they receive more summer rainfall. As such, most of Mendoza province and San Juan province receive the lowest annual precipitation with mean summer precipitation averaging less than 100 mm and in rare cases, no summer rainfall
19.
Bernardino Rivadavia
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Bernardino de la Trinidad González Rivadavia y Rivadavia was the first president of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of Rio de la Plata, from February 8,1826 to June 27,1827. He was educated at the Royal College of San Carlos, during the British Invasions he served as Third Lieutenant of the Galicia Volunteers. He participated in the open Cabildo on May 22,1810 voting for the deposition of the viceroy and he had a strong influence on the First Triumvirate and shortly after he served as Minister of Government and Foreign Affairs of the Province of Buenos Aires. Argentinas Constitution of 1826 was promulgated later, but was rejected by the provinces, strongly contested by his political party, Rivadavia resigned and was succeeded by Vicente López y Planes. Rivadavia retired to Spain, where he died in 1845 and his remains were repatriated to Argentina in 1857, receiving honors as Captain General. Today his remains rest in a located in Plaza Miserere, adjacent to Rivadavia Avenue. His military appointment was rejected by Mariano Moreno, Rivadavia was active in both the Argentine resistance to the British invasion of 1806 and in the May Revolution movement for Argentine Independence in 1810. In 1811, Rivadavia became the member of the governing triumvirate as Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of War. Until its fall in October 1812, this government focused on creating a central government, moderating relations with Spain. By 1814 the Spanish King Ferdinand VII had returned to the throne and started the Absolutist Restauration, manuel Belgrano and Rivadavia were sent to Europe to seek support for the United Provinces from both Spain and Britain. They sought to promote the crowning of Francisco de Paula, son of Charles IV of Spain, as regent of the United Provinces, the diplomatic mission was a failure, both in Spain and in Britain. He visited France as well, and returned to Buenos Aires in 1821, during his stay in Britain, Rivadavia saw the growing development of the Industrial Revolution, and the rise of Romanticism. He sought to promote a development in Buenos Aires. He convinced Aimé Bonpland to visit the country, but few other invitations were accepted, in June 1821, he was named minister of government to Buenos Aires by governor Martín Rodríguez. Over the next five years, he exerted a strong influence, to make the former look more European, Rivadavia constructed large avenues, schools, paved and lighted streets. He founded the University of Buenos Aires, as well as the Theater, Geology, and Medicine Academies and he persuaded the legislature to authorize a one-million pound loan for public works that were never undertaken. The provincial bonds were sold in London through the Baring Brothers Bank, local, the borrowed money was in turn lent to these businessmen, who never repaid it. Of the original million pounds the Buenos Aires government received only £552,700, the provinces foreign debt was transferred to the nation in 1825, its final repayment being made in 1904
20.
Franklin Rawson
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Benjamin Franklin Rawson was an Argentine painter who belonged to the first generation of Argentine painters called the precursors. His best known works are the Assassination of Manuel Vicente Maza, benjamin Franklin Rawson was born on 29 March 1819 in the city of San Juan. He was the eldest son of the marriage between the United States doctor Amán Rawson and Justina Rojo y Frías and his younger brother, Guillermo Rawson was also a physician and politician who served as Interior Minister under President Bartolomé Mitre. He first studied with Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, his lifelong friend and he then started to paint, taught by Amadeo Gras and Pierre Douet. Later, Rawson was part of the San Juan plastic movement promoted by the Philharmonic Dramatic Society, which had been created by Sarmiento. When he turned eighteen years old, his father sent him to Buenos Aires, in 1838 he made his self-portrait and a year later, in 1839, painted a portrait in oils of his brother. After studying in Buenos Aires, Rawson returned to San Juan, however, due to the political conflicts that erupted in the province and his friendship with Sarmiento he was forced to leave the country in 1842, taking refuge in Chile. There he continued his apprenticeship with the painter French Augusto Quinsac Monvoisin, while sharing a house with Sarmiento, Sarmiento describes this period in his book Recuerdos de provincia. On 25 March 1847 Rawson married Paz Mendieta, the only son of this marriage, Franklin, died in infancy. He returned to San Juan in the year and was elected a provincial deputy. However, he resigned and moved back to Buenos Aires, where he continued his studies with Martín Boneo, in 1856 he hosted a show of historical works in this city. Sarmiento asked French painter Juan León Pallière for his opinion for a notice in the newspaper El Nacional, according to Sarmiento, he was the best painter of his time. After this show, his importance began to due to the appearance of the daguerreotype or early photography that competed with the portrait. Rawson died in Buenos Aires on 14 March 1871, one of the victims of an epidemic of fever that struck the city in those years. Rawson painted figures and scenes of his time, always characterized with a sense of balance, most of his work consists of portraits and miniatures, lucrative genres because the wealthy social sector paid well to preserve their images. Three of his works are surprising for their realism, his self-portrait, the oil painting of William Rawson and his portraits were very expressive, well-observed character studies, such as his portrait of Don Eustaquio Díaz Vélez. Among the female images is that of doña Tránsito Oro de Lerma, sister of the bishop Oro de Lerma, of Jacinta Paz Rojo and he also painted infants, such as the portrait of Adan Aberastain as a child. Rawson also made several historically themed productions, the hero gives out bread to help them overcome the natural elements
21.
