1.
Tile-based game
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A tile-based game is a game that uses tiles as one of the fundamental elements of play. Traditional tile-based games use small tiles as playing pieces for gambling or entertainment games, some board games use tiles to create their board, giving multiple possibilities for board layout, or allowing changes in the board geometry during play. Each tile has a side and a face side. Domino tiles are usually rectangular, twice as long as they are wide and at least twice as wide as they are thick, though games exist with square tiles, triangular tiles and even hexagonal tiles
2.
Pip (counting)
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Pips are small but easily countable items. On dice, pips are small dots on each face of a common six-sided die and these pips are typically arranged in patterns denoting the numbers one through six. The sum of opposing faces traditionally adds up to seven, dominoes use pips that are similar to dice. Each half of a tile can have anywhere from no pips all the way up to six or nine pips arranged in the same manner to dice pips. Regardless of dominoes having up to six or up to nine pips on one half of the tile, in playing cards, pips are small symbols on the front side of the cards that determine the suit of the card and its rank. For example, a standard 52-card deck consists of four suits of thirteen cards each, spades, hearts, clubs, each suit contains three face cards – the jack, queen, and king. The remaining ten cards are called pip cards and are numbered one to ten. Each pip card consists of an encoding in the top corner which tells the card-holder the value of the card. In Europe, it is common to have corner indices on all four corners which lets left-handed players fan their cards more comfortably. The center of the card contains pips representing the suit, the number of pips corresponds with the number of the card, and the arrangement of the pips is generally the same from deck to deck
3.
Playing card
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Playing cards are typically palm-sized for convenient handling. A complete set of cards is called a pack, deck, or set, a pack of cards may be used for playing a variety of card games, with varying elements of skill and chance, some of which are played for money. Playing cards are used for illusions, cardistry, building card structures, cartomancy. The front of each card carries markings that distinguish it from the cards in the pack. The back of each card is identical for all cards in any particular pack to create an imperfect information scenario, usually every card will be smooth, however, some packs have braille to allow blind people to read the card number and suit. Dedicated deck card games have sets that are used only for a specific game, the cards described in this article are used for many games and share a common origin stemming from the standards set in Mamluk Egypt. These sets divide their cards into four suits each consisting of three cards and numbered or pip cards. The scholarly consensus is that playing cards were invented in Imperial China and they first appeared as early as 9th century Tang China. The first known book on the game was called the Yezi Gexi and was allegedly written by a Tang woman. However, Ouyang claimed the leaves were pages of a book for a game played with dice. In any case, Ouyang asserted that the rules for the game were lost by 1067 and it may be that the first deck of cards ever printed was a 32-card Chinese domino pack, in whose cards all 21 combinations of a pair of dice are depicted. According to the Gui Tian Lu, an 11th-century Chinese text redacted, domino cards were printed during the Tang dynasty, there is difficulty distinguishing paper cards and gaming tiles in many early sources as the Chinese word pái is used to describe both. Playing cards are paper pái while tiles are called bone pái, paper playing cards and the woodblocks to print them are unambiguously attested in 1294. William Henry Wilkinson suggests that the first cards may have been actual paper currency which were both the tools of gaming and the stakes being played for, as in trading card games. As using paper money was inconvenient and risky, they were substituted by play money known as money-suited cards, one of the earliest games of which we know the rules is Madiao, a trick-taking game, which dates to the Ming Dynasty. 15th century scholar Lu Rong described it is as being played with 38 money-suited cards divided into four suits,9 in coins,9 in strings of coins,9 in myriads, and 11 in tens of myriads. The two latter suits had Water Margin characters instead of pips on them with Chinese ideograms to mark their rank, the pips were copied directly from Chinese banknotes such as the Songs Jiaozi or the Yuans Chao currencies. The suit of coins is in order with 9 of coins being the lowest going up to 1 of coins as the high card
4.
Dice
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Dice are small throwable objects with multiple resting positions, used for generating random numbers. Dice are suitable as gambling devices for games like craps and are used in non-gambling tabletop games. A traditional die is a cube, with each of its six faces showing a different number of dots from 1 to 6. When thrown or rolled, the die comes to rest showing on its surface a random integer from one to six. A variety of devices are also described as dice, such specialized dice may have polyhedral or irregular shapes. They may be used to produce other than one through six. Loaded and crooked dice are designed to favor some results over others for purposes of cheating or amusement. A dice tray, a used to contain thrown dice, is sometimes used for gambling or board games. Dice have been used since before recorded history, and it is uncertain where they originated, the oldest known dice were excavated as part of a backgammon-like game set at the Burnt City, an archeological site in south-eastern Iran, estimated to be from between 2800–2500 BCE. Other excavations from ancient tombs in the Indus Valley civilization indicate a South Asian origin, the Egyptian game of Senet was played with dice. Senet was played before 3000 BC and up to the 2nd century AD and it was likely a racing game, but there is no scholarly consensus on the rules of Senet. Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rigveda, Atharvaveda, there are several biblical references to casting lots, as in Psalm 22, indicating that dicing was commonplace when the psalm was composed. Knucklebones was a game of skill played by women and children, although gambling was illegal, many Romans were passionate gamblers who enjoyed dicing, which was known as aleam ludere. Dicing was even a popular pastime of emperors, letters by Augustus to Tacitus and his daughter recount his hobby of dicing. There were two sizes of Roman dice, tali were large dice inscribed with one, three, four, and six on four sides. Tesserae were smaller dice with sides numbered one to six. Twenty-sided dice date back to the 2nd century AD and from Ptolemaic Egypt as early as the 2nd century BC, dominoes and playing cards originated in China as developments from dice. The transition from dice to playing cards occurred in China around the Tang dynasty, in Japan, dice were used to play a popular game called sugoroku
5.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
6.
Chinese dominoes
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Chinese dominoes are used in several tile-based games, namely, Tien Gow, Pai Gow, Tiu U and Kap Tai Shap. Ming author Xie Zhaozhe records the legend of dominoes having been presented to Song Emperor Huizong in 1112, however the contemporary Li Qingzhao made no mention of dominoes in her compendium of games. Andrew Lo asserts that Zhou Mi meant dominoes when referring to pupai, Tiles dating from the 12th to 14th centuries have survived. Unlike most modern tiles they are white with black and red pips, during the Qing dynasty, the suits known as Chinese and barbarian were renamed to civilian and military respectively to avoid offending the ruling Manchus. Tiles with blank ends, like those found in Western double-six dominoes and these games employed two sets of double-six tiles. It is possible that these were the types of dominoes that made it to Europe the following century, each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided dice. Each combination is used once, so there are 21 unique possible patterns. Eleven of these 21 unique patterns are repeated to make a total of 32 tiles in a Chinese dominoes set, the tile set consists of 32 tiles in two suits or groups called military and civilian. There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits, the tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles and one each of ten military suit tiles. The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, the hendiatris of heaven, earth, and man dates back for over two thousand years while the harmony of the three have been in dice and domino games since at least the Ming dynasty. Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles, the military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles. For example, the nines rank higher than the eights, the military tiles are also considered to be five mixed pairs. Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair rank equally, the 2-4 and 1-2 are an odd pair. They are the tiles in the whole set that dont match other tiles in the normal sense. This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own and it is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually. When a tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, the rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games. However, the ranking of combination tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow, using the same coloring scheme of the traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 pips has those pips colored red. The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles, half of the pips on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles
7.
Domino mask
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A domino mask is a small, often rounded mask covering only the eyes and the space between them. The masks have seen special prevalence since the 18th century, where they have become traditional wear in particular local manifestations of Carnival, Domino masks have found their way into a variety of high and popular art forms. The name in use to describe this partial mask derives from the Latin for dominus, for lord or master, Masks of this type became known as domini because they resembled French priests winter hoods, which were white on the inside and black on the outside. Domino masks are worn during Carnival, e. g. Domino masks have appeared in images in art. The image at right is La Femme au Masque, painting by Henri Gervex 1885, the subject is 22-year old Parisienne Marie Renard wearing only a domino mask. The mask is popular in superhero comics, where it is worn by costumed heroes. Harlequin La bottega dei Mascareri, see, accessed 13 October 2014, student Project, General Commonalities in the Masquerade, see, accessed 13 October 2014. History of Venetian Masks, at Masks of Venice retail site, see, accessed 13 October 2014
8.
Venetian Carnival
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The Carnival of Venice is an annual festival held in Venice, Italy. The Carnival ends with the Christian celebration of Lent, forty days before Easter, on Shrove Tuesday, the festival is world famous for its elaborate masks. Its said that the Carnival of Venice was started from a victory of the Serenissima Repubblica against the Patriarch of Aquileia, in the honour of this victory, the people started to dance and gather in San Marco Square. Apparently, this festival started on that period and became official in the Renaissance, in the seventeenth century, the baroque carnival was a way to save the prestigious image of Venice in the world. It was very famous during the eighteenth century and it encouraged licence and pleasure, but it was also used to protect Venetians from present and future anguish. However, under the rule of the King of Austria, the festival was outlawed entirely in 1797 and it reappeared gradually in the nineteenth century, but only for short periods and above all for private feasts, where it became an occasion for artistic creations. After a long absence, the Carnival returned in 1979, the Italian government decided to bring back the history and culture of Venice, and sought to use the traditional Carnival as the centerpiece of its efforts. The redevelopment of the masks began as the pursuit of some Venetian college students for the tourist trade, since then, approximately 3 million visitors come to Venice every year for the Carnival. One of the most important events is the contest for la maschera più bella which will be judged by a panel of international costume, traditionally people were allowed to wear them between the festival of Santo Stefano and the start of the carnival season at midnight of Shrove Tuesday. As masks were also allowed on Ascension and from October 5 to Christmas, maskmakers enjoyed a special position in society, with their own laws and their own guild. Venetian masks can be made of leather, porcelain or using the original glass technique, the original masks were rather simple in design, decoration, and often had a symbolic and practical function. Nowadays, most Italian masks are made with the application of gesso and gold leaf and are hand-painted using natural feathers, however, this makes them rather expensive when compared to the widespread, low-quality masks produced mainly by American factories. This competition accelerates the decline of this historical craftsmanship peculiar to the city of Venice, there is little evidence explaining the motive for the earliest mask wearing in Venice. One scholar argues that covering the face in public was a uniquely Venetian response to one of the most rigid class hierarchies in European history, the first documented sources mentioning the use of masks in Venice can be found as far back as the 13th century. The Great Council made it a crime to throw scented eggs, the document decrees that masked persons were forbidden to gamble. Another law in 1339 forbade Venetians from wearing vulgar disguises and visiting convents while masked, the law also prohibited painting ones face, or wearing false beards or wigs. Near the end of the Republic, the wearing of the masks in daily life was severely restricted, by the 18th century, it was limited only to about three months from December 26. The masks were worn with decorative beads matching in colour
9.
