1.
Travelling salesman problem
–
It is an NP-hard problem in combinatorial optimization, important in operations research and theoretical computer science. TSP is a case of the travelling purchaser problem and the vehicle routing problem. In the theory of computational complexity, the version of the TSP belongs to the class of NP-complete problems. Thus, it is possible that the running time for any algorithm for the TSP increases superpolynomially with the number of cities. The problem was first formulated in 1930 and is one of the most intensively studied problems in optimization and it is used as a benchmark for many optimization methods. The TSP has several applications even in its purest formulation, such as planning, logistics, slightly modified, it appears as a sub-problem in many areas, such as DNA sequencing. The TSP also appears in astronomy, as observing many sources will want to minimize the time spent moving the telescope between the sources. In many applications, additional constraints such as limited resources or time windows may be imposed, the origins of the travelling salesperson problem are unclear. A handbook for travelling salesmen from 1832 mentions the problem and includes example tours through Germany and Switzerland, the travelling salesperson problem was mathematically formulated in the 1800s by the Irish mathematician W. R. Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman. Hamilton’s Icosian Game was a puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle. Hassler Whitney at Princeton University introduced the name travelling salesman problem soon after, Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson, however, speculated that given a near optimal solution we may be able to find optimality or prove optimality by adding a small amount of extra inequalities. They used this idea to solve their initial 49 city problem using a string model and they found they only needed 26 cuts to come to a solution for their 49 city problem. As well as cutting plane methods, Dantzig, Fulkerson and Johnson used branch, in the following decades, the problem was studied by many researchers from mathematics, computer science, chemistry, physics, and other sciences. Christofides made a big advance in this approach of giving an approach for which we know the worst-case scenario and his algorithm given in 1976, at worst is 1.5 times longer than the optimal solution. As the algorithm was so simple and quick, many hoped it would give way to a optimal solution method. However, until 2011 when it was beaten by less than a billionth of a percent, Richard M. Karp showed in 1972 that the Hamiltonian cycle problem was NP-complete, which implies the NP-hardness of TSP. This supplied a mathematical explanation for the apparent computational difficulty of finding optimal tours, great progress was made in the late 1970s and 1980, when Grötschel, Padberg, Rinaldi and others managed to exactly solve instances with up to 2392 cities, using cutting planes and branch-and-bound. In the 1990s, Applegate, Bixby, Chvátal, and Cook developed the program Concorde that has used in many recent record solutions
Travelling salesman problem
–
William Rowan Hamilton
Travelling salesman problem
–
Solution of a travelling salesman problem
2.
Canvassing
–
Canvassing is the systematic initiation of direct contact with individuals, commonly used during political campaigns. Campaigners will knock on doors or make calls to engage in personalized contact with an individual. It is the element of what political campaigns call the ground game or field. It is less common in campaigns of Continental Europe and East Asian democracies, canvassing can also refer to a neighborhood canvass performed by law enforcement in the course of an investigation. A neighborhood canvas is an approach to interviewing residents, merchants. A modern election canvass is conducted either by a candidate, volunteers, the canvassers are given lists known as canvass sheets or in the UK as reading pads. These are a list of households to be contacted, generated from a voter database, some campaigns today have replaced paper sheets with tablet or smartphone apps. The canvasser will attempt to reach each of the households on their list, almost all election canvassing includes asking how a person plans to vote. Supporters will then be asked themselves to volunteer, or to take a lawn sign and those who are wavering or undecided may be given a message of persuasion. If foot canvassing, the canvasser will also distribute flyers, upon completing the canvass, the results will be entered into the voter database. This will update the campaigns list of voters, removing those who have moved or are deceased and adding new residents who may have been found. The data on the questions will be used for further contact, the origin of the term is an older spelling of “canvas”, to sift by shaking in a sheet of canvas, hence to discuss thoroughly. An organized canvass can be seen as early as the elections of the Roman Republic, in those campaigns candidates would shake the hands of all eligible voters in the Forum. Whispering into the ear of some candidates would be a nomenclator, modern canvassing traces back to the rise of contested elections in England. For the first centuries of the English Parliament elections were rarely contested, losing an election was considered a dishonor to oneself, and to friends and family. Campaigning thus involved quiet sounding out of the pool of voters. Only once this process had convinced a candidate that he had enough votes to win would he declare his interest in the seat, beginning in the Elizabethan Era, and expanding during the conflicts under the Stuarts, elections began to be openly contested. In both 1604 and 1626 canvassing for votes was banned and it was seen as a violation to free elections, as votes would be won by persuasion rather than a voter making up his own mind
Canvassing
–
Senior British
Labour Party politician
Jack Straw canvassing with local councillors in
Blackburn
3.
Sales
–
A sale is the exchange of a commodity or money as the price of a good or a service. Sales is activity related to selling or the amount of goods or services sold in a time period. The seller or the provider of the goods or services completes a sale in response to an acquisition, appropriation, requisition or an interaction with the buyer at the point of sale. There is a passing of title of the item, and the settlement of a price, the seller, not the purchaser generally executes the sale and it may be completed prior to the obligation of payment. In common law countries, sales are governed generally by the common law, a person or organization expressing an interest in acquiring the offered item of value is referred to as a potential buyer, prospective customer or prospect. Buying and selling are understood to be two sides of the coin or transaction. Both seller and buyer engage in a process of negotiation to consummate the exchange of values, the exchange, or selling, process has implied rules and identifiable stages. It is implied that the process will proceed fairly and ethically so that the parties end up nearly equally rewarded. Sometimes, sellers have to use their own experiences when selling products with appropriate discounts, from a management viewpoint it is thought of as a part of marketing, although the skills required are different. Sales often forms a separate grouping in a structure, employing separate specialist operatives known as salespersons. Selling is considered by many to be a sort of persuading art, selling is the profession-wide term, much like marketing defines a profession. Recently, attempts have been made to understand who is in the sales profession. There are many articles looking at marketing, advertising, promotions, two common terms used to describe a salesperson are Farmer and Hunter. The reality is that most professional sales people have a little of both, a hunter is often associated with aggressive personalities who use aggressive sales technique. In terms of sales methodology a hunter refers to a person whose focus is on bringing in and this process is called sales capturing. An example is a commodity such as a long distance sales person, shoe sales person. Their job is to find and convert buyers, a sales farmer is someone who creates sales demand by activities that directly influence and alter the buying process. Many believe that the focus of selling is on the agents involved in the exchange between buyer and seller
Sales
–
Vegetable seller at a market in
Porto Covo,
Portugal.