Ignacio Baz
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Ignacio Baz was an Argentine painter who painted many portraits of notable people in the region during his lifetime. Ignacio Baz was born in San Miguel de Tucumán in 1826 and he was a disciple, alongside Fernando García del Molino and Eustaquio Carrandi, of the renowned painter Carlos Morel. Baz portrayed great personalities in Tucumán, Córdoba, Buenos Aires, Santiago, Chile and Lima and he also made portraits of caudillos such as Juan Manuel de Rosas, Juan Felipe Ibarra, Facundo Quiroga and Ángel Vicente Peñaloza. His portraits, painted over a period of forty years, were striking resemblances of the most distinguished members of the families in the provinces of North and many of Cordoba
22.
United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata
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It comprised most of the former Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata dependencies and had Buenos Aires as its capital. It is best known in Spanish-language literature as Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata, the Argentine National Anthem refers to the state as the United Provinces of the South. The Constitution of Argentina recognises Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata as one of the names of the country. The United Provinces of South America were bordered on the south by the populated territories of the Pampas and Patagonia, home to the Mapuche, Ranquel. To the north, the Gran Chaco was populated by the Guaycuru nations, to the northwest, across the Upper Peru, lay the Spanish Viceroyalty of Perú. Across the Andes, to the west, was the Spanish-controlled Captaincy General of Chile, to the northeast was Colonial Brazil, a part of the Portuguese Empire, later the Empire of Brazil in 1821. The change from the Viceroyalty into the United Provinces was not merely a change of governors, the main influences in this were the Enlightenment in Spain, promoting new ideas, and the Peninsular War that left Spain without a legitimate king after the Abdications of Bayonne. The concept of separation of powers became a tool to prevent despotism. The new political situation generated great political conflict between the cities for two reasons, first, the vacatio regis removed the sovereignty from the King of Spain, but there was no clear view about who and how would be able to claim such sovereignty. The vertical organization of the absolutist monarchy was compromised as well, the other source of conflict was the nature of the new governments, which declared themselves to be provisional during the Kings absence but were making strong changes in the political organization. As it faced resistance in some quarters, the revolution soon turned to be a War of Independence. These conflicts involved coups détat, mutinies, politically motivated trials, banishments and imprisonments, ever since the revolution, there were serious conflicts among diverging views regarding the political organization of the provinces. As the latter gained the upper hand, the Primera Junta grew to incorporate delegates from the provinces in 1811. However, as it became evident that such an arrangement was not effective enough to lead the war efforts, infuriated by the passivity of Buenos Aires, Artigas declared war on Buenos Aires while he was losing to the Portuguese. Similarly, the Federal League effectively came to an end when its constituent provinces rejoined the United Provinces, Artigas, defeated by the Portuguese, retreated to Entre Ríos. From there, he denounced the Treaty of Pilar and entered into conflict with his former ally governor Ramírez, the former Protector of the Free Peoples was exiled in Paraguay until his death. The Eastern Province was annexed by Portugal to its Brazilian dependences in 1821, the result of the wars was the independence of the provinces. Misiones Orientales was de jure recognized as Brazilian, following the outcome of the Cisplatine War, pachecos partner Luis Vernet established a toehold in the islands in 1826 and a fledgling colony in 1828
23.
Civil war
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The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region or to change government policies. The term is a calque of the Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC. A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forces, Civil wars may result in large numbers of casualties and the consumption of significant resources. Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers, according to Patrick M. Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half-year average of the 1900–1944 period. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century while there were over 20 concurrent civil wars close to the end of the Cold War. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the state. The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define a civil war as having more than 1000 casualties, the Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997,104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997. If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007. The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term civil war and this includes civil wars, however no specific definition of civil war is provided in the text of the Conventions. That the legal Government is obliged to have recourse to the military forces against insurgents organized as military. That the insurgents have an organization purporting to have the characteristics of a State and that the insurgent civil authority exercises de facto authority over the population within a determinate portion of the national territory. That the armed forces act under the direction of an authority and are prepared to observe the ordinary laws of war. That the insurgent civil authority agrees to be bound by the provisions of the Convention, scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance. Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war, a comprehensive study of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions, the study found that statistically switching the size of a countrys diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war. Opportunity cost of rebellion Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income, the study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings forgone by rebellion, and therefore that lower forgone earnings encourage rebellion
24.