Polyomino
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A polyomino is a plane geometric figure formed by joining one or more equal squares edge to edge. It is a polyform whose cells are squares and it may be regarded as a finite subset of the regular square tiling with a connected interior. Polyominoes are classified according to how many cells they have, Polyominoes have been used in popular puzzles since at least 1907, and the enumeration of pentominoes is dated to antiquity. Many results with the pieces of 1 to 6 squares were first published in Fairy Chess Review between the years 1937 to 1957, under the name of dissection problems. The name polyomino was invented by Solomon W. Golomb in 1953, related to polyominoes are polyiamonds, formed from equilateral triangles, polyhexes, formed from regular hexagons, and other plane polyforms. Polyominoes have been generalized to higher dimensions by joining cubes to form polycubes, like many puzzles in recreational mathematics, polyominoes raise many combinatorial problems. The most basic is enumerating polyominoes of a given size, no formula has been found except for special classes of polyominoes. A number of estimates are known, and there are algorithms for calculating them, Polyominoes with holes are inconvenient for some purposes, such as tiling problems. In some contexts polyominoes with holes are excluded, allowing only simply connected polyominoes, there are three common ways of distinguishing polyominoes for enumeration, free polyominoes are distinct when none is a rigid transformation of another. Translating, rotating, reflecting, or glide reflecting a free polyomino does not change its shape, one-sided polyominoes are distinct when none is a translation or rotation of another. Translating or rotating a one-sided polyomino does not change its shape, fixed polyominoes are distinct when none is a translation of another. Translating a fixed polyomino will not change its shape, the following table shows the numbers of polyominoes of various types with n cells. As of 2004, Iwan Jensen has enumerated the fixed polyominoes up to n =56, free polyominoes have been enumerated up to n =28 by Tomás Oliveira e Silva. The dihedral group D4 is the group of symmetries of a square and this group contains four rotations and four reflections. It is generated by alternating reflections about the x-axis and about a diagonal, one free polyomino corresponds to at most 8 fixed polyominoes, which are its images under the symmetries of D4. However, those images are not necessarily distinct, the more symmetry a free polyomino has, therefore, a free polyomino that is invariant under some or all non-trivial symmetries of D4 may correspond to only 4,2 or 1 fixed polyominoes. Mathematically, free polyominoes are equivalence classes of fixed polyominoes under the group D4, the following table shows the numbers of polyominoes with n squares, sorted by symmetry groups. Each polyomino of order n+1 can be obtained by adding a square to a polyomino of order n and this leads to algorithms for generating polyominoes inductively
10.
Ivory
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Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks and teeth of animals, that can be used in art or manufacturing. It consists mainly of dentine ), one of the structures of teeth. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same and it has been valued since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, and dominoes. Elephant ivory is the most important source, but ivory from mammoth, walrus, hippopotamus, sperm whale, killer whale, narwhal, elk also have two ivory teeth, which are believed to be the remnants of tusks from their ancestors. The national and international trade in ivory of threatened species such as African and Asian elephants is illegal, the word ivory ultimately derives from the ancient Egyptian âb, âbu, through the Latin ebor- or ebur. Both the Greek and Roman civilizations practiced ivory carving to make large quantities of high value works of art, precious religious objects, Ivory was often used to form the white of the eyes of statues. There is some evidence of either whale or walrus ivory used by the ancient Irish, solinus, a Roman writer in the 3rd century claimed that the Celtic peoples in Ireland would decorate their sword-hilts with the teeth of beasts that swim in the sea. Adomnan of Iona wrote a story about St Columba giving a sword decorated with carved ivory as a gift that a penitent would bring to his master so he could redeem himself from slavery. The Syrian and North African elephant populations were reduced to extinction, the Chinese have long valued ivory for both art and utilitarian objects. Southeast Asian kingdoms included tusks of the Indian elephant in their annual tribute caravans to China, Chinese craftsmen carved ivory to make everything from images of deities to the pipe stems and end pieces of opium pipes. The Buddhist cultures of Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, Ivory was prized for containers due to its ability to keep an airtight seal. It was also carved into elaborate seals utilized by officials to sign documents. In Southeast Asian countries, where Muslim Malay peoples live, such as Malaysia, Indonesia, in the Philippines, ivory was also used to craft the faces and hands of Catholic icons and images of saints prevalent in the Santero culture. Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into a vast variety of shapes, examples of modern carved ivory objects are okimono, netsukes, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, warthog tusks, and teeth from sperm whales, orcas and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, Ivory usage in the last thirty years has moved towards mass production of souvenirs and jewelry. In Japan, the increase in wealth sparked consumption of solid ivory hanko – name seals – which before this time had made of wood. Prior to the introduction of plastics, ivory had many ornamental and practical uses and it was formerly used to make cutlery handles, billiard balls, piano keys, Scottish bagpipes, buttons and a wide range of ornamental items. Ivory can be taken from dead animals – however, most ivory came from elephants that were killed for their tusks, for example, in 1930 to acquire 40 tons of ivory required the killing of approximately 700 elephants
11.
Ebony
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Ebony is a dense black hardwood, most commonly yielded by several different species in the genus Diospyros, which also contains the persimmons. Ebony is dense enough to sink in water and it is finely-textured and has a very smooth finish when polished, making it valuable as an ornamental wood. The word ebony derives from the Ancient Egyptian hbny, via the Ancient Greek ἔβενος, by way of Latin, mauritius ebony, Diospyros tesselaria, was largely exploited by the Dutch in the 17th century. Some species in the genus Diospyros yield an ebony with similar physical properties, ebony has a long history of use, with carved pieces having been found in Ancient Egyptian tombs. By the end of the 16th century, fine cabinets for the trade were made of ebony in Antwerp. Within a short time, such cabinets were also being made in Paris, where their makers became known as ébénistes, many plectra, or guitar picks, are made from this black wood. Traditionally, the pieces in chess sets were made from ebony. Modern East Midlands-style lace-making bobbins, also being small, are made of ebony. Due to its strength, many handgun grips and rifle fore-end tips are made of ebony, as a result of unsustainable harvesting, many species yielding ebony are now considered threatened. Africa in particular has had most of its indigenous ebony cut down illegally, in some countries like Sri Lanka, ebony is a protected species and selling of ebony logs is illegal, due to the woods rarity and high price. In 2012, the Gibson Guitar company was raided by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for violations of the Lacey Act of 1900, pete Lowry, ebony and rosewood expert at the Missouri Botanical Garden, calls the Madagascar wood trade the equivalent of Africas blood diamonds. Ebony, when ground into fine dust, results in a flammable, due to the high toxicity of ebony in powdered form, its use in construction work requires government certification in several South Asian countries. African Blackwood Calamander wood Ebonite Ebonol Illegal logging in Madagascar Red List—For recommendations found under the IUCN
12.
Inlay
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A great range of materials have been used both for the base or matrix and for the inlays inserted into it. In a wood matrix, inlays commonly use wood veneers, but other materials like shells, mother-of-pearl, pietre dure, or coloured stones inlaid in white or black marbles, and inlays of precious metals in a base metal matrix are other forms of inlay. Inlay is commonly used in production of furniture, where pieces of coloured wood or metal are inserted into the surface of the carcass. Lutherie inlays are used as decoration and marking on musical instruments. The similar private study made for him at Gubbio is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the history of inlay is very old. After learning the skill of smithing from the Navaho in 1872, the French cabinet maker Andre-Charles Boulle specialized in furniture using inlays or metal and either wood or tortoiseshell together, the latter acting as the background. Pietra dura is the term in Europe for detailed inlays in contrasting colours of stones, including many semi-precious types. Pietra dura developed from the Roman Opus sectile, which was used on a larger scale. Cosmatesque work on walls and floors, and smaller objects, was an intermediate stage
13.