Sales
–
A beach salesman showing necklaces to a
tourist in
Mexico.
4.
Marketing
–
Marketing is the study and management of exchange relationships. Marketing is used to create the customer, to keep the customer, with the customer as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that Marketing is one of the premier components of Business Management - the other being Innovation. Other services and management activities such as Operations, Human Resources, Accounting, Law, the term developed from the original meaning which referred literally to going to a market to buy or sell goods or services. The Chartered Institute of Marketing defines marketing as the management process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements profitably, a similar concept is the value-based marketing which states the role of marketing to contribute to increasing shareholder value. Marketing practice tended to be seen as an industry in the past. The overall process starts with marketing research and goes through market segmentation, business planning and execution, ending with pre and it is also related to many of the creative arts. The marketing literature is also adept at re-inventing itself and its vocabulary according to the times, the term marketing concept pertains to the fundamental premise of modern marketing. This concept proposes that in order to satisfy its organizational objectives, Marketing and marketing concepts are directly related. An orientation, in the context, relates to a perception or attitude a firm holds towards its product or service. There exist several common orientations, A firm employing a product orientation is chiefly concerned with the quality of its own product, a firm would also assume that as long as its product was of a high standard, people would buy and consume the product. A firm using a sales orientation focuses primarily on the selling/promotion of a particular product, consequently, this entails simply selling an already existing product, and using promotion techniques to attain the highest sales possible. Such an orientation may suit scenarios in which a firm holds dead stock, or otherwise sells a product that is in high demand, a firm focusing on a production orientation specializes in producing as much as possible of a given product or service. Thus, this signifies a firm exploiting economies of scale, until the minimum efficient scale is reached, a production orientation may be deployed when a high demand for a product or service exists, coupled with a good certainty that consumer tastes do not rapidly alter. The marketing orientation is perhaps the most common used in contemporary marketing. It involves a firm essentially basing its marketing plans around the marketing concept, the marketing orientation often has three prime facets, which are, A firm in the market economy can survive by producing goods that persons are willing and able to buy. Consequently, ascertaining consumer demand is vital for a firms future viability, in this sense, a firms marketing department is often seen as of prime importance within the functional level of an organization. Information from a marketing department would be used to guide the actions of other departments within the firm. As an example, a department could ascertain that consumers desired a new type of product
Marketing
–
Constructive criticism helps marketers adapt offerings to meet changing customer needs.
5.
Advertising
–
Advertising is an audio or visual form of marketing communication that employs an openly sponsored, nonpersonal message to promote or sell a product, service or idea. Sponsors of advertising are often businesses who wish to promote their products or services, Advertising is differentiated from public relations in that an advertiser usually pays for and has control over the message. It is differentiated from personal selling in that the message is nonpersonal, the actual presentation of the message in a medium is referred to as an advertisement or ad. Commercial ads often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through branding, on the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct response advertising. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a service announcement. Advertising may also be used to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful, in 2015, the world spent an estimate of US$592.43 billion on advertising. Its projected distribution for 2017 is 40. 4% on TV,33. 3% on digital, internationally, the largest advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP. In Latin, ad vertere means to turn toward, egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii, lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, the tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry of bamboo flutes played to sell candy, advertisement usually takes in the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons, the first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in Les Crieries de Paris, a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. In the 18th century advertisements started to appear in newspapers in England. However, false advertising and so-called quack advertisements became a problem, thomas J. Barratt from London has been called the father of modern advertising. Working for the Pears Soap company, Barratt created an advertising campaign for the company products. One of his slogans, Good morning, have you used Pears soap. was famous in its day and into the 20th century. Barratt introduced many of the ideas that lie behind successful advertising
Advertising
–
A
Coca-Cola advertisement from the 1890s
Advertising
–
Bronze plate for printing an advertisement for the Liu family needle shop at
Jinan,
Song dynasty China. It is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium.
Advertising
–
Edo period LEL flyer from 1806 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan
Advertising
–
A 1900 advertisement for Pears soap
6.
Political campaign
–
A political campaign is an organized effort which seeks to influence the decision making process within a specific group. In democracies, political campaigns often refer to campaigns, by which representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. In modern politics, the most high-profile political campaigns are focused on elections and candidates for head of state or head of government. The message of the campaign contains the ideas that the wants to share with the voters. It is to get those who agree with their ideas to them when running for a political position. The message often consists of talking points about policy issues. The points summarize the ideas of the campaign and are repeated frequently in order to create a lasting impression with the voters. In many elections, the party will try to get the candidate off message by bringing up policy or personal questions that are not related to the talking points. Most campaigns prefer to keep the message broad in order to attract the most potential voters, a message that is too narrow can alienate voters or slow the candidate down with explaining details. Barack Obama ran on a consistent, simple message of change throughout his campaign, however, even if the message is crafted carefully, it does not assure the candidate a victory at the polls. For a winning candidate, the message is refined and then becomes his or her in office, in a modern political campaign, the campaign organization will have a coherent structure of personnel in the same manner as any business of similar size. Successful campaigns usually require a campaign manager to coordinate the campaigns operations, apart from a candidate, they are often a campaigns most visible leader. Political consultants advise campaigns on all of their activities, from research to field strategy. Consultants conduct candidate research, voter research, and opposition research for their clients, activists are the foot soldiers loyal to the cause, the true believers who will carry the run by volunteer activists. Such volunteers and interns may take part in such as canvassing door-to-door. Modern political campaigns have set new standards for how successful campaigns are conducted day-to-day. The daily schedule of a campaign is hyperextended, and often has no definite beginning or end, only a series of tasks to be completed by certain benchmark times, or, most often. COB for political campaigns is generally defined as the time at night at which your supervisor is required to report his/her numbers, only a very small fraction of campaign workers do the bulk of their work during traditional business hours
Political campaign
–
Presidential campaign button for
Abraham Lincoln, 1860. The reverse side of the button shows a portrait of his running mate
Hannibal Hamlin.