Unitarian Party
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Unitarianists or Unitarians were the proponents of the concept of a unitary state in Buenos Aires during the civil wars which shortly followed the Declaration of Independence of Argentina in 1816. They were opposed to the Argentine Federalists, who wanted a federation of independent provinces and these were evident at least as early as the declaration of Argentine independence in 1816. The Unitarianists lost their power after the Battle of Cepeda. However, the Unitarianists were forced to sign a treaty with other provinces and this did not solve the conflicts between the Federalists and the Unitarians. Under President Bernardino Rivadavia, the Unitarianists gained control for a period of time. ”However, the constitution was rejected by provincial caudillos, military leaders. Forced to resign, the Government of Buenos Aires and the Foreign relations of the country were taken over by Federalist Manuel Dorrego. In 1829, Juan Manuel de Rosas, the leader of a troop of Federalists, became the Governor of Buenos Aires after defeating General Juan Lavalle, although Rosas was a Federalist, his following of the principles of Federalism has often been questioned. In 1830, the Unitarian League was created by General José María Paz in order to defeat the Federalists, the Federalists faced Paz and his troops on May 31,1831 and the Unitarianists were defeated after the Gauchos captured the Unitarianist commander. The Provinces of the Unitarian League gradually joining into the Federal Pact, although the Unitarians exiled in neighboring countries, the Civil War would continue for another two decades, the Unitarians being led by Lavalle, Paz, Lamadrid, and many others. With support from Corrientes Province and the Brazilian Empire, Justo José de Urquiza, Federalist caudillo of Entre Ríos Province, on May, the San Nicolás Agreement was signed by the provincial governors. The pact reinstated the 1831 Federal Pact original provisions for a constitutional convention, in 1859 Buenos Aires was forced to accept the federal constitution of 1853 after six years of secession, after Mitre was defeated at the 1859 Battle of Cepeda by Urquiza. However, the constitution was amended to allow Buenos Aires greater influence after the ensuing 1861 Battle of Pavón. Mitre was then chosen as President of a new national government, opposition to the Unitarianists continued until 1890 under the Córdoba League. History of Argentina United Provinces of South America Bernardino Rivadavia unitario Encyclopædia Britannica, crow, John A. he Epic of Latin America
25.
Federales (Argentina)
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The Federales supported the autonomy of the provincial governments and the distribution of external commerce taxes among the provinces. These were evident at least as early as the declaration of Argentine independence in 1816, the Unitarios lost their controlling power after the Battle of Cepeda, which was followed by several months of anarchy. However, the Unitarios were forced to sign a treaty with other provinces and this did not solve the conflicts between the Federalists and the Unitarians. Under president Bernardino Rivadavia, the Unitarians gained control for a period of time. ”However, the constitution was rejected by provincial caudillos, military leaders. In 1829, the Unitarian League was created by General José María Paz in order to defeat the Federalists, the Federalist governments of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos and Corrientes, united under the Federal Pact, confronted Paz and his troops on May 31,1831. The Unitarios were defeated after Paz was captured by the troops of Santa Fe Governor, also in 1829, Juan Manuel de Rosas, the boss of a troop of Gaucho Federalists, became governor of Buenos Aires after defeating General Lavalle, who was then forced into exile. Although Rosas was a Federalist, he kept the customs receipts of Buenos Aires under the control of the city. Afterward, a series of wars ensued that lasted nearly two decades. Juan Lavalle attempted to take action against Rosas, but was defeated at the Battle of Márquez Bridge in 1829. With support from other provinces, Justo José de Urquiza, caudillo of Entre Ríos Province and that May, the San Nicolás Agreement was signed by the provincial governors. The pact reinstated the treaty signed in 1831 by Argentina and the interior provinces, in 1853, the Unitarios of Buenos Aires broke away from the interior provinces after Urquiza nationalized customs receipts and allowed free flow of trade on the Parana and Uruguay rivers. In 1859, Buenos Aires was forced to accept the constitution of 1853 after six years of secession. This was because on October 23, Mitre was defeated at Cepeda by Urquiza, however, the federal constitution was “amended to allow Buenos Aires greater influence. ”After the Battle of Pavón, Mitre was chosen president of a new national government. Opposition to the Unitarios continued until 1890 under the Córdoba League, history of Argentina José Gervasio Artigas Liga Federal Pacto Federal Argentine Confederation Unitario Encyclopædia Britannica
26.