Paint
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Paint is any liquid, liquefiable, or mastic composition that, after application to a substrate in a thin layer, converts to a solid film. It is most commonly used to protect, color, or provide texture to objects, Paint can be made or purchased in many colors—and in many different types, such as watercolor, synthetic, etc. Paint is typically stored, sold, and applied as a liquid, in 2001 and 2004, South African archeologists reported finds in Blombos Cave of a 100, 000-year-old human-made ochre-based mixture that could have been used like paint. Further excavation in the cave resulted in the 2011 report of a complete toolkit for grinding pigments. Cave paintings drawn with red or yellow ochre, hematite, manganese oxide, ancient colored walls at Dendera, Egypt, which were exposed for years to the elements, still possess their brilliant color, as vivid as when they were painted about 2,000 years ago. The Egyptians mixed their colors with a substance, and applied them separately from each other without any blending or mixture. They appear to have used six colors, white, black, blue, red, yellow and they first covered the area entirely with white, then traced the design in black, leaving out the lights of the ground color. They used minium for red, and generally of a dark tinge, pliny mentions some painted ceilings in his day in the town of Ardea, which had been done prior to the foundation of Rome. He expresses great surprise and admiration at their freshness, after the lapse of so many centuries, Paint was made with the yolk of eggs and therefore, the substance would harden and adhere to the surface it was applied to. Pigment was made from plants, sand, and different soils, Most paints used either oil or water as a base. The process was done by hand by the painters and exposed them to lead poisoning due to the white-lead powder, in 1718, Marshall Smith invented a Machine or Engine for the Grinding of Colours in England. It is not known precisely how it operated, but it was a device that increased the efficiency of pigment grinding dramatically. By the proper onset of the Industrial Revolution, paint was being ground in steam-powered mills, interior house painting increasingly became the norm as the 19th century progressed, both for decorative reasons and because the paint was effective in preventing the walls rotting from damp. Linseed oil was also used as an inexpensive binder. In 1866, Sherwin-Williams in the United States opened as a large paint-maker and it was not until the stimulus of World War II created a shortage of linseed oil in the supply market that artificial resins, or alkyds, were invented. Cheap and easy to make, they held the color well. The vehicle is composed of the binder, or, if it is necessary to thin the binder with a diluent like solvent or water, it is the combination of binder + diluent. In this case, once the paint has dried or cured very nearly all of the diluent has evaporated, thus, an important quantity in coatings formulation is the vehicle solids, sometimes called the resin solids of the formula
14.
Marble
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Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. Geologists use the marble to refer to metamorphosed limestone, however. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as a building material and this stem is also the basis for the English word marmoreal, meaning marble-like. In Hungarian it is called márvány, Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks, most commonly limestone or dolomite rock. Metamorphism causes variable recrystallization of the carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock is composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals. Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the carbonate rock have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure limestone or dolomite protolith, green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolostone with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure, examples of historically notable marble varieties and locations, White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times. This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine which is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction, specifically the dimension stone trade, the marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone that geologists call the Holston Formation. Ashgabat, the city of Turkmenistan, was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having the worlds highest concentration of white marble buildings. According to the United States Geological Survey, U. S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production in 2006 was 11.8 million tons valued at $116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. For comparison,2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate, U. S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for Marble Index has shown a growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, the largest dimension marble application is tile. In 1998, marble production was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of production of marble
15.
Granite
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Granite is a common type of felsic intrusive igneous rock that is granular and phaneritic in texture. Granites can be white, pink, or gray in color. The word granite comes from the Latin granum, a grain, in reference to the structure of such a holocrystalline rock. By definition, granite is a rock with at least 20% quartz. The term granitic means granite-like and is applied to granite and a group of igneous rocks with similar textures and slight variations in composition. Occasionally some individual crystals are larger than the groundmass, in case the texture is known as porphyritic. A granitic rock with a texture is known as a granite porphyry. Granitoid is a general, descriptive field term for lighter-colored, coarse-grained igneous rocks, petrographic examination is required for identification of specific types of granitoids. The extrusive igneous rock equivalent of granite is rhyolite, Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and therefore it has gained widespread use throughout human history, and more recently as a construction stone. The average density of granite is between 2.65 and 2.75 g/cm3, its compressive strength usually lies above 200 MPa, and its viscosity near STP is 3–6 •1019 Pa·s. The melting temperature of dry granite at ambient pressure is 1215–1260 °C, it is reduced in the presence of water. Granite has poor primary permeability, but strong secondary permeability, true granite according to modern petrologic convention contains both plagioclase and alkali feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid or nearly devoid of plagioclase, the rock is referred to as alkali feldspar granite, when a granitoid contains less than 10% orthoclase, it is called tonalite, pyroxene and amphibole are common in tonalite. A granite containing both muscovite and biotite micas is called a binary or two-mica granite, two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. A worldwide average of the composition of granite, by weight percent, based on 2485 analyses. Much of it was intruded during the Precambrian age, it is the most abundant basement rock that underlies the relatively thin veneer of the continents. Outcrops of granite tend to form tors and rounded massifs, granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the metamorphic aureole or hornfels. Granite often occurs as small, less than 100 km² stock masses
16.
Soapstone
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Soapstone is a talc-schist, which is a type of metamorphic rock. It is largely composed of the mineral talc and is rich in magnesium. It has been a medium for carving for thousands of years, petrologically, soapstone is composed dominantly of talc, with varying amounts of chlorite and amphiboles, and trace to minor iron-chromium oxides. It may be schistose or massive, Soapstone is formed by the metamorphism of ultramafic protoliths and the metasomatism of siliceous dolostones. By mass, pure steatite is approximately 63. 37% silica,31. 88% magnesia and 4. 74% water and it commonly contains minor quantities of other oxides such as CaO or Al2O3. However, this mineral typically does not have such a feel as soapstone. Soapstone is relatively soft because of its high content, talc having a definitional value of 1 on the Mohs hardness scale. Softer grades may feel similar to soap when touched, hence the name, common, non-architectural grades of soapstone can just barely be scratched with a fingernail and are thus considered to have a hardness of 2.5 on the Mohs scale. If a candidate rock cannot be scratched with a knife blade, Soapstone is often used as an insulator for housing and electrical components, due to its durability and electrical characteristics and because it can be pressed into complex shapes before firing. Soapstone undergoes transformations when heated to temperatures of 1000–1200 °C into enstatite and cristobalite, in the Mohs scale, Soapstone is used for inlaid designs, sculpture, coasters, and kitchen countertops and sinks. The Inuit often use soapstone for traditional carvings, some Native American tribes and bands make bowls, cooking slabs, and other objects from soapstone, historically, this was particularly common during the Late Archaic archaeological period. Locally quarried soapstone was used for gravemarkers in 19th century northeast Georgia, US, around Dahlonega, vikings hewed soapstone directly from the stone face, shaped it into cooking-pots, and sold these at home and abroad. It is also used for counter tops and bathroom tiling because of the ease of working the material, a weathered or aged appearance will occur naturally over time as the patina is enhanced. Applying mineral oil simply darkens the appearance of the stone, it does not protect it in any way, tepe Yahya, an ancient trading city in southeastern Iran, was a center for the production and distribution of soapstone in the 5th–3rd millennia BC. It was also used in Minoan Crete, at the Palace of Knossos, archaeological recovery has included a magnificent libation table made of steatite. The Yoruba of West Nigeria utilized soapstone for several statues most notably at Esie where archaeologists have uncovered hundreds of male and female statues, about half of life size. The Yoruba of Ife also produced a miniature soapstone obelisk with metal studs called superstitiously the staff of Oranmiyan Soapstone has been used in India for centuries as a medium for carving, mining to meet world-wide demand for soapstone is threatening the habitat of Indias tigers. These handicrafts are sold in street markets found in cities across the state
17.
Fraxinus
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Fraxinus /ˈfræksᵻnəs/, English name ash, is a genus of flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45–65 species of medium to large trees, mostly deciduous though a few subtropical species are evergreen. The genus is widespread across much of Europe, Asia and North America, the trees common English name, ash, traces back to the Old English æsc, while the generic name originated in Latin. Both words also mean spear in their respective languages, the leaves are opposite, and mostly pinnately compound, simple in a few species. The seeds, popularly known as keys or helicopter seeds, are a type of known as a samara. Rowans or mountain ashes have leaves and buds superficially similar to those of true ashes, species are organized according to phylogenetic analysis. – California ash or two-petal ash Fraxinus anomala Torr, ex S. Watson – singleleaf ash Fraxinus quadrangulata Michx. – blue ash Fraxinus lowellii – Lowell ash Fraxinus trifoliata Section Melioides sensu lato Fraxinus chiisanensis Fraxinus cuspidata Torr. – fragrant ash Fraxinus platypoda Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh, – Späths ash Section Melioides sensu stricto Fraxinus uhdei Lingelsh. – Shamel ash or tropical ash Fraxinus latifolia Benth, – Oregon ash Fraxinus papillosa Lingelsh. – Chihuahua ash Fraxinus americana L. – white ash or American ash Fraxinus profunda Bush – pumpkin ash Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marshall – green ash Fraxinus velutina Torr, – velvet ash or Arizona ash Fraxinus berlandieriana DC. – Mexican ash Fraxinus caroliniana Mill, – Carolina ash Fraxinus texensis Sarg. – Texas ash Section Pauciflorae Fraxinus greggii A. ex DC, – Afghan ash Fraxinus dimorpha Section Fraxinus Fraxinus nigra Marshall – black ash Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr. – Manchurian ash Fraxinus holotricha Koehne Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl – narrow-leafed ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp, oxycarpa – Caucasian ash Claret ash or raywood ash Fraxinus angustifolia subsp. – European ash Fraxinus pallisiae Wilmott – Pallis ash Fraxinus sogdiana Bge Section Ornus Fraxinus griffithii C. B. Clarke – Griffiths ash Fraxinus micrantha Lingelsh, – Chinese ash or Korean ash Fraxinus japonica – Japanese ash Fraxinus longicuspis Fraxinus floribunda Wall. – Himalayan manna ash Fraxinus ornus L. – manna ash or flowering ash Fraxinus bungeana DC, – Bunges ash Fraxinus paxiana Lingelsh. The emerald ash borer is a wood-boring beetle accidentally introduced to North America from eastern Asia via solid wood packing material in the late 1980s to early 1990s and it has killed tens of millions of trees in 15 states in the United States and adjacent Ontario in Canada. It threatens some seven billion ash trees in North America, the public is being cautioned not to transport unfinished wood products, such as firewood, to slow the spread of this insect pest. The disease has infected about 90% of Denmarks ash trees, in 2016, the ash tree was reported as in danger of extinction in Europe
18.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
19.