Political campaign
–
Democrat John Edwards makes a campaign speech in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in 2007.
Political campaign
–
A political rally in
Chinatown, Los Angeles, featuring
Betty Ford campaigning for her husband, U.S. President
Gerald Ford, during the
1976 presidential campaign.
Political campaign
–
NDP leader
Jack Layton and
Bloc Québécois leader
Gilles Duceppe greet babies - a traditional campaign activity - at the
Fête nationale du Québec in
Montreal
7.
Information gathering
–
Assessments are developed in response to requirements declared by the leadership in order to inform decision making. Assessment may be carried out on behalf of a state, military or commercial organisation with a range of sources of information available to each. An intelligence assessment reviews both available information and previous assessments for relevance and currency, where additional information is required, some collection may be directed by the analyst. Intelligence studies is the field concerned with intelligence assessment, especially relating to international relations. Intelligence assessment is based on a requirement or need, which may be a standing requirement or tailored to a specific circumstance or a Request for Information. The requirement is passed to the agency and worked through the intelligence cycle. The RFI may indicate in what format the requester prefers to consume the product, the RFI is reviewed by a Requirements Manager, who will then direct appropriate tasks to respond to the request. This will involve a review of existing material, the tasking of new product or the collection of new information to inform an analysis. New information may be collected through one or more of the various disciplines, human source, electronic and communications intercept. The nature of the RFI and the placed on it may indicate that some collection types are unsuitable due to the time taken to collect or validate the information gathered. Intelligence gathering disciplines and the sources and methods used are highly classified and compartmentalised. The analyst uses multiple sources to mutually corroborate, or exclude, where sufficient current information already exists, the analysis may be tasked directly without reference to further collection. The analysis will be written to a classification level with alternative versions potentially available at a number of classification levels for further dissemination. The subject for action, or target, is identified and efforts are made to find the target for further development. This activity will identify where intervention against the target will have the most beneficial effects, during the finish stage, the intervention is executed, potentially an arrest or detention or the placement of other collection methods. Following the intervention, exploitation of the target is carried out, the output from the exploit stage will also be passed into other intelligence assessment activities. Intelligence cycle List of intelligence gathering disciplines Military intelligence Surveillance Futures studies Surveys Andrew, Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century essays by scholars Dulles, Allen W. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security,1100 pages,850 articles, strongest on technology Odom, Gen. William E. Fixing Intelligence, For a More Secure America, Second Edition OToole, George
Information gathering
–
The Intelligence Cycle
Information gathering
–
Target-centric intelligence cycle
8.
Discount store
–
A discount store is a retail store which sells products at prices that are lower than the typical market value. Discount stores are not variety stores, which sell goods at a single price-point or multiples thereof, Discount stores differ from variety stores in that they sell many name-brand products, and because of the wide price range of the items offered. Following World War II, a number of establishments in the U. S. began to pursue a high-volume. Currently Aldi, the largest retailer in the world, operates more than 10,121 discount stores worldwide, australia has four main discount stores including Aldi, Big W, Kmart, and Target, plus in the Sydney region only, Victorias Basement. New Zealands main discount stores includes The Warehouse, japan has numerous discount stores, including Costco. Ofogh Koorosh Chain Stores Everest Modern Pars Chain stores haft Chain stores Italy has numerous discount stores, the most important chain is Eurospin, while others include Tuodì, MD Discount, Todis, DPIU and Discount Dial. Here are also Lidl and Penny Market, the most important discount stores in Germany are Aldi, Lidl, Netto Marken-Discount and Penny. Discount stores cover about 20% of food sales in Poland, walmart, Kmart, and Target all opened their first locations in 1962. Other retail companies branched out into the discount store business around that time as adjuncts to their store concepts. As examples, Woolworth opened a Woolco chain, Montgomery Ward opened Jefferson Ward, Chicago-based Jewel launched Turn Style, J. C. Penney opened discount stores called Treasure Island or The Treasury, and Atlanta-based Richs owned discount stores called Richway. During the late 1970s and the 1980s, these chains typically were either shut down or sold to a larger competitor, Kmart and Target themselves are examples of adjuncts, although their growth prompted their respective parent companies to abandon their older concepts. In the United States, discount stores had 42% of overall market share in 1987, in 2010. Many of the major discounters now operate supercenters, which add a full-service grocery store to the traditional format, the Meijer chain in the Midwest consists entirely of supercenters, while Wal-Mart and Target have focused on the format as of the 1990s as a key to their continued growth
Discount store
–
A typical
Walmart discount store
Discount store
–
Ushiku Chuo Hero, a Japanese discount store
Discount store
–
Lamu, a Japanese discount store
9.