Manuel Dorrego
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Manuel Dorrego was an Argentine statesman and soldier. He was governor of Buenos Aires in 1820, and then again from 1827 to 1828, Dorrego was born in Buenos Aires on June 11,1787 to José Antonio do Rego, a Portuguese merchant, and to María de la Ascensión Salas. He enrolled in the Real Colegio de San Carlos in 1803 and he supported the early steps of the Chilean War of Independence in 1810, which led to the removal of the Spanish colonial authorities and the establishment of the first Chilean Government Junta. He moved to the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and he fought in the battles of Tucumán and Salta, being injured in both. He was sanctioned by Belgrano for promoting a duel, as a result, he did not take part in the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, two defeats of the Army of the North, and Belgrano regretted later the absence of Dorrego from them. Dorrego opposed the Luso-Brazilian invasion of the Banda Oriental, encouraged by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón to counter the influence of José Gervasio Artigas and he was exiled by Pueyrredón, and stayed some time in Baltimore. He studied federalism in the United States, and thought that each state of a country should have some autonomy, during this times he wrote the Cartas apologéticas, criticizing the support of Pueyrredón to the Luso-Brazilian invasion. He returned to Buenos Aires in 1819, following the departure of Pueyrredón and he was appointed as interim governor, and fought against the armies of Alvear, Carrera and Estanislao López. Still, he was resisted in the city, and the appointment as governor was given to Martín Rodríguez instead. He was banished again, and moved to Upper Peru and he met Simón Bolívar in Quito, and supported his ideas of unifying all the continent into a giant federation. Dorrego returned to Buenos Aires a short time afterwards and worked in the legislature of Buenos Aires in the 1826 Constituent Assembly and he strongly supported a federal system of government and criticized the qualified suffrage. However, the 1826 Constitution promoted a strong centralized government and qualified suffrage, Dorrego opposed the government of the unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia, who was appointed as the first president of Argentina, and voiced his criticism in the newspaper El Tribuno. Resisted by all the provinces, Rivadavia resigned as president, no longer having a national head of state, the legislature appointed Dorrego as governor of the Buenos Aires province. He took measures to support the poor, promote a federal organization of the country, the Argentine troops were discontented with Dorrego because he accepted the conditions imposed by the British diplomacy despite their military victories in the conflict. Encouraged by the Unitarian party, Juan Lavalle led a coup against Dorrego on December 1,1828, Dorrego left the city and organized his forces in the countryside. He was defeated, and then executed by Lavalle, Argentine Civil War Manuel Dorrego national institute Galasso, Norberto
27.
Facundo Quiroga
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Juan Facundo Quiroga was an Argentine caudillo who supported federalism at the time when the country was still in formation. Quiroga was born in San Antonio, La Rioja, the son of a traditional and he was sent at a young age to San Juan to be educated. Early in his life, he became a child. During his wandering in the desert between San Juan and La Rioja, he encountered and killed a cougar, earning him the nickname El Tigre de los Llanos, after the May Revolution proclaimed the self-rule of the country, Quiroga tried to enter the independentist army. He travelled to San Luis to enter the Granaderos a Caballo Regiment and he was imprisoned and eventually expelled due to his bad temper. He moved back to La Rioja and became a businessman until 1820 and that year the central government of Buenos Aires fell, and the province became autonomous. Quiroga entered the army and quickly rose to its command. After the Cisplatine war, the officers of the army deposed the federalist governments in an attempt to restore the centralised rule of Buenos Aires. General José María Paz took over its province of Córdoba and his officers campaigned through the interior provinces, Quiroga tried to oppose them, but without success, and after defeat in the Battle of La Tablada, he went into self-imposed exile in Buenos Aires. From there, where the coup was defeated, Quiroga led an army towards Córdoba but was defeated in the Battle of Oncativo by Pazs more disciplined forces. He took his campaign north along the Andean provinces, until he finally defeated General Gregorio Aráoz de Lamadrid and he was advised that there were plans to murder him on his way back, but Quiroga, disregarding the advice, returned to Buenos Aires through the same way. At Barranca Yaco, a place between Córdoba and Santiago del Estero, a party of gunmen stopped the carriage in which he travelled. Quiroga, confident in his charisma and that his presence and resolution would discourage the attackers, appeared through the carriage door and shouted at the gunmen. Their leader, Santos Pérez, however, shot him dead, the political crime created a huge crisis in all the Confederation, forcing Maza to resign, and led to the establishment of Rosas government. They were hanged along with Santos Pérez in Buenos Aires, in 1845, Domingo F. Quiroga is buried in La Recoleta Cemetery in Buenos Aires
28.
Ideology
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Ideology is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group or society has. An ideology is less encompassing than the ideas expressed in such as worldview, imaginary. Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant class of society such as the elite to all members of society as suggested in some Marxist and critical-theory accounts. In societies that distinguish between public and private life, every political or economic tendency entails ideology, whether or not it is propounded as a system of thought. In the Althusserian sense, ideology is the relation to the real conditions of existence. The term ideology was born during the Great Terror of French Revolution, the word, and the system of ideas associated with it, was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy in 1796, while he was in prison pending trial during the Terror. The coup that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre saved Tracys life and freed him to pursue his work, assembling the words idea, from Greek ἰδέα and -logy, from -λογία. Tracy reacted to the phase of the revolution by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. He conceived of Ideology a liberal philosophy which provided a defense of individual liberty, property, free markets. He argues that among these aspects ideology is the most generic term, Tracy worked this out during the Napoleonic regime, and Napoleon Bonaparte came to view Ideology a term of abuse which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracys Institut National. Karl Marx adopted this negative sense of the term and used it in his writings, in the century after Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. The term ideology has dropped some of its sting, and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions. While Karl Marx situated the term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a part of institutional functioning. There has been analysis of different ideological patterns. This kind of analysis has been described by some as meta-ideology – the study of the structure, form, recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a coherent system of ideas, relying upon a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Ideas become ideologies through the subjective ongoing choices that people make, according to most recent analysis, ideologies are neither necessarily right nor wrong. Believers in ideology range from passive acceptance through fervent advocacy to true belief, an excessive need for certitude lurks at fundamentalist levels in politics and religions. Charles Blattberg has offered an account which distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies, for Willard A. Mullins an ideology should be contrasted with the related issues of utopia and historical myth
29.