Sequoia sempervirens
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Sequoia sempervirens /sᵻˈkɔɪ. ə sɛmpərˈvaɪrənz/ is the sole living species of the genus Sequoia in the cypress family Cupressaceae. Common names include coast redwood, coastal redwood and California redwood and it is an evergreen, long-lived, monoecious tree living 1, 200–1,800 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to 379 feet in height and these trees are also among the oldest living things on Earth. The name sequoia sometimes refers to the subfamily Sequoioideae, which includes S. sempervirens along with Sequoiadendron, here, the term redwood on its own refers to the species covered in this article, and not to the other two species. Scottish botanist David Don described the redwood as the evergreen taxodium in his colleague Aylmer Bourke Lamberts 1824 work A description of the genus Pinus, austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher erected the genus Sequoia in his 1847 work Synopsis coniferarum, giving the redwood its current binomial name of Sequoia sempervirens. The redwood is one of three living species, each in its own genus, in the subfamily Sequoioideae, molecular studies have shown the three to be each others closest relatives, generally with the redwood and giant sequoia as each others closest relatives. However, Yang and colleagues in 2010 queried the polyploid state of the redwood, further analysis strongly supported the hypothesis that Sequoia was the result of a hybridization event involving Metasequoia and Sequoiadendron. Thus, Yang and colleagues hypothesize that the inconsistent relationships among Metasequoia, Sequoia, the coast redwood can reach 115 m tall with a trunk diameter of 9 m. It has a crown, with horizontal to slightly drooping branches. The bark can be thick, up to 1-foot, and quite soft and fibrous, with a bright red-brown color when freshly exposed. The root system is composed of shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots, the leaves are variable, being 15–25 mm long and flat on young trees and shaded shoots in the lower crown of old trees. On the other hand, they are scale-like, 5–10 mm long on shoots in full sun in the crown of older trees. They are dark green above and have two blue-white stomatal bands below, leaf arrangement is spiral, but the larger shade leaves are twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane for maximum light capture. The species is monoecious, with pollen and seed cones on the same plant, the seed cones are ovoid, 15–32 millimetres long, with 15–25 spirally arranged scales, pollination is in late winter with maturation about 8–9 months after. Each cone scale bears three to seven seeds, each seed 3–4 millimetres long and 0.5 millimetres broad, the seeds are released when the cone scales dry out and open at maturity. The pollen cones are ovular and 4–6 millimetres long and its genetic makeup is unusual among conifers, being a hexaploid and possibly allopolyploid. Both the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes of the redwood are paternally inherited, the prevailing elevation range is 98–2,460 ft above sea level, occasionally down to 0 and up to 3,000 ft. They usually grow in the mountains where precipitation from the incoming moisture off the ocean is greater, the tallest and oldest trees are found in deep valleys and gullies, where year-round streams can flow, and fog drip is regular
20.
Cedrus
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Cedrus is a genus of coniferous trees in the plant family Pinaceae. They are native to the mountains of the western Himalayas and the Mediterranean region, occurring at altitudes of 1, 500–3,200 m in the Himalayas and 1, 000–2,200 m in the Mediterranean. Cedrus trees can grow up to 30–40 m tall with spicy-resinous scented wood, thick ridged or square-cracked bark, the shoots are dimorphic, with long shoots, which form the framework of the branches, and short shoots, which carry most of the leaves. The seed cones are barrel-shaped, 6–12 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, green maturing grey-brown, and, as in Abies, disintegrate at maturity to release the winged seeds. The seeds are 10–15 mm long, with a 20–30 mm wing, as in Abies, cone maturation takes one year, with pollination in autumn and the seeds maturing the same time a year later. The pollen cones are ovoid, 3–8 cm long, produced in late summer. Cedars share a similar cone structure with the firs and were traditionally thought to be most closely related to them. L. libani — Lebanon cedar, mountains of Lebanon, western Syria, cedars are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including pine processionary and turnip moth. Cedars are very popular ornamental trees, widely used in horticulture in temperate climates where temperatures do not fall below about −25°C. The Turkish cedar is slightly hardier, to −30°C or just below, extensive mortality of planted specimens can occur in severe winters where temperatures do drop lower. Cedar wood and cedar oil are known to be a repellent to moths. This specific use of cedar is mentioned in The Iliad, referring to the cedar-roofed or lined storage chamber where Priam goes to fetch treasures to be used as ransom. However, the species used for cedar chests and closets in North America is Juniperus virginiana. Cedar is also used to make shoe trees as it can absorb moisture. Many species of trees are suitable for training as bonsai. They work well with many styles, including formal and informal upright, slanting, while some naturalized species of cedar can be found in the Americas, no species is native. Both the Latin word cedrus and the generic name cedrus are derived from Greek κέδρος kédros, ancient Greek and Latin used the same word, kédros and cedrus, respectively, for different species of plants now classified in the genera Cedrus and Juniperus. The name was applied to citron and the word citrus is derived from the same root
21.
Brass
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Brass is a metal alloy made of copper and zinc, the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is an alloy, atoms of the two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin, however, bronze and brass may also include small proportions of a range of other elements including arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon. The term is applied to a variety of brasses. Modern practice in museums and archaeology increasingly avoids both terms for objects in favour of the all-embracing copper alloy. It is also used in zippers, Brass is often used in situations in which it is important that sparks not be struck, such as in fittings and tools used near flammable or explosive materials. Brass has higher malleability than bronze or zinc, the relatively low melting point of brass and its flow characteristics make it a relatively easy material to cast. By varying the proportions of copper and zinc, the properties of the brass can be changed, allowing hard, the density of brass is 8.4 to 8.73 grams per cubic centimetre. Today, almost 90% of all alloys are recycled. Because brass is not ferromagnetic, it can be separated from ferrous scrap by passing the scrap near a powerful magnet, Brass scrap is collected and transported to the foundry where it is melted and recast into billets. Billets are heated and extruded into the form and size. The general softness of brass means that it can often be machined without the use of cutting fluid, aluminium makes brass stronger and more corrosion-resistant. Aluminium also causes a highly beneficial hard layer of oxide to be formed on the surface that is thin, transparent. Tin has an effect and finds its use especially in seawater applications. Combinations of iron, aluminium, silicon and manganese make brass wear and tear resistant, to enhance the machinability of brass, lead is often added in concentrations of around 2%. Since lead has a melting point than the other constituents of the brass. The pattern the globules form on the surface of the brass increases the available surface area which in turn affects the degree of leaching. In addition, cutting operations can smear the lead globules over the surface and these effects can lead to significant lead leaching from brasses of comparatively low lead content
22.
Pewter
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Pewter is a malleable metal alloy, traditionally 85–99% tin, with the remainder consisting of copper, antimony, bismuth and sometimes, less commonly today, lead. Copper and antimony act as hardeners while lead is common in the grades of pewter. It has a low melting point, around 170–230 °C, depending on the mixture of metals. The word pewter is probably a variation of the word spelter, Pewter was first used around the beginning of the Bronze Age in the Near East. The earliest piece of pewter found is from an Egyptian tomb from 1450 BC, the constituents of pewter were first controlled in the 12th century by town guilds in France. By the 15th century, the Worshipful Company of Pewterers controlled pewter constituents in England and this company originally had two grades of pewter, but in the 16th century a third grade was added. The first type, known as metal, was used for tableware. It consisted of tin with as much copper as it could absorb, the second type, known as trifling metal or trifle, was used for holloware and is made up of fine metal with approximately 4% lead. The last type of pewter, known as lay or ley metal, was used for items that were not in contact with food or drink and it consisted of tin with 15% lead. These three alloys were used, with variation, until the 20th century. Older pewters with higher lead content are heavier, tarnish faster, pewters containing lead are no longer used in items that will come in contact with the human body due to health concerns stemming from the lead content. Modern pewters are available that are free of lead, although many pewters containing lead are still being produced for other purposes. A typical European casting alloy contains 94% tin, 1% copper, a European pewter sheet would contain 92% tin, 2% copper, and 6% antimony. Asian pewter, produced mostly in Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand, contains a percentage of tin, usually 97. 5% tin, 1% copper. This makes the alloy slightly softer, Pewter items are often found in churches. Pewter was the chief tableware until the making of porcelain, mass production of pottery, porcelain and glass products has seen pewter universally replaced in day-to-day life. Pewter artifacts continue to be produced, mainly as decorative or specialty items, Pewter was also used around East Asia. Although some items still exist, Ancient Roman pewter is rare, in the early 19th century, changes in fashion caused a decline in the use of pewter flatware
23.