Siding
–
Some walls such as solid brickwork and masonry veneer are not covered with siding, but some buildings such as log buildings can have siding added. Siding may be formed of horizontal or vertical boards, shingles, since building materials expand and contract with changing temperature and humidity, it is not practical to make rigid joints between the siding elements so they often leak. Rainscreen construction is used to improve ability to keep walls dry. Siding may be made of wood, metal, plastic, masonry and it may be attached directly to the building structure, or to an intermediate layer of wood called sheathing. An intermediate air/moisture barrier such as housewrap or felt paper may be applied to the sheathing or a modern sheathing material also serves as an air/moisture barrier, thatch is an ancient and very widespread building material used on roofs and walls. Thatch siding is made with dry vegetation such as longstraw, water reeds, the materials are overlapped and weaved in patterns designed to deflect and direct water. Wood siding is very versatile in style and can be used on a variety of building structures. It can be painted or stained in any color palette desired, ants and termites are a threat to many types of wood siding, such that extra treatment and maintenance that can significantly increase the cost in some pest-infested areas. Wood is a renewable resource and is biodegradable. However, most paints and stains used to treat wood are not environmentally friendly, wood siding can provide some minor insulation and structural properties as compared to thinner cladding materials. Wood shingles or irregular cedar shake siding was used in early New England construction, wood siding in overlapping horizontal rows or courses is called clapboard, weatherboard, or bevel siding which is made with beveled boards, thin at the top edge and thick at the butt. In colonial North America, Eastern white pine was the most common material, wood siding can also be made of naturally rot-resistant woods such as redwood or cedar. Jointed horizontal siding may be shiplapped or tongue and grooved, drop siding comes in a wide variety of face finishes, including Dutch Lap and log siding. Plywood sheet siding is used on inexpensive buildings, sometimes with grooves to imitate vertical shiplap siding. One example of such grooved plywood siding is the type called Texture 1-11 T1-11 or T111, there is also a product known as reverse board-and-batten RBB that looks similar but has deeper grooves. Some of these products may be enough and rated for structural applications if properly fastened to studs. Both T-11 and RBB sheets are quick and easy to install as long as they are installed with compatible flashing at butt joints, slate shingles may be simple in form but many buildings with slate siding are highly decorative. Wood clapboard is often imitated using vinyl siding or uPVC weatherboarding and it is usually produced in units twice as high as clapboard
Siding
–
Highly decorative wood-shingle siding on a house in Clatskanie,
Oregon, U.S.A.
Siding
–
Thatched gable wall in the Philippines
Siding
–
Ordinary wood shingle siding in France.
Siding
–
Clapboards applied to framing without a layer of sheathing (sheeting).
10.
Business model
–
A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures value, in economic, social, cultural or other contexts. The process of model construction is part of business strategy. The literature has provided very diverse interpretations and definitions of a business model, a systematic review and analysis of manager responses to a survey defines business models as the design of organizational structures to enact a commercial opportunity. Further extensions to this design logic emphasize the use of narrative or coherence in business model descriptions as mechanisms by which entrepreneurs create extraordinarily successful growth firms, well-known business models can operate as recipes for creative managers. Business models are referred to in some instances within the context of accounting for purposes of public reporting. Over the years, business models have much more sophisticated. The bait and hook business model was introduced in the early 20th century and this involves offering a basic product at a very low cost, often at a loss, then charging compensatory recurring amounts for refills or associated products or services. Examples include, razor and blades, cell phones and air time, computer printers and ink cartridge refills, a variant of this model is Adobe, a software developer that gives away its document reader free of charge but charges several hundred dollars for its document writer. In the 1950s, new models came from McDonalds Restaurants. In the 1960s, the innovators were Wal-Mart and Hypermarkets, today, the type of business models might depend on how technology is used. For example, entrepreneurs on the internet have also created new models that depend entirely on existing or emergent technology. Using technology, businesses can reach a number of customers with minimal costs. Design logic views the model as an outcome of creating new organizational structures or changing existing structures to pursue a new opportunity. Gerry George and Adam Bock conducted a literature review and surveyed managers to understand how they perceived the components of a business model. In that analysis these authors show that there is a logic behind how entrepreneurs and managers perceive. They also show that when the narrative is incoherent or the components of the story are misaligned and they recommend ways in which the entrepreneur or CEO can create strong narratives for change. The University of Tennessee conducted research into highly collaborative business relationships, researchers codified their research into a sourcing business model known as Vested. From about 2012, some research and experimentation has theorized about a so-called liquid business model, sangeet Paul Choudary distinguishes between two broad families of business models in an article in Wired magazine
Business model
–
Environment-Strategy-Structure-Operations (ESSO) Business Model Development
Business model
–
Although
Webvan failed in its goal of disintermediating the
North American supermarket industry, several supermarket chains (like
Safeway Inc.) have launched their own delivery services to target the niche market to which Webvan catered.
11.
Direct marketing
–
Among practitioners, it is also known as direct response. The prevalence of direct marketing and the nature of some communications has led to regulations and laws such as the CAN-SPAM Act. Measured against total US sales, these advertising expenditures generated approximately $1.798 trillion in incremental sales, in 2010, direct marketing accounted for 8. 3% of total US gross domestic product. In 2010, there were 1.4 million direct marketing employees in the US and their collective sales efforts directly supported 8.4 million other jobs, accounting for a total of 9.8 million US jobs. The term direct marketing was coined long after Montgomery Wards time, in 1872, Ward produced the first mail-order catalog for his Montgomery Ward mail order business. By buying goods and then reselling them directly to customers, Ward was consequently removing the middlemen at the store and, to the benefit of the customer. The Direct Mail Advertising Association, predecessor of the present-day Direct Marketing Association, was first established in 1917, third class bulk mail postage rates were established in 1928. In 1967, Lester Wunderman identified, named, and defined the term direct marketing, Direct marketing is attractive to many marketers because its positive results can be measured directly. For example, if a marketer sends out 1,000 solicitations by mail and 100 respond to the promotion and this metric is known as the response rate, and it is one of many clearly quantifiable success metrics employed by direct marketers. In contrast, general advertising uses indirect measurements, such as awareness or engagement, measurement of results is a fundamental element in successful direct marketing. One of the significant benefits of Direct Marketing is, it enables promoting products or services that might not have a strong brand. The Internet has made it easier for marketing managers to measure the results of a campaign and this is often achieved by using a specific website landing page directly relating to the promotional material. Another way to measure the results is to compare the projected sales or generated leads for a term with the actual sales or leads after a direct advertising campaign. This poses a problem for marketers and consumers alike, as advertisers do not wish to waste money on communicating with consumers not interested in their products, the medium/media used to deliver a message can have a significant impact on responses. It is difficult to truly personalize a DRTV or radio message, in sum, choosing the best of all the above parameters may yield up to 58 times more response, as compared to choosing the worst of the above parameters. Addressing these helps assuage the concerns of the marketers, some of these concerns have been addressed by direct marketers by the use of individual opt-out lists, variable printing, and better-targeted list practices. The term junk mail, referring to unsolicited commercial ads delivered via post office or directly deposited in consumers mail boxes, can be traced back to 1954. To address the concerns of unwanted emails or spam, in 2003, The US Congress enacted the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography, can-Spam gives recipients the ability to stop unwanted emails, and set out tough penalties for violations
Direct marketing
–
A pile of advertising mail
12.