Juan Lavalle
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Juan Galo Lavalle was an Argentine military and political figure. Lavalle was born in Buenos Aires to María Mercedes González Bordallo and Manuel José Lavalle, general accountant of rents, in 1799, the family moved to Santiago de Chile, but returned to Buenos Aires in 1807. In 1812 Lavalle joined the Regiment of mounted grenadiers as a cadet, by 1813 he reached the grade of lieutenant and moved to the army, which under orders of Carlos María de Alvear besieged Montevideo. Lavalle fought against José Gervasio Artigas in 1815 and in the Battle of Guayabos under the command of Manuel Dorrego, in 1816 Lavalle moved to Mendoza to join the Army of the Andes of the liberator José de San Martín and fought in Chacabuco and the Maipú in Chile. He continued along with San Martín on his way to Peru and Ecuador and took part in the battles of Pichincha, because of disagreements with Simón Bolívar, Lavalle returned to Buenos Aires by the end of 1823. He would later govern Mendoza Province for a short time, Lavalle, a Unitarian himself, led a coup to take the government and executed governor Dorrego without a trial. His government then started a reign of terror, aiming to destroy the Federal Party, in 1829, the demographic growth was negative as there were more deaths than births. During that time, José de San Martín had returned from Europe, the other provinces did not recognize Lavalle as the legitimate governor, and supported the rosista resistance instead. Lavalle would be defeated a short time later at the Battle of Márquez Bridge by the forces of Juan Manuel de Rosas, López returned to his province, menaced by Unitarian José María Paz, who had taken power in Córdoba. Meanwhile, Rosas kept Lavalle under siege and forced him to resign with the Cañuelas pact, Juan José Viamonte was designated as interim governor, and the legislature that was removed during Lavalles coup détat was restored. This legislature would elect Rosas as the governor, Lavalle retired to the Banda Oriental. During the French blockade to the Río de la Plata, Fructuoso Rivera was reluctant to take actions against Rosas. Unitarians, who thought that the whole Argentine Confederation would rise against Rosas at the first chance, urged Lavalle to lead the attack, as a result, they led both their own armies. His imminent attack was backed up by conspiracies in Buenos Aires, Manuel Vicente Maza and his son were among the perpetrators, and were executed as a result. Pedro Castelli also organized a demonstration against Rosas, and was executed as well. Rosas did not wait to be attacked and ordered Pascual Echagüe to cross the Paraná river, the Uruguayan armies split, Rivera returned to defend Montevideo, and Lavalle moved to Entre Ríos Province. He expected that the local populations would join him against Rosas and increase his forces, governor Pedro Ferré defeated López, and Rivera defeated Pascual Echagüe, clearing for Lavalle the way to Buenos Aires. France began peace negotiations with the Confederation and cut its support to Lavalle
30.
Battle of Chacabuco
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The Battle of Chacabuco, fought during the Chilean War of Independence, occurred on February 12,1817. The Army of the Andes of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata led by General Captain José de San Martín defeated the Spanish force led by Rafael Maroto. It was a defeat for the Captaincy General of Chile, the royalist government established after the division of the Viceroyalty of Peru. He realized that the first step would be to them from Chile. In just under two years, he had an army of some 6,000 men,1,200 horses and 22 cannons, on January 17,1817, he set out with this force and began the crossing of the Andes. Careful planning on his part had meant that the royalist forces in Chile were deployed to meet threats that did not exist, and his crossing went unopposed. Nonetheless, the Army of the Andes suffered heavy losses during the crossing, losing as much as one-third of its men, San Martin found himself allying with Chilean patriot Bernardo OHiggins, who commanded his own army. The royalists rushed north in response to their approach, and a force of about 1,500 under Brigadier Rafael Maroto blocked San Martins advance at a valley called Chacabuco, near Santiago. In the face of the disintegration of the royalist forces, Maroto proposed abandoning the capital and retreating southward, all Maroto and his troops had to do was delay San Martin, as he knew that further royalist reinforcements were on the way from Santiago. San Martin was well aware of this as well and opted to attack while he still had the numerical advantage, San Martín received numerous reports of the Spanish plans from a spy dressed as a roto, a poverty-stricken peasant of Chile. The roto told him that the Spanish general, Marcó, knew of fighting in the mountains and told his army to run to the field, which refers to Chacabuco. He also told San Martín the plan of General Rafael Maroto, the leader of the Talavera Regiment and his plan was to take the mountainside and launch an attack against San Martín. On February 11, three days before his date of attack, San Martín called a war council to decide on a plan. Their main goal was to take the Chacabuco Ranch, the royalist headquarters and he decided to split his 2,000 troops into two parts, sending them down two roads on either side of the mountain. The right contingent was led by Miguel Estanislao Soler, and the left by O’Higgins, the plan was for Soler to attack their flanks, while at the same time surrounding their rear guard in order to prevent their retreat. San Martín expected that both leaders would attack at the time, so the royalists would have to fight a battle on two fronts. San Martín sent his troops down the mountain starting at midnight of the 11th to prepare for an attack at dawn, at dawn, his troops were much closer to the royalists than anticipated, but fought hard and heroically. Meanwhile, Solers troops had to go down a path that proved long and arduous
31.