Ceramic
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A ceramic is an inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bonds. This article gives an overview of ceramic materials from the point of view of materials science, the crystallinity of ceramic materials ranges from highly oriented to semi-crystalline, vitrified, and often completely amorphous. Most often, fired ceramics are either vitrified or semi-vitrified as is the case with earthenware, stoneware, varying crystallinity and electron consumption in the ionic and covalent bonds cause most ceramic materials to be good thermal and electrical insulators. With such a range of possible options for the composition/structure of a ceramic, the breadth of the subject is vast. Many composites, such as fiberglass and carbon fiber, while containing ceramic materials, are not considered to be part of the ceramic family. The earliest ceramics made by humans were pottery objects or figurines made from clay, either by itself or mixed with materials like silica, hardened, sintered. Later ceramics were glazed and fired to create smooth, colored surfaces, decreasing porosity through the use of glassy, ceramics now include domestic, industrial and building products, as well as a wide range of ceramic art. In the 20th century, new materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering. The word ceramic comes from the Greek word κεραμικός, of pottery or for pottery, from κέραμος, potters clay, tile, the earliest known mention of the root ceram- is the Mycenaean Greek ke-ra-me-we, workers of ceramics, written in Linear B syllabic script. The word ceramic may be used as an adjective to describe a material, product or process, or it may be used as a noun, either singular, or, more commonly, as the plural noun ceramics. A ceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often crystalline oxide, nitride or carbide material, some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considered ceramics. Ceramic materials are brittle, hard, strong in compression, weak in shearing and they withstand chemical erosion that occurs in other materials subjected to acidic or caustic environments. Ceramics generally can withstand high temperatures, such as temperatures that range from 1,000 °C to 1,600 °C. Glass is often not considered a ceramic because of its amorphous character. However, glassmaking involves several steps of the process and its mechanical properties are similar to ceramic materials. Traditional ceramic raw materials include minerals such as kaolinite, whereas more recent materials include aluminium oxide. The modern ceramic materials, which are classified as advanced ceramics, include silicon carbide, both are valued for their abrasion resistance, and hence find use in applications such as the wear plates of crushing equipment in mining operations. Advanced ceramics are used in the medicine, electrical, electronics industries. Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a range of processing
24.
Frosted glass
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Frosted glass is produced by the sandblasting or acid etching of clear sheet glass. It has the effect of rendering the glass translucent by scattering of light during transmission, applications, To obtain visual privacy while admitting light. Decorative patterns may be imposed upon otherwise plain glass by using wax or other inhibitors to retain transparent areas, frosted glass in light bulbs is used for evenly distributing the light from the bulbs filament across its surface area. To distribute light uniformly in a contact printer. To create a seal in tubes. The frosted glass effect can also be achieved by the application of vinyl film, photo-resist, or photo-resistant film is also available, which can be produced to mask off the area surrounding a decorative design, or logo on the glass surface. A similar effect may also be accomplished with the use of canned frosted glass sprays
25.
Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces
26.
ABS plastic
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Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is a common thermoplastic polymer. Its glass transition temperature is approximately 105 °C, ABS is amorphous and therefore has no true melting point. ABS is a made by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. The proportions can vary from 15 to 35% acrylonitrile,5 to 30% butadiene and 40 to 60% styrene, the result is a long chain of polybutadiene criss-crossed with shorter chains of poly. The nitrile groups from neighboring chains, being polar, attract each other and bind the chains together, the styrene gives the plastic a shiny, impervious surface. The polybutadiene, a substance, provides toughness even at low temperatures. For the majority of applications, ABS can be used between −20 and 80 °C as its mechanical properties vary with temperature, the properties are created by rubber toughening, where fine particles of elastomer are distributed throughout the rigid matrix. The most important mechanical properties of ABS are impact resistance and toughness, a variety of modifications can be made to improve impact resistance, toughness, and heat resistance. The impact resistance can be amplified by increasing the proportions of polybutadiene in relation to styrene and also acrylonitrile, impact resistance does not fall off rapidly at lower temperatures. Stability under load is excellent with limited loads, thus, by changing the proportions of its components, ABS can be prepared in different grades. Two major categories could be ABS for extrusion and ABS for injection moulding, then high, generally ABS would have useful characteristics within a temperature range from −20 to 80 °C. The final properties will be influenced to some extent by the conditions under which the material is processed to the final product. For example, molding at a high temperature improves the gloss and heat resistance of the product whereas the highest impact resistance, fibers and additives can be mixed in the resin pellets to make the final product strong and raise the operating range to as high as 80 °C. Pigments can also be added, as the raw material original color is translucent ivory to white, the aging characteristics of the polymers are largely influenced by the polybutadiene content, and it is normal to include antioxidants in the composition. Other factors include exposure to radiation, for which additives are also available to protect against. They are soluble in esters, ketones, ethylene dichloride and acetone, even though ABS plastics are used largely for mechanical purposes, they also have electrical properties that are fairly constant over a wide range of frequencies. These properties are affected by temperature and atmospheric humidity in the acceptable operating range of temperatures. ABS is flammable when it is exposed to temperatures, such as those of a wood fire
27.
Polystyrene
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Polystyrene /ˌpɒliˈstaɪriːn/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed, general-purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight and it is a rather poor barrier to oxygen and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point. Polystyrene is one of the most widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several million tonnes per year, Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include protective packaging, containers, lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, as a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid state at room temperature but flows if heated above about 100 °C, its glass transition temperature. It becomes rigid again when cooled and this temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion and also for molding and vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail. Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy among environmentalists, Polystyrene was discovered in 1839 by Eduard Simon, an apothecary from Berlin. From storax, the resin of the American sweetgum tree Liquidambar styraciflua, he distilled an oily substance, several days later, Simon found that the styrol had thickened into a jelly he dubbed styrol oxide because he presumed an oxidation. By 1845 Jamaican-born chemist John Buddle Blyth and German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann showed that the transformation of styrol took place in the absence of oxygen. They called the product metastyrol, analysis showed that it was identical to Simons Styroloxyd. In 1866 Marcelin Berthelot correctly identified the formation of metastyrol/Styroloxyd from styrol as a polymerization process, about 80 years later it was realized that heating of styrol starts a chain reaction that produces macromolecules, following the thesis of German organic chemist Hermann Staudinger. This eventually led to the substance receiving its present name, polystyrene, the company I. G. Farben began manufacturing polystyrene in Ludwigshafen, about 1931, hoping it would be a suitable replacement for die-cast zinc in many applications. Success was achieved when they developed a reactor vessel that extruded polystyrene through a tube and cutter. In 1941, Dow Chemical invented a Styrofoam process, before 1949, the chemical engineer Fritz Stastny developed pre-expanded PS beads by incorporating aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane. These beads are the raw material for moulding parts or extruding sheets, BASF and Stastny applied for a patent that was issued in 1949. The moulding process was demonstrated at the Kunststoff Messe 1952 in Düsseldorf, the crystal structure of isotactic polystyrene was reported by Giulio Natta. In 1954, the Koppers Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, developed expanded polystyrene foam under the trade name Dylite, in 1960, Dart Container, the largest manufacturer of foam cups, shipped their first order. In 1988, the first U. S. ban of general polystyrene foam was enacted in Berkeley, in chemical terms, polystyrene is a long chain hydrocarbon wherein alternating carbon centers are attached to phenyl groups
28.
Bakelite
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Bakelite, or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride, is an early plastic. It is a phenol formaldehyde resin, formed from a condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde. It was developed by the Belgian-American chemist Leo Baekeland in Yonkers, New York, the retro appeal of old Bakelite products has made them collectible. Bakelite was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark on November 9,1993, Baekeland was already wealthy, due to his invention of Velox photographic paper, when he began to investigate the reactions of phenol and formaldehyde in his home laboratory. Chemists had begun to recognize that many natural resins and fibres were polymers, Baekelands initial intent was to find a replacement for shellac, a material that was in limited supply because it was made naturally from the excretion of lac insects. Baekeland produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called Novolak, but it was not a market success, Baekeland then began experimenting to strengthen wood by impregnating it with a synthetic resin, rather than coating it. By controlling the pressure and temperature applied to phenol and formaldehyde and it was the first synthetic thermosetting plastic ever produced, and Baekeland speculated on the thousand and one. Articles that it could be used to make, Baekeland considered the possibilities of using a wide variety of filling materials, including cotton, powdered bronze, and slate dust, but was most successful with wood and asbestos fibers. Baekeland filed a number of patents in the area. His Method of making insoluble products of phenol and formaldehyde was filed on July 13,1907, Baekeland also filed for patent protection in other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Spain. He announced his invention at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on February 5,1909, Baekeland started semi-commercial production of his new material in his home laboratory, marketing it as a material for electrical insulators. By 1910, he was producing enough material to justify expansion and he formed the General Bakelite Company as a U. S. company to manufacture and market his new industrial material. He also made connections to produce materials in other countries. Bijker gives a detailed discussion of the development of Bakelite and the Bakelite Companys production of applications of materials. As of 1911, the main focus was laminating varnish. By 1912, molding material was gaining ground, but its sales volume for the company did not exceed that of laminating varnish until the 1930s, as the sales figures also show, the Bakelite Company produced Transparent cast resin for a small ongoing market during the 1910s and 1920s. Blocks or rods of cast resin, also known as amber, were machined and carved to create items such as pipe stems, cigarette holders. However, the demand for molded plastics led the Bakelite Company to concentrate on molding, under director of advertising and public relations Allan Brown, who came to Bakelite from Condensite, Bakelite was aggressively marketed as The Material of A Thousand Uses
29.