Information Age
–
The onset of the Information Age is associated with the Digital Revolution, just as the Industrial Revolution marked the onset of the Industrial Age. The Information Age formed by capitalizing on computer microminiaturization advances, library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works with miniaturized microform analog photographs and he did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and transmission media. Automated, potentially lossless digital technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information growth, moores law, which was formulated around 1965, calculated that the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. Connectivity between computers within companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access greater amounts of information. The worlds technological capacity to store information grew from 2.6 exabytes in 1986 to 15.8 in 1993, over 54.5 in 2000 and it is estimated that the worlds capacity to store information has reached 5 zettabytes in 2014. This is the equivalent of 4,500 stacks of printed books from the earth to the sun. In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in access to, technology was developing so quickly that a computer costing $3000 in 1997 would cost $2000 two years later and $1000 the following year. In terms of capacity, there are two measures of importance, the number of operations a system can perform and the amount of information that can be stored, the number of synaptic operations per second in a human brain has been estimated to lie between 10^15 and 10^17. While this number is impressive, even in 2007 humanitys general-purpose computers were capable of performing well over 10^18 instructions per second, estimates suggest that the storage capacity of an individual human brain is about 10^12 bytes. On a per capita basis, this is matched by current digital storage, eventually, Information and Communication Technology—computers, computerized machinery, fiber optics, communication satellites, Internet, and other ICT tools—became a significant part of the economy. Microcomputers were developed and many businesses and industries were changed by ICT. Nicholas Negroponte captured the essence of these changes in his 1995 book and his book discusses similarities and differences between products made of atoms and products made of bits. In essence, a copy of a made of bits can be made cheaply and quickly. The Information Age has affected the workforce in several ways and it has created a situation in which workers who perform easily automated tasks are forced to find work that is not easily automated. Workers are also being forced to compete in a job market. Lastly, workers are being replaced by computers that can do their jobs faster and this poses problems for workers in industrial societies, which are still to be solved. However, solutions that involve lowering the time are usually highly resisted
Information Age
–
A visualization of the various routes through a portion of the Internet.
13.
Coupon
–
In marketing, a coupon is a ticket or document that can be redeemed for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product. Customarily, coupons are issued by manufacturers of packaged goods or by retailers. They are often distributed through mail, coupon envelopes, magazines, newspapers, the Internet, directly from the retailer. In addition, coupons can also be targeted selectively to regional markets in which competition is great. In government, a coupon is a certificate used to administer a benefit or permission. The word is of French origin, pronounced, in Britain, the United States, and Canada it is pronounced /ˈkuːpɒn/ KOO-pon. A common alternate American pronunciation is /ˈkjuːpɑːn/ CUE-pahn, in 1886, The Coca-Cola Company was incorporated in Atlanta, Georgia, with Asa Candler as one of the partners. He transformed Coca-Cola from an insignificant tonic into a business by using advertising techniques. Candlers marketing included having the companys employees and sales representatives distribute complimentary coupons for Coca-Cola, coupons were mailed to potential customers and placed in magazines. The company gave soda fountains free syrup to cover the costs of the free drinks and it is estimated that between 1894 and 1913 one in nine Americans had received a free Coca-Cola, for a total of 8,500,000 free drinks. By 1895 Candler announced to shareholders that Coca-Cola was served in state in the United States. In Australia consumers first came in contact with couponing when a company called Shop A Docket promoted offers, a timeline for the history of coupons,1888 – Asa Candler used paper tickets for free glasses of Coke to help market his new soda 1909 – C. W.8 billion shopping with coupons 2009 – The U. S, coupons can be used to research the price sensitivity of different groups of buyers. In addition, it is assumed that buyers who take the effort to collect. Therefore, the price paid by price-insensitive buyers can be increased. Grocery coupons come in two types, store coupons and manufacturers coupons. Store coupons are coupon-based discounts offered for an item or group of items. The issuing store will accept its own store coupons, but some stores will also accept store coupons that are issued by competitors, coupons issued by the manufacturer of a product may be used at any coupon-accepting store that carries that product
Coupon
–
Food stuff ration coupons types I-V for direct laborers and workers in
Vietnam, 1976–1986
Coupon
–
Believed to be the first coupon ever, this ticket for a free glass of Coca-Cola was first distributed in 1888 to help promote the drink. By 1913, the company had redeemed 8.5 million tickets.
Coupon
–
Food Coupons
14.