San Luis Province
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San Luis is a province of Argentina located near the geographical center of the country. Neighboring provinces are, from the clockwise, La Rioja, Córdoba, La Pampa, Mendoza. The city of San Luis was founded in 1594 by Luis Jufré de Loaysa y Meneses and it was refounded by Martín García Óñez de Loyola in 1596 under the name San Luis de Loyola. Politics in San Luis have long influenced by the descendants of the noted mid-19th century advocate for San Luiss integration into the rest of Argentina. Since the return of Argentina to democratic rule in 1983, in particular and this situation is, as in many smaller provinces in Argentina, partly explained by the customary use of a combination of nepotism, propaganda and generous social welfare legislation. This includes substantial allegations of illegal pressure, including the violent 1991 harassment of a local journalist, since 1983, however, Governor Adolfo Rodríguez Saá has also overseen record investment by light manufacturers and advances like the construction of Argentinas most extensive expressway network. The province has low sierras in the north along the Dry Pampas, San Luis economy has, over the past generation, been among the most improved in Argentina. Its 2006 output, estimated at US$3.386 billion, yielded a per capita income of US$9,203, the economic profile of the province changed due to industrial promotion policies implemented since late 1982. Until then, the sector was the productive base. Industrial establishments installed after that year, exhibit great diversification and are mainly in two centers, the capital and Villa Mercedes. Tourism is another of the activities promoted by the San Luis government since the return of democracy in 1983, currently the province has the largest network of highways in the country, which connects most of the resorts with the provincial capital. The province is divided into nine departments, source for department names, Provincia de San Luis - Official website Argentour, San Luis Province
32.
Montonera
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The Montoneras originally were known as the armed civilian, paramilitary groups who organized in the 19th century during the wars of independence from Spain in Latin America. For instance, they played an important role in the Argentine Civil War, as well as other Latin American countries during the 19th century, in the 20th century, the term was applied to some insurgent groups in countries of Central and South America. Generally these were paramilitary groups composed of persons from a locality who provided armed support to a cause or leader. In the late 20th century, the leftists guerrillas Montoneros in Argentina adopted a related to the 19th century militants. Others said the first fighters were montados on horseback, the Spanish historian Manuel Ovilo y Otero noted they operated similarly to those guerrillas fighting in Spain against Napoleons troops from 1808 to 1814. Their value was similar to that of guerillas in the Peninsular War, in the history of Argentina, montoneras were usually military units from rural areas, generally cavalry, led by local caudillos. They participated in the Argentine Civil Wars of the nineteenth century, the montoneras units were relatively unorganized, based in rural areas and generally operated in rural areas, where they had the advantage of being on their home turf. They were associated with the concept of rural militias. Forces designated and authorized as militias supported the government, while montoneras were insurgents against it. When montoneras succeeded in overthrowing a government to one they supported. Similarly, many rural militias became montoneras when they lost the support of the provincial government, the capitals of the most populous provinces, especially Buenos Aires and, to a lesser extent, Córdoba, had major urban militia forces. The degree of organization of the depended on the circumstances. For example, the organized by Blas Basualdo in Entre Ríos Province in 1814 from historic accounts appear to have been mobs of men without discipline. They achieved some success only to his courage and boldness. Those who were organized in the province a few years later, commanded by Francisco Ramírez, were said to have had a remarkable discipline, organization. They repeatedly overcome superior forces of regular line troops, the montoneras often used rudimentary combat tactics, but they adapted to the conditions on the frontiers of Argentina. However, when they were mounted troops, they chose more open areas for confrontation with government forces, generally, the troops were eager to contact the enemy and fight them in melee. Their leaders preferred to pursue a strategy of quick attacks
33.