Phenolic resin
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Phenol formaldehyde resins or phenolic resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol with formaldehyde. Used as the basis for Bakelite, PFs were the first commercial synthetic resins and they have been widely used for the production of molded products including billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and adhesives. There are two main production methods, there are many variations in both production and input materials that are used to produce a wide variety of resins for special purposes. Phenol-formaldehyde resins, as a group, are formed by a polymerization reaction that can be either acid- or base-catalysed. Since formaldehyde exists predominantly in solution as an equilibrium of methylene glycol oligomers. Phenol reacts with formaldehyde at the ortho and para sites allowing up to 3 units of formaldehyde to attach to the ring, bisphenol-F can further link generating tri- and tetra-and higher phenol oligomers. Novolacs are phenol-formaldehyde resins with a formaldehyde to phenol ratio of less than one. The polymerization is brought to completion using acid-catalysis such as oxalic acid, the phenol units are mainly linked by methylene and/or ether groups. Novolacs are commonly used as photoresists, the molecular weights are in the low thousands, corresponding to about 10–20 phenol units. Hexamethylenetetramine or hexamine is a hardener added to crosslink novolac, at a temperature >90 °C, it forms methylene and dimethylene amino bridges. Base-catalysed phenol-formaldehyde resins are made with a formaldehyde to phenol ratio of greater than one, phenol, formaldehyde, water and catalyst are mixed in the desired amount, depending on the resin to be formed, and are then heated. The first part of the reaction, at around 70 °C, forms a thick reddish-brown tacky material, the rate of the base-catalysed reaction initially increases with pH, and reaches a maximum at about pH =10. The reactive species is the anion formed by deprotonation of phenol. The negative charge is delocalised over the ring, activating sites 2,4 and 6. Being thermosets, hydroxymethyl phenols will crosslink on heating to around 120 °C to form methylene, at this point the resin is a 3-dimensional network, which is typical of polymerised phenolic resins. The high crosslinking gives this type of phenolic resin its hardness, good thermal stability, resols are referred to as one step resins as they cure without a cross linker unlike novolacs, a two step resin. Resols are major polymeric resin materials widely used for gluing and bonding building materials, exterior plywood, oriented strand boards, engineered laminated composite lumber are typical applications. When the molar ratio of formaldehyde, phenol reaches one, in theory every phenol is linked together via methylene bridges, generating one single molecule, and the system is entirely crosslinked
30.
Hangzhou
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Hangzhou, formerly romanized as Hangchow, is the capital and most populous city of Zhejiang Province in east China. It sits at the head of Hangzhou Bay, which separates Shanghai, the citys West Lake is its best-known attraction. Hangzhou is classified as a city and forms the core of the Hangzhou metropolitan area. During the 2010 Chinese census, the area held 21.102 million people over an area of 34,585 km2. Hangzhou prefecture had a population of 9,018,000 in 2015. In September 2015, Hangzhou was awarded the 2022 Asian Games and it will be the third Chinese city to play host to the Asian Games after Beijing 1990 and Guangzhou 2010. Hangzhou, a technology hub and home to the e-commerce giant Alibaba. The celebrated neolithic culture of Hemudu is known to have inhabited Yuyao,100 km south-east of Hangzhou and it was during this time that rice was first cultivated in southeast China. Excavations have established that the jade-carving Liangzhu culture inhabited the area immediately around the present city around five years ago. The first of Hangzhous present neighborhoods to appear in records was Yuhang. Hangzhou was made the seat of the zhou of Hang in AD589, by a longstanding convention also seen in other cities like Guangzhou and Fuzhou, the city took on the name of the area it administered and became known as Hangzhou. Hangzhou was at the end of Chinas Grand Canal which extends to Beijing. The canal evolved over centuries but reached its full length by 609, in the Tang dynasty, Bai Juyi was appointed governor of Hangzhou. Already an accomplished and famous poet, his deeds at Hangzhou have led to his being praised as a great governor. He ordered the construction of a stronger and taller dyke, with a dam to control the flow of water, thus providing water for irrigation, the livelihood of local people of Hangzhou improved over the following years. Bai Juyi used his time to enjoy the beauty of West Lake. He also ordered the construction of a causeway connecting Broken Bridge with Solitary Hill to allow walking and he then had willows and other trees planted along the dyke, making it a beautiful landmark. This causeway was later named Bai Causeway, in his honor and it is listed as one of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China
31.
Emperor Xiaozong of Song
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Emperor Xiaozong of Song, personal name Zhao Shen, courtesy name Yuanyong, was the 11th emperor of the Song dynasty in China and the second emperor of the Southern Song dynasty. He started his reign in 1162 when his father and predecessor, Emperor Gaozong. Zhao Shens birth name was Zhao Bocong, in March 1133, after he entered the imperial palace, his name was changed to Zhao Yuan. In April 1160, after he was adopted by Emperor Gaozong, in July 1162, when Zhao Shen became crown prince, his name was changed again to Zhao Shen. Zhao Shen was given the courtesy name Yuangui in May 1160, in July 1162, when he became crown prince, his courtesy name was changed to Yuanyong. Zhao Shen was a descendant of Emperor Taizu, the founder. He was the son of Zhao Zicheng, a sixth cousin of Emperor Gaozong. After the Jingkang Incident in 1127, Emperor Gaozongs father, eldest brother, as Emperor Gaozongs only son, Zhao Fu, died prematurely around the age of two, the emperor ordered his officials to start searching for other living descendants of the imperial family. Zhao Shen was discovered and adopted by Emperor Gaozong in April 1160 as a son, in July 1162, Emperor Gaozong officially designated Zhao Shen as his crown prince and heir apparent. Archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the Military College in 1162 during Emperor Xiaozongs reign, volumes 33–35, Biography of Emperor Xiaozong
32.
Tien Gow
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Tien Gow or Tin Kau is the name of Chinese gambling games played with either a pair of dice or a set of 32 Chinese dominoes. In these games, Heaven is the top rank of the civilian suit, the civilian suit was originally called the Chinese suit while the military was called the Barbarian suit but this was changed during the Qing dynasty to avoid offending the ruling Manchus. The highly idiosyncratic and culture-specific suit-system of these games are likely the origin of suits found in playing cards. Of the 21 possible combinations,11 are ranked in a suit and 10 are ranked in a military suit. After the wager is set, the banker throws the dice into a bowl which sets the suit, the banker automatically wins if he throws the highest rank but loses if he throws the lowest rank. For any other combination, the players try to beat him by throwing a higher rank of the same suit. If they throw the wrong suit, then they get to throw again until they follow suit and those that throw lower than the banker will have to pay him. If there is a tie, no money is exchanged, the opponents keep throwing until one manages to beat the banker and gets paid by him. The player to the right of the banker becomes the next banker, in the domino games, there are two copies of each Civilian tile. They are also available in playing card format, turning Heaven and Nine is a simple two player trick-taking game of chance. The 32 dominoes are stacked in eight piles of four tiles each, the first player takes a domino from the top of a pile while the second player takes the one below it. The second player must draw a tile of the same suit or lose it to the first player. If she manages to do so, she will take both tiles and lead the next trick, game continues until all tiles are exhausted. Players count the red pips in their captured tiles with the loser having to pay the difference to the winner, Playing Heaven and Nine is a multi-trick game for 4 players. All tiles are distributed by the banker so each player gets eight, the banker leads the first trick with a single, double, triple, or quadruple trick and the others must play out with an equal number of tiles. Players that are unable to beat the trick discard their tiles face down, the winner leads the next trick. The player who takes the last trick or multi-trick becomes the next banker, players who have not won any of the first seven tricks automatically lose the last trick regardless of the strength of their final tile. Likewise, a triplet consisting of two military and one civilian tiles can only be beaten by the same, there are complex rules to the game play and scoring
33.
Pai gow
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Pai gow is a Chinese gambling game, played with a set of 32 Chinese dominoes. It is played in casinos in China, the United States, Canada, Australia. It dates back to at least the Song dynasty, the name pai gow is sometimes used to refer to a card game called pai gow poker, which is loosely based on pai gow. Pai gow loosely translates to make nine and was the basis for Baccarat, tiles are shuffled on the table and are arranged into eight face-down stacks of four tiles each in an assembly known as the woodpile. Individual stacks or tiles may then be moved in ways to rearrange the woodpile. Next, each player is one stack of tiles and must use them to form two hands of two tiles each. The hand with the value is called the front hand. If a players front hand beats the dealers front hand, if a players front and rear hands both lose to the dealers respective hands, the player loses the bet. If one hand wins and the other loses, the player is said to push, generally seven players will play, and each players hands are compared only against the dealers hands. There are 35,960 possible ways to select 4 of the 32 tiles when the 32 tiles are considered distinguishable, however, there are 3620 distinct sets of 4 tiles when the tiles of a pair are considered indistinguishable. There are 496 ways to select 2 of the 32 tiles when the 32 tiles are considered distinguishable, There are 136 distinct hands when the tiles of a pair are considered indistinguishable. The name pai gow is loosely translated as make nine or card nine and this reflects the fact that, with a few high-scoring exceptions, the maximum score for a hand is nine. The value of a hand is determined by adding up the number of pips on its two tiles and dropping the tens digit. Examples, 1-3 with 2-3, value 9 2-3 with 5-6, value 6 5-5 with 4-6, the double-one tiles and double-six tiles are known as the Day and Teen tiles, respectively. The combination of a Day or Teen with an eight results in a Gong, worth 10 points, while putting either of them with a nine creates a Wong, however, when a Day or Teen is paired with any other tile, the standard scoring rules apply. The 1-2 and the 2-4 tiles are called Gee Joon tiles, when used as part of a hand, these tiles may be scored as either 3 or 6, whichever results in a higher hand value. For example, a hand of 1-2 and 5-6 scores as seven rather than four, the 32 tiles in a Chinese dominoes set can be arranged into 16 pairs, as shown in the picture at the top of this article. Eleven of these pairs have identical tiles, and five of these pairs are made up of two tiles that score the same, but look different
34.