Broadband Internet access
–
Internet access is the process that enables individuals and organisations to connect to the Internet using computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, sometimes via computer networks. Once connected to the Internet, users can access Internet services, such as email, Internet service providers offer Internet access through various technologies that offer a wide range of data signaling rates. Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s, by the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband Internet access technologies. By 2014 this was almost ubiquitous worldwide, with an average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s. Use by a wider audience came in 1995 when restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic were lifted. LANs typically operated at 10 Mbit/s, while modem data-rates grew from 1200 bit/s in the early 1980s, initially, dial-up connections were made from terminals or computers running terminal emulation software to terminal servers on LANs. These dial-up connections did not support use of the Internet protocols. Broadband connections are made using a computers built in Ethernet networking capabilities. Most broadband services provide a continuous always on connection, there is no dial-in process required, made broadband Internet access a public policy issue. In 2000, most Internet access to homes was provided using dial-up, while many businesses, in 2000 there were just under 150 million dial-up subscriptions in the 34 OECD countries and fewer than 20 million broadband subscriptions. By 2004, broadband had grown and dial-up had declined so that the number of subscriptions were roughly equal at 130 million each, the broadband technologies in widest use are ADSL and cable Internet access. Newer technologies include VDSL and optical fibre extended closer to the subscriber in telephone and cable plants. In areas not served by ADSL or cable, some community organizations, Wireless and satellite Internet are often used in rural, undeveloped, or other hard to serve areas where wired Internet is not readily available. Newer technologies being deployed for fixed and mobile broadband access include WiMAX, LTE, starting in roughly 2006, mobile broadband access is increasingly available at the consumer level using 3G and 4G technologies such as HSPA, EV-DO, HSPA+, and LTE. Some libraries provide stations for physically connecting users laptops to local area networks, Wireless Internet access points are available in public places such as airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Some access points may also provide coin-operated computers, various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, usually fee based and these services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A Wi-Fi hotspot need not be limited to a location since multiple ones combined can cover a whole campus or park
Broadband Internet access
–
Satellite Internet access via
VSAT in Ghana
Broadband Internet access
–
An
Opte Project visualization of
routing paths through a portion of the Internet
Broadband Internet access
–
Service mark for
GSMA
15.
Telecommunications
–
Telecommunication is the transmission of signs, signals, messages, writings, images and sounds or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio, optical or other electromagnetic systems. Telecommunication occurs when the exchange of information between communication participants includes the use of technology and it is transmitted either electrically over physical media, such as cables, or via electromagnetic radiation. Such transmission paths are divided into communication channels which afford the advantages of multiplexing. The term is used in its plural form, telecommunications. Early means of communicating over a distance included visual signals, such as beacons, smoke signals, semaphore telegraphs, signal flags, other examples of pre-modern long-distance communication included audio messages such as coded drumbeats, lung-blown horns, and loud whistles. Zworykin, John Logie Baird and Philo Farnsworth, the word telecommunication is a compound of the Greek prefix tele, meaning distant, far off, or afar, and the Latin communicare, meaning to share. Its modern use is adapted from the French, because its use was recorded in 1904 by the French engineer. Communication was first used as an English word in the late 14th century, in the Middle Ages, chains of beacons were commonly used on hilltops as a means of relaying a signal. Beacon chains suffered the drawback that they could pass a single bit of information. One notable instance of their use was during the Spanish Armada, in 1792, Claude Chappe, a French engineer, built the first fixed visual telegraphy system between Lille and Paris. However semaphore suffered from the need for skilled operators and expensive towers at intervals of ten to thirty kilometres, as a result of competition from the electrical telegraph, the last commercial line was abandoned in 1880. Homing pigeons have occasionally used throughout history by different cultures. Pigeon post is thought to have Persians roots and was used by the Romans to aid their military, frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks also conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to various cities using homing pigeons, in the early 19th century, the Dutch government used the system in Java and Sumatra. And in 1849, Paul Julius Reuter started a service to fly stock prices between Aachen and Brussels, a service that operated for a year until the gap in the telegraph link was closed. Sir Charles Wheatstone and Sir William Fothergill Cooke invented the telegraph in 1837. Also, the first commercial electrical telegraph is purported to have constructed by Wheatstone and Cooke. Both inventors viewed their device as an improvement to the electromagnetic telegraph not as a new device, samuel Morse independently developed a version of the electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 September 1837
Telecommunications
–
A satellite communication antenna at the biggest facility for satellite communication in Raisting, Bavaria, Germany
Telecommunications
–
Visualization from the
Opte Project of the various routes through a portion of the Internet.
Telecommunications
–
A replica of one of
Chappe's semaphore towers.
Telecommunications
–
Optical fiber provides cheaper bandwidth for long distance communication.
16.
Verizon Communications
–
The company is based at 1095 Avenue of the Americas in Midtown Manhattan, New York City, but is incorporated in Delaware. Bell Atlantic came into existence in 1984 with a footprint from New Jersey to Virginia, as part of the rebranding that the Baby Bells took in the mid-1990s, all of the operating companies assumed the Bell Atlantic name. In 1997, Bell Atlantic expanded into New York and the New England states by merging with fellow Baby Bell NYNEX, although Bell Atlantic was the surviving company, the merged company moved its headquarters from Philadelphia to NYNEXs old headquarters in New York City. In 2000, Bell Atlantic merged with GTE, which operated telecommunications companies across most of the rest of the country that was not already in Bell Atlantics footprint, Bell Atlantic, the surviving company, changed its name to Verizon, a portmanteau of veritas and horizon. As of 2016, Verizon is one of three companies that had their roots in the former Baby Bells, the other two, like Verizon, exist as a result of mergers among fellow former Baby Bell members. One, SBC Communications, bought out its former parent AT&T Corporation, the other, CenturyLink, was formed initially in 2011 by the acquisition of Qwest. Bell Atlantic Corporation was created as one of the original Regional Bell Operating Companies in 1984, in 1994, Bell Atlantic became the first RBOC to entirely drop the original names of its original operating companies. In 1996, CEO and Chairman Raymond W. Smith orchestrated Bell Atlantics merger with NYNEX, when it merged, it moved its corporate headquarters from Philadelphia to New York City. NYNEX was consolidated into this name by 1997, the approval came with 25 stipulations to preserve competition between local phone carriers, including investing in new markets and broadband technologies. The new venture was headed by co-CEOs Charles Lee, formerly the CEO of GTE, upon its inception, Verizon became the largest local telephone company in the United States, operating 63 million telephone lines in 40 states. The company also inherited 25 million mobile phone customers, additionally, Verizon offered internet services and long-distance calling in New York, before expanding long-distance operations to other states. The name Verizon derives from the combination of the words veritas, Latin for truth, the name was chosen from 8,500 candidates and the company spent $300 million on marketing the new brand. The companies established Verizon Wireless as its own business operated by Bell Atlantic, Vodafone retained 45% of the company. The deal was valued at approximately $70 billion and created a mobile carrier with 23 million customers, Verizon Wireless merged Bell Atlantics wireless network, Vodafones AirTouch and PrimeCo holdings, and the wireless division of GTE. Due to its size, Verizon Wireless was able to offer national coverage at competitive rates, in another partnership with MSN in 2002, Verizon Wireless launched the mobile content service VZW with MSN and a phone that utilized the Microsoft Windows operating system. In August 2000, approximately 85,000 Verizon workers went on an 18-day labor strike after their contracts expired. The strike affected quarterly revenues, resulting in Verizon Wireless postponement of the companys IPO, Verizon launched 3G service in 2002, which doubled the Internet speeds of the time to 144kb a second. In August 2002, Verizon began offering local, long-distance, and mobile calling, as well as Internet service and it was initially only available to customers in New York and Massachusetts
Verizon Communications
–
Verizon service van
Verizon Communications
Verizon Communications
–
Verizon Wireless outlet at the Bangor Mall in
Bangor,
Maine
Verizon Communications
–
Directors
17.