Los Andes, Chile
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Los Andes, founded in July 31,1791 as Santa Rosa de Los Andes, is a Chilean city and commune located in the province of the same name, in Valparaíso Region. It lies on the route between Santiago and Chiles primary border crossing with Argentina by way of the summit of the Uspallata Pass in the Andes mountain range. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Los Andes spans an area of 1,248.3 km2 and has 60,198 inhabitants, of these,55,388 lived in urban areas and 4,810 in rural areas. The population grew by 21% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a municipality, Los Andes is a third-level administrative division of Chile governed by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Mauricio Navarro S, the council has the following members, Marta Yochum G. Oscar Araya S. Alejandro Tapia C. Sergio Montenegro P. Ivan Salinas S. Julio Lobos L, within the electoral divisions of Chile, Los Andes is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Mr. Marco Antonio Núñez and Mr. Gaspar Rivas as part of the 11th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Ignacio Walker Prieto, Los Andes principal economy is based on mining and agriculture, with vineyards and grapes being the principal fruit export. Copper and other minor minerals production is handled by Codelco Chile, until 2004, a Peugeot car plant assembled vehicles in Los Andes. Peugeots 404,504,505,205 &206 models were produced from French and Argentine components, due to the lack of concrete actions to restore this link, the most recent estimations are that the line could be restored around October,2009. However, as of June 2011, there is no indication of any restorative work underway
34.
Daguerreotype
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Daguerreotype process, or daguerreotypy, was the first publicly available photographic process, and for nearly twenty years it was the one most commonly used. During the past few decades, there has been a revival of daguerreotypy among photographers interested in making artistic use of early photographic processes. The darkest areas of the image are simply bare silver, lighter areas have a microscopically fine light-scattering texture, the surface is very delicate, and even the lightest wiping can permanently scuff it. Some tarnish around the edges is normal, the name daguerreotype correctly refers only to one very specific image type and medium, the product of a process that was in wide use only from the early 1840s to the late 1850s. Since the Renaissance era, artists and inventors had searched for a method of capturing visual scenes. Later, with the advent of Modernism, the absence of perspective in art from China, Japan. To copy these images was the first object of Mr. Daguerre met with Niépce, Niépce had invented an early internal combustion engine together with his brother Claude and made improvements to the velocipede, as well as experimenting with lithography and related processes. Their correspondence reveals that Niépce was at first reluctant to any details of his work with photographic images. To guard against letting any secrets out before the invention had been improved,15, for example, signified the tanning action of the sun on human skin,34 - a camera obscura,74 - sulphuric acid. Niépce undertook to release details of the process he had invented - the asphalt process or heliography, Daguerre was sworn to secrecy under penalty of damages, and undertook to design a camera and improve the process. The improved process was named the physautotype. Niépces early experiments had derived from his interest in lithography, the asphalt process, or heliography required exposures that were so long that Arago said it was not fit for use. Nevertheless, without Niépces experiments, it is unlikely that Daguerre would have been able to build on them to adapt, after Niépces death in 1833, his son, Isidore, inherited rights in the contract and a new version was drawn up between Daguerre and Isidore. It would bear Daguerres name alone and this was the daguerreotype process that used iodized silvered plates and was developed with mercury fumes. To exploit the invention four hundred shares would be on offer for a thousand francs each, or, the rights of the process could be bought for twenty thousand francs. Everyone says it is superb, but it will cost us the thousand francs before we learn it and be able to judge if it could remain secret. M. de Mandelot himself knows several persons who could subscribe but will not do so because they think it would be revealed by itself, and now I have proof that many think in this way. I entirely agree with the idea of M. Arago, that is get the government to purchase this discovery, nevertheless, he benefited from the state pension awarded to him together with Daguerre
35.
Battle of Caseros
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The forces of Urquiza, caudillo and governor of Entre Ríos, defeated Rosas, who fled to the United Kingdom. This defeat marked a division in the history of Argentina. As provisional Director of the Argentine Confederation, Urquiza sponsored the creation of the Constitution in 1853, and became the first constitutional President of Argentina in 1854. Rosas had declared war on Brazil in 1851, which led to the signing of a treaty, on 21 November 1851, among the governments of Entre Ríos, Corrientes, Uruguay and the Brazilian Empire. In compliance with the treaty, Urquiza led a joint army and crossed Morón creek, the Brazilian Empire contributed with 3,500 troops, and were the only professional soldiers, but the bulk of the Brazilian Army remained out of the battlefield. Rosas forces comprised 10,000 infantry troops,12,000 cavalrymen and 60 guns, due to desertion, especially that of General Ángel Pacheco and poor morale, several historians and military analysts reckon that for Rosas the battle was lost even before it started. Urquizas army was 24, 000-men strong, among them 3,500 Brazilians and 1,500 Uruguayans, only the Brazilians were professional soldiers. Urquiza did not conduct the battle, each chief was free to fight as they saw fit, Urquiza himself led a charge against the enemy left in front of their cavalrymen from Entre Ríos. After both flanks collapsed only the center under Chilaverts command continued the fighting, reduced to a duel that lasted until he ran out of ammunition. Urquizas triumph terminated the 20-years term of Rosas as Governor of Buenos Aires, within a few days, Urquizas troops entered the city of Buenos Aires without further resistance. However, he revealed himself as a conqueror, all surviving soldiers from Regimiento Aquino. The President of the Superior Tribunal, Vicente López y Planes, was appointed interim governor, vida de Juan Manuel de Rosas
36.