Western world
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The Western world or the West is a term usually referring to different nations, depending on the context, most often including at least part of Europe. There are many accepted definitions about what they all have in common, the Western world is also known as the Occident. The concept of the Western part of the earth has its roots in Greco-Roman civilization in Europe, before the Cold War era, the traditional Western viewpoint identified Western Civilization with the Western Christian countries and culture. Its political usage was changed by the antagonism during the Cold War in the mid-to-late 20th Century. The term originally had a literal geographic meaning, Western culture was influenced by many older great civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity, Greece, over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, numerous times, this expansion was accompanied by Christian missionaries, who attempted to proselytize Christianity. There is debate among some as to whether Latin America is in a category of its own, specifically, Western culture may imply, a Biblical Christian cultural influence in spiritual thinking, customs and either ethic or moral traditions, around the Post-Classical Era and after. European cultural influences concerning artistic, musical, folkloric, ethic and oral traditions, the concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic, much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon. The term has come to apply to countries whose history is marked by European immigration or settlement, such as the Americas, and Oceania. The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of East and West originated in the Roman Empire, Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the civilized world. Use of the term West as a cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Additionally, closer contacts between the West and Asia and other parts of the world in recent times have continued to cloud the use, herodotus considered the Persian Wars of the early 5th century BC a conflict of Europa versus Asia. The terms West and East were not used by any Greek author to describe that conflict, the Great Schism and the Fourth Crusade confirmed this deviation. The Renaissance in the West emerged partly from currents within the Roman Empire, Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 12-century existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic, nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline of the Roman Empire
35.
Suit (cards)
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In playing cards, a suit is one of several categories into which the cards of a deck are divided. Most often, each bears one of several pips showing to which suit it belongs. The rank for each card is determined by the number of pips on it, ranking indicates which cards within a suit are better, higher or more valuable than others, whereas there is no order between the suits unless defined in the rules of a specific card game. Unless playing with multiple decks, there is one card of any given rank in any given suit. A deck may include cards that belong to no suit. Various languages have different terminology for such as colors, signs. Modern Western playing cards are divided into two or three general suit-systems. The older Latin suits are subdivided into the Italian and Spanish suit-systems, the younger Germanic suits are subdivided into the German and Swiss suit-systems. The French suits are a derivative of the German suits but are considered a separate system on its own. The Latin suits consist of coins, clubs, cups, and they are the earliest suit-system in Europe, having been adopted from the cards imported from Mamluk Egypt and Moorish Granada in the 1370s. These Turko-Arabic cards, called Kanjifa, employed the same suits, europeans changed that suit as polo was an obscure sport to them. Ultimately the suits can trace their roots back to China where playing cards were first invented, the earliest card games were trick-taking games and the invention of suits increased the level of strategy and depth in these games. A card of one suit cannot beat a card from another regardless of its rank, the concept of suits predate playing cards and can be found in Chinese dice and domino games such as Tien Gow. Chinese money-suited cards are believed to be the oldest ancestor to the Latin suit-system, the money-suit system is based on denominations of currency, Coins, Strings of Coins, Myriads of Strings, and Tens of Myriads. Old Chinese coins had holes in the middle to allow them to be strung together, a string of coins could easily be misinterpreted as a stick to those unfamiliar with them. The Mamluks called their suit of cups Myriads and this may have due to inverting the Chinese character for myriad. The Mamluk suit of swords may also have inspired by the Chinese numeral for Ten. Another clue linking these Chinese, Muslim, and European cards are the ranking of certain suits, in many early Chinese games like Madiao, the suit of coins was in reverse order so that the lower ones beat the higher ones
36.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
37.
42 (dominoes)
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42, also known as Texas 42, is a trick-taking game played with a standard set of double six dominoes. 42 is often referred to as the game of Texas. Tournaments are held in towns, and the State Championship tournament is held annually in Hallettsville. In 2011 it was designated the official State Domino Game of Texas, according to a 1985 news article written by Christopher Evans of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, the game originated in Garner, Texas. Two local boys, William Thomas and Walter Earl, developed the game in response to a general disapproval of card-playing games held by many Protestants at that time. William and Walter were able to incorporate dominoes in their game, the game they developed, which was the precursor to todays 42, found acceptance since dominoes did not carry the negative stigma of card-playing. From there, the spread throughout Texas. The game is played by four people, in teams of two each, who sit facing each other across the table, the object of the game is to be the first team to reach seven marks or 250 points. The game consists of a number of hands, before commencing each hand, each player will bid to win the choice of trumps. The bidder determines what to bid by estimating how many of the total points the team will win in the hand based only on the seven known tiles. If all players pass, the dealer is forced to bid or, in some variations of play. Each hand consists of 42 points, one point for each of the 7 tricks, plus 35 points from the 6-4, 5-5, 3-2, 4-1, and 5-0 dominoes, each worth the number of pips it contains. The benefit of bidding 84 versus only 42 is that if successful, as the trump is declared by the winner of the bid, one strategy is to bid high if one has most of the dominoes in one particular suit. Play then proceeds in a fashion with the player to the dealers left having the first play of the first hand. When led, each tile is considered to belong to the suit of its higher number, when no trump is present, the double of any suit is the highest-ranking member of that suit, followed by the highest number on the other side. The highest number of the leading suit wins, unless a trump is played, if more than one tile from a trump suit is played, the highest-numbered trump tile wins. The winner of the trick takes all of the dominoes from that round into their possession. If playing for marks, play continues until the team has scored enough to match their initial bid
38.
Muggins
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Muggins is a domino variant played with any of the commonly available sets. According to John McLeod of Pagat. com, the name of the game according to how many spinners are in play. These are doubles that can be built from in all four directions, Muggins is the name of the game played without a spinner, All Fives has a single spinner, and in Five Up, all doubles are spinners. Points are earned when a player plays a domino with the result that the count is a multiple of five, the points earned are equal to the sum of the ends. Therefore, if in the course of play a player plays a bone that makes the sum of the ends 10,15 or 20, All pips on a crosswise double are included in the count. Each player takes five dominoes, when playing with four players or more, the remaining dominoes are placed to one side forming the boneyard. The starting play is determined either by who holds the highest double or the highest-value domino, in either case, if that domino is a 6–4, 5–5, 5–0, 4–1, or 3–2, the initial count is evenly divisible by five and so the player scores. Players in turn then lay a matching domino on one of the endpoints, each player must play if holding a domino matching an end. A player who cannot match must draw until obtaining a playable domino, scores for endpoints are called and taken as the play is made. When a double is played, it is laid with its side against the end of the endpoint domino. Both halves of the double are counted when adding up the sum of the endpoints for scoring purposes, a matching bone can then be played on the doubles other long side, and then on each of the doubles ends when that domino is a spinner. When this happens, one or more new endpoints are created and this generally results in higher scores. The player who goes out wins additional points based on the value of dominoes still in other players hands, each opponents hand is rounded to the nearest multiple of five, for example, the winner scores 25 for 27 pips in an opponents hand and 30 for 28 points. These points are summed and awarded to the winner, if all players are blocked, the lightest hand wins, still earning points based on the pips in opponents hands. A common variation is knocking, when a player lay a tile, they have the option to knock. If the player after the player can score, he must do so. This is common in a form of the game played with four players. It is considered cheating for one partner to signal the other that he/she should knock, All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, except that points are earned for multiples of three
39.
Chicken foot (game)
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Chicken foot, also known as Chicken dominoes, Chickie dominoes, and Chickie, is a dominoes game of the Trains family, similar to Mexican Train. Chicken Foot is played in rounds, one round for each double domino in the set, the game is normally played by 2 to 8 players using any of the common sets. The goal of the game is to have the lowest score by the end of the last round, for each round, the goal is for the player to empty their hand of dominoes by playing them on the board. The dominoes are first turned face down and shuffled, then, each player picks seven dominoes to form their hand. With more than four players, the game requires an extended set, the number of dominoes drawn can be increased when fewer players are using a larger set. Any remaining dominoes are placed to the side, forming the boneyard, the round begins with the highest double being placed in the center of the layout to start the game. In the first round only, everyone draws a domino from the boneyard. The player drawing the highest value begins the round and everyone returns their drawn domino to the boneyard, the starting player must play a matching domino from their hand on one of the four sides of the double, with the matching end against the double. The next player plays another matching domino on a side. If a player cannot play because they do not have a matching domino, if that domino does not match, their turn passes to the next player. No other plays can be made all four sides of the double are filled. Once all four sides are filled, the player to the left of the last person to fill the 6 can play any domino in their hand that matches an exposed end of a played domino. If a player is unable to match any exposed dominoes, they must draw one domino from the bone pile, if the boneyard has been emptied, any player who cannot play simply passes. If no player can play or draw, the round ends, any time a player plays a matching double on an endpoint, the player calls Chickie to indicate they have started a new chicken foot. For example, if a player played a double 4 on the end of a 6/4 domino they would lay it long side against the end with the 4, no other dominoes can be played until three more 4s are played against the other side of the double 4. The three dominoes played against the double 4 are played on the side opposite the side originally played. Any player who does not have a domino matching the double must draw a domino from the bone pile. Once three matching dominoes are played to finish the chicken foot, the player may play a domino on any matching endpoint
40.