Verizon FiOS
–
Verizon Fios is a bundled Internet access, telephone, and television service that operates over a fiber-optic communications network with over 5 million customers in nine US states. The name, Fios, is an acronym for Fiber Optic Service, Fios service began in 2005, and networked areas expanded through 2010, although some areas do not have service or cannot receive TV and phone service because of franchise agreements. Verizon was one of the first major U. S. carriers to offer fiber to the home, other service providers use fiber optics in the network backbone and existing copper or coax infrastructure for residential users. Where available, select Verizon Wireless stores also sell Fios services, similar to AT&T offering DirecTV, the early stages of Fios began when Bell Atlantic was testing its video service Stargazer in 1995. This was the worlds first commercial VOD service, which was tested to 1,000 homes in northern VA, during this time there were talks of developing a fiber optic based service. This service was developed at a headquarters located in Reston, Virginia and this will be folded into our deployment of fiber to the curb, Mr. Townsend said, referring to Bell Atlantics plans to deploy a high-tech fiber-optic system. In September 2005, Verizon Communications, announced the launch of its Fios television service, Verizon aimed to replace copper wires with optical fibers, which would allow greater speed and quality of communication. In 2006, Verizon and Motorola partnered to bring its customers home DVR access, in 2006, The Wall Street Journal speculated, Verizon Communications Inc. is fielding offers for. Verizon also has been shopping a package dubbed GTE North that comprises about 3.4 million access lines in former GTE Corp. territories in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, in addition to expanding its customer base, Verizon expanded its services in the first few years. Home Media DVR, a video recorder, was released in 2006. Fios updated its user interface in 2007, allowing customers to access widgets for localized content, such as weather, Verizon announced in January 2008 that one million people subscribed to the service. By the end of 2008, Fios offered more than 150 HD channels, price increases were announced in April 2008, when Fios was available to 6.5 million households. In January 2009, Fios was available to 12.7 million homes, as of June 2009, Fios Internet had 3.1 million customers. Estimates on December 31,2009, were 3.4 million Internet customers and 2.86 million for Fios TV, doug Michelson, an analyst at Deutsche Bank, concluded that Verizon has been overspending to acquire Fios customers. Some viewed the halt in expansion as a violation of Verizons agreements with municipalities and states. In New Jersey, Verizon collected an additional $15 billion in fees from customers, the New Jersey government altered the deal in 2014 to allow Verizon to substitute wireless internet access to fulfill its promise instead. Verizon defended itself, claiming that they had spent $13 billion building fiber optics in New Jersey, critics pointed out that wireless internet was slower and less reliable. In April 2010, Verizon announced that three people were subscribed to Verizon Fios
Verizon FiOS
–
An old Fios ONT installed in
Montclair, New Jersey, with
Ethernet (left) and telephone (right) connections
Verizon FiOS
–
"FIOS" redirects here. For other uses, see
Fios (disambiguation).
Verizon FiOS
–
Directors
18.
Cable television
–
This contrasts with broadcast television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone services, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables, analog television was standard in the 20th century, but since the 2000s, cable systems have been upgraded to digital cable operation. A cable channel is a television network available via cable television, alternative terms include non-broadcast channel or programming service, the latter being mainly used in legal contexts. Examples of cable/satellite channels/cable networks available in many countries are HBO, MTV, Cartoon Network, E. Eurosport, the abbreviation CATV is often used for cable television. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, in areas where over-the-air TV reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large community antennas were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. The origins of cable broadcasting for radio are even older as radio programming was distributed by cable in some European cities as far back as 1924, Cable television has gone through a series of steps of evolution in the United States and Canada. Particularly in Canada, communities with their own signals were fertile cable markets, as viewers wanted to receive American signals. Early systems carried only a maximum of seven channels, using 2,4,5 or 6,7,9,11 and 13, as the equipment was unable to confine the signal discreetly within the assigned channel bandwidth. The reason 4 and 5 along with 6 and 7 could be used together was because of the 4 MHz gap between 4 and 5 and the nearly 90 MHz gap between 6 and 7. Even though eight channels are listed, in systems that maximized 7 channels. As equipment improved, all channels could be utilized, except where a local VHF television station broadcast. Local broadcast channels were not usable for signals deemed to be priority, later, the cable operators began to carry FM radio stations, and encouraged subscribers to connect their FM stereo sets to cable. Before stereo and bilingual TV sound became common, Pay-TV channel sound was added to the FM stereo cable line-ups, about this time, operators expanded beyond the 12-channel dial to use the midband and superband VHF channels adjacent to the high band 7-13 of North American television frequencies. Some operators as in Cornwall, Ontario, used a dual distribution network with Channels 2-13 on each of the two cables, during the 1980s, United States regulations not unlike public, educational, and government access created the beginning of cable-originated live television programming. These stations evolved partially into todays over-the-air digital subchannels, where a main broadcast TV station e. g, many live local programs with local interests were subsequently created all over the United States in most major television markets in the early 1980s. This evolved into todays many cable-only broadcasts of diverse programming, including cable-only produced television movies and miniseries, Cable specialty channels, starting with channels oriented to show movies and large sporting or performance events, diversified further, and narrowcasting became common. By the late 1980s, cable-only signals outnumbered broadcast signals on cable systems, by the mid-1980s in Canada, cable operators were allowed by the regulator to enter into distribution contracts with cable networks on their own. By the 1990s, tiers became common, with customers able to subscribe to different tiers to obtain different selections of additional channels above the basic selection, by subscribing to additional tiers, customers could get specialty channels, movie channels, and foreign channels
Cable television
–
Coaxial cable used to carry cable television into subscribers' residences.