Order of the Southern Cross
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The National Order of the Southern Cross is a Brazilian order of chivalry founded by Emperor Pedro I on 1 December 1822. This order was intended to commemorate the independence of Brazil and the coronation of Pedro I, originally known as the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross, the Order was created by Emperor Pedro I on the day of his Coronation,1 December 1822. Also on the date the first knights of the order were appointed. After the fall of the monarchy, Brazils first republican Constitution, enacted on 24 February 1891, abolished all titles of nobility and all Imperial Orders and decorations. The Order was later re-established by the government of Getúlio Vargas on December 5,1932, during the Old Republic period, National Orders did not exist and the Brazilian State bestowed only military medals. Restored in 1932, the Order of the Southern Cross was the first Order to be created in the re-established and it is considered the senior Brazilian National Order. Those Orders were shared by Brazil and Portugal, the Order of Christ was shared with the Holy See similar to the Austrian and a Spanish Orders of the Golden Fleece. However among the Brazilian created Orders, the Imperial Order of the Southern Cross ranked first, having higher status than the Imperial Order of Pedro I and the Imperial Order of the Rose. Just like the Emperors of Brazil were ex officio Grand Masters of the Imperial Order, accordingly, President Michel Temer is the Orders current Grand Master. Unlike the Imperial Order, that was awarded to Brazilians and foreigners alike, however, the Brazilian State also resented the lack of a decoration with which to honour foreign dignitaries, as is sometimes almost required by diplomatic protocol. The King of the Belgians bestowed Belgian honours to some Brazilians, the National Order of the Southern Cross was intended as an Order that would fill that gap. Today, accepting foreign honours and insignia is allowed, and several Orders have been established to which Brazilians may be admitted, starting with the National Order of Merit, created in 1946. Even so, the statutes of the National Order of the Southern Cross have never been reformed. This was done to improve the prestige of the Order by linking it with the past, in 1932, the republican version of the Order had the same five grades as the old imperial version. In 1939, by a statute issued on 17 July of that year, until the creation of the Grand Collar, awards of which are restricted to Heads of State, the Grand Cross was the Orders highest rank. Awards of, and promotions in, the National Order of the Southern Cross are made by decree of the President of the Republic, the Order also has a Council, chaired by its Chancellor, that recommends awards and promotions. Awards of the Grand Collar are restricted to foreign Heads of State, Grand Cross, the recipient wears the Sash of the Order, and the badge of the Order hangs from the bottom part of that sash. The recipient further wears the star of the Order, displayed on the left breast, Grand Officer, the recipient wears the badge of the Order around the neck suspended from a blue ribbon necklet, and the star of the order is displayed on the left breast
37.
Pedro II of Brazil
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Dom Pedro II, nicknamed the Magnanimous, was the second and last ruler of the Empire of Brazil, reigning for over 58 years. Born in Rio de Janeiro, he was the child of Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and Empress Dona Maria Leopoldina. His fathers abrupt abdication and departure to Europe in 1831 left a five-year-old Pedro II as Emperor and led to a grim and lonely childhood, obliged to spend his time studying in preparation for rule, he knew only brief moments of happiness and encountered few friends of his age. Inheriting an Empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II turned Portuguese-speaking Brazil into a power in the international arena. Brazil was also victorious in three international conflicts under his rule, as well as prevailing in other international disputes. Pedro II steadfastly pushed through the abolition of slavery despite opposition from powerful political, a savant in his own right, the Emperor established a reputation as a vigorous sponsor of learning, culture and the sciences. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the future prospects. He did not allow his ouster to be opposed and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy and he spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic, a few decades after his death, his reputation was restored and his remains were returned to Brazil with celebrations nationwide. Historians have regarded the Emperor in a positive light and several have ranked him as the greatest Brazilian. Pedro was born at 02,30 on 2 December 1825 in the Palace of São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Named after St. Peter of Alcantara, his name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. Through his father, Emperor Dom Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza and was referred to using the honorific Dom from birth and he was the grandson of Portuguese King Dom João VI and nephew of Dom Miguel I. His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of Franz II, through his mother, Pedro was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria-Hungary and Don Maximiliano I of Mexico. The only legitimate child of Pedro I to survive infancy. Empress Maria Leopoldina died on 11 December 1826, a few days after a stillbirth, Two and a half years later, his father married Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro developed a relationship with her, whom he came to regard as his mother. He and Amélie immediately departed for Europe, leaving behind the Prince Imperial, upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his son and remaining daughters
38.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
39.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Argentina
Argentine Army
Divisional General
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