Matador (domino game)
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Matador is a common game using a set of dominoes. While it is similar to many games which the object of the game the first to go out. The game is played using a set of double-six dominoes because of its rules, with larger sets, one can slightly tweak the rules. After it is decided who goes first, usually the player who picks the highest double, each play gets five dominoes, with the leftover dominoes set aside in an area known as the boneyard. During play, players must connect either end of the line not with a matching number on either end. A six-spot end must be connected with a one, a four-spot with a three-spot. Doubles are placed endwise and count the same as single dominoes, blanks are closed to play of any domino other than a matador. A matador can be either the double-blank domino or one containing a total of seven pips, a player can also place a matador at any time without any regard to the numbers at either end of the domino line. When a player not have a domino that connects with either end of the domino line. If it is, the domino must be played, otherwise one must pick another domino repeatedly until a playable one turns up. If the boneyard is empty, i. e. all dominoes have been taken, there is also a rule set that says that when a player has no playable domino and picks up an unplayable domino from the boneyard, the player must pass immediately. As usual, the player who has all of his dominoes to the domino line wins the game. If all players pass their turn once in succession, the game ends and the player with the lowest number of pips on his leftover dominoes wins
41.
Bendomino
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Bendomino is a tabletop strategy game similar to dominoes, created by Thierry Denoual and published by Blue Orange Games in 2007. It is a set of dominoes with a 120-degree curve. The main difference from dominoes is the shape of the pieces. There is also a version of the game for players with pictures instead of numbers. At the beginning of round, place the 28 Bendominoes face down. Players draw their hand, the pieces represent the stock. The player with the highest Bendomino double starts the game by placing the piece on the center of the table, if no double was drawn, the highest Bendomino number should be played. Taking turns in a direction, each player tries to match a Bendomino by number to either end of the Bendomino chain. To be accepted the new needs to match but also has to fit. Each Bendomino must be connected evenly with other pieces to ensure accuracy of the game, if players do not have a Bendomino that can be played, they must draw one piece from the stock. If the piece they draw can be played, they can play it. Players can decide to draw a Bendomino and pass their turn if they have playable pieces. A round ends when, A player has no Bendominoes left to play, the stock is empty and players cannot play any pieces. You win a round when, You play all your pieces, no pieces can be played by any player and you have the lowest point total. The winner of a round scores the dot points from all opponents’ remaining Bendominoes, the first player to score 100 points wins the game. Wild Draw For a more aggressive game, when players do not have a piece they must continue to draw until they get a playable piece or until the stock is empty. No Draw When players do not have a piece, they pass their turn instead of drawing. No Draw –2 Teams of 2 players In this version, each player draws 7 pieces at the start of the game, players take turns and only use their individual pieces
42.
Mexican Train
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Mexican Train is a game played with dominoes. The object of the game is for a player to all the dominoes from his or her hand onto one or more chains, or trains. The games most popular name comes from a special train that belongs to all players. However, the game can be played without the Mexican Train and it is related to the game Chicken Foot. A double-twelve set of dominoes is marketed as the standard for Mexican Train, other sets are commonly used as well. Pencil and paper to keep score Many sets of dominoes include a station and special train-shaped tokens for markers, however, the station piece is not strictly needed, and anything from coins to poker chips to even pieces of candy or slips of paper can be used as markers. The object of all Trains games is to be the first player to all of their dominoes. At the start of round, the dominoes are placed face side down, shuffled. With a standard set the double twelve is placed in the station. In each successive round the next lower double is used until all doubles are used, the double-blank is the final round. Each person lays one legally placed domino per turn, or two if the players first domino is a double, if they are unable to, they must draw a domino from the boneyard. If they are able to lay that domino, they must do so immediately, otherwise, their turn is over and play continues to the left, each player trying to place all their dominoes by playing matching dominoes one at a time, end to end. A train can be as long as the players can make it, it ends when all dominoes that could match its endpoint have already been played. As a result, trains can become long, especially with an extended domino set. It is acceptable to bend the train 90° or 180° to keep the train on the playing surface, all trains begin the game as private, and only the player who owns the train may play on it. When a player draws a domino and is unable play it, if a player is deemed to have made a strategic error the highest score of that round is added to theirs. Players have the option, whether they can play on their own train or not, when a player with a public train adds a domino to it, it becomes private again and may not be played on except by the trains owner. The Mexican Train is a train that anyone may play on during their turn
43.
Cribbage
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Cribbage, or crib, is a card game traditionally for two players, but commonly played with three, four or more, that involves playing and grouping cards in combinations which gain points. According to John Aubrey, cribbage was created by the English poet Sir John Suckling in the early 17th century, while noddy has disappeared, crib has survived, virtually unchanged, as one of the most popular games in the English-speaking world. The objective of the game is to be the first player to score a number of points. Points are scored for card combinations that add up to fifteen, cribbage holds a special place among American submariners, serving as an official pastime. Play proceeds through a succession of hands, each consisting of a deal, the play. At any time during any of these stages, if a player reaches the target score and this can even happen during the deal, since the dealer can score if a Jack is cut as the starter. The players cut for first deal, and the person who cuts the lowest card deals, the dealer shuffles and deals five or six cards to each player, depending on the number of players. For two players, each is dealt six cards, for three or four players, each is dealt five cards, in the case of three players, a single card is dealt face down in the centre of the table to start the crib. Once the cards have been dealt, each player four cards to retain. At this point, each hand and the crib will contain exactly four cards. The player on the dealers left cuts the deck and the dealer reveals the top card, if this card is a Jack, the dealer scores two points for his heels. The cards are not laid in the centre of the table as, at the end of the play, players score points during this process for causing the count to reach exactly fifteen, for runs and for pairs. Three or four of a kind are counted as multiple pairs, three of a kind is the same as three different pairs, or 6 points, and four of a kind is 6 different kinds of pairs, or 12 points. If a player play without causing the count exceed 31. Continuing with the player on his left, the player continue the play until no one can play without the count exceeding 31. A player is obligated to play a card there is no card in their hand that can be played without the count exceeding 31. Once 31 is reached or no one is able to play, the count is then reset to zero and those players with cards remaining repeat the process starting with the player to the left of the player who played the last card. When no player has any cards the game proceeds to the show, players choose the order in which to lay their cards in order to maximize their scores, experienced players refer to this as either good or poor pegging or pegsmanship
44.
Plus and minus signs
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The plus and minus signs are mathematical symbols used to represent the notions of positive and negative as well as the operations of addition and subtraction. Their use has extended to many other meanings, more or less analogous. Plus and minus are Latin terms meaning more and less, respectively, though the signs now seem as familiar as the alphabet or the Hindu-Arabic numerals, they are not of great antiquity. In Europe in the early 15th century the letters P and M were generally used, the symbols appeared for the first time in Luca Pacioli’s mathematics compendium, Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità, first printed and published in Venice in 1494. The + is a simplification of the Latin et, the − may be derived from a tilde written over m when used to indicate subtraction, or it may come from a shorthand version of the letter m itself. In his 1489 treatise Johannes Widmann referred to the symbols − and + as minus and mer, was − ist, das ist minus, und das + ist das mer. They werent used for addition and subtraction here, but to indicate surplus and deficit, the plus sign is a binary operator that indicates addition, as in 2 +3 =5. It can also serve as an operator that leaves its operand unchanged. This notation may be used when it is desired to emphasize the positiveness of a number, the plus sign can also indicate many other operations, depending on the mathematical system under consideration. Many algebraic structures have some operation which is called, or is equivalent to and it is conventional to use the plus sign to only denote commutative operations. Subtraction is the inverse of addition, directly in front of a number and when it is not a subtraction operator it means a negative number. For instance −5 is negative 5, a unary operator that acts as an instruction to replace the operand by its additive inverse. For example, if x is 3, then −x is −3, similarly, − is equal to 2. The above is a case of this. All three uses can be referred to as minus in everyday speech, further, some textbooks in the United States encourage −x to be read as the opposite of x or the additive inverse of x to avoid giving the impression that −x is necessarily negative. However, in programming languages and Microsoft Excel in particular, unary operators bind strongest, so in those cases −5^2 is 25. Some elementary teachers use raised plus and minus signs before numbers to show they are positive or negative numbers. For example, subtracting −5 from 3 might be read as positive three take away negative 5 and be shown as 3 − −5 becomes 3 +5 =8, in grading systems, the plus sign indicates a grade one level higher and the minus sign a grade lower
45.
O
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O is the 15th letter and the second-to-last vowel in the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet. Its graphic form has remained constant from Phoenician times until today. The name of the Phoenician letter was ʿeyn, meaning eye and its original sound value was that of a consonant, probably, the sound represented by the cognate Arabic letter ع ʿayn. The use of this Phoenician letter for a sound is due to the early Greek alphabets. The letter was adopted with this value in the Old Italic alphabets, in Greek, a variation of the form later came to distinguish this long sound from the short o. Greek omicron gave rise to the corresponding Cyrillic letter O and the early Italic letter to runic ᛟ, the letter ⟨o⟩ is the fourth most common letter in the English alphabet. Like the other English vowel letters, it has associated long, the long ⟨o⟩ as in boat is actually most often a diphthong /oʊ/. In English there is also a short ⟨o⟩ as in fox, /ɒ/, which sounds slightly different in different dialects. In most dialects of British English, it is either an open-mid back rounded vowel or a back rounded vowel, in American English. In other contexts, especially before a letter with a minim, ⟨o⟩ may represent the sound /ʌ/, in English, the letter ⟨o⟩ in isolation before a noun, usually capitalized, marks the vocative case, as in the titles to O Canada or O Captain. Or certain verses of the Bible, ⟨o⟩ is commonly associated with the open-mid back rounded vowel, mid back rounded vowel or close-mid back rounded vowel in many languages. Other languages use ⟨o⟩ for various values, usually back vowels which are at least partly open, derived letters such as ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ø⟩ have been created for the alphabets of some languages to distinguish values that were not present in Latin and Greek, particularly rounded front vowels. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ⟨o⟩ represents the close-mid back rounded vowel, oxygen = O O mark Media related to O at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of O at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of o at Wiktionary
Media related to Dominoes at Wikimedia Commons