Cable television
–
A cable television distribution box (left) in the basement of a building in Germany, with a splitter (right) which supplies the signal to separate cables which go to different rooms
19.
U-verse
–
AT&T U-verse, commonly called U-verse, is an AT&T brand of triple-play telecommunications services, although the brand is now only used in reference to the television portion of the services. Launched on June 26,2006, using the FTTP, VDSL, and ADSL communication protocols, U-verse included broadband Internet, IP telephone, and IPTV services in 21 states. On March 27,2017, it was revealed that AT&T is seriously considering closing down the TV service website Uverse. com on May 30,2017. SBC announced its plans for a network and Internet Protocol television deployment in 2004. Beta testing began in San Antonio in 2005 and AT&T U-verse was commercially launched June 26,2006, a few months later on November 30,2006, the service was launched in Houston. In December 2006, the product launched in Chicago, San Francisco, Oakland, Hartford, Indianapolis, in February 2007, U-verse was launched in Milwaukee. One month later service was initiated in Dallas and Kansas City, in May 2007, U-verse launched in Detroit, Los Angeles, and surrounding areas. Launch continued in Cleveland, Akron, and San Diego in June 2007, the Oklahoma City and Sacramento launches occurred in August 2007. In November 2007, service was started in Austin, in December 2007, U-verse was launched in Orlando and St. Louis. A controlled launch was initiated in Atlanta that month marking the first launch in the Southeastern United States. On December 22,2008, the product debuted in Birmingham, on January 25,2010, AT&T announced that U-verse was available to over 2.8 million households. AT&T Phone was added on January 22,2008, and was first available in Detroit, in 2008, U-verse availability approached 8 million households and over 225,000 customers had been enrolled, with new installations reaching 12,000 per week. By 2009,1 million Phone customers and 2.1 million U-verse TV customers had been enrolled, at the end of 2011, U-verse was available to more than 30 million living units in 22 states and U-verse TV had 3.8 million customers. By mid-2012, AT&T had 4.1 million U-Verse TV subscribers,2.6 million Phone subscribers, by the third quarter of 2012, AT&T had 4.3 million TV subscribers,2.7 million Phone subscribers and 7.1 million Internet. This represents 7% growth quarter on quarter, the actual number of customers is lower, as most customers subscribe to a bundle and so are counted in both categories. On March 29,2016, AT&T announced that it will increase data caps on its Internet service on May 23,2016, the integration of AT&T and DirecTV is set to begin by the fourth quarter of 2016. On May 16,2016, AT&T announced that it will acquire Quickplay Media, on September 19,2016, AT&T announced that the U-verse brand would no longer apply to its broadband and phone services, renaming them AT&T Internet and AT&T Phone, respectively. AT&T delivers most U-verse service over a fiber-to-the-node or fiber-to-the-premises communications network, in the more common FTTN deployment, fiber-optic connections carry all data between the service provider and a distribution node
U-verse
–
AT&T U-verse's
electronic program guide
U-verse
–
AT&T U-verse
U-verse
–
Call history on U-verse TV
20.
Solar City
–
SolarCity Corporation is an American company that specializes in solar energy services. Headquartered in San Mateo, California, it is the largest solar energy provider in the US. SolarCity sells renewable energy to customers at prices below utility rates, the company has over 15,000 employees. SolarCity has grown rapidly as well as the market in the United States. The company has diversified in 2014 and 2015, with the aim of lowering costs, currently, SolarCity installs more solar energy systems than any other company in the United States with just under 110,000 new installations in 2015. In 2015, SolarCity installed 870MW of solar power, approximately 28% of non-utility solar installation in the U. S. that year and it offers energy storage services through its parent company, Tesla Inc. including a turnkey residential battery backup service that incorporates Teslas Powerwall. In 2013, Solar Power World magazine listed SolarCity as the No.2 overall solar installation company in the U. S. The company is one of the members of The Alliance for Solar Choice, or TASC. SolarCity purchased Paramount Solar from Paramount Equity for $120 million in 2013, in March 2016 SpaceX bought $90 million of SolarCity stock. In June 2016, Musks car company, Tesla, formally submitted an offer to acquire SolarCity for $2. 5–3 billion, according to Musk, the reason for this is Creating a seamlessly integrated Tesla battery & solar power product that looks beautiful. On August 1,2016, SolarCity accepted Tesla Motors offer of 2.6 billion, other steps to finalize the merger will not complete until later in 2016. As of August 2016, Musk owned 22% of SolarCity stock, in August 2016, it was announced that the company plans to take up $5 million in charges to cover its planned layoffs. The company was cutting the salary of its two co-founders from $275,000 to $1 per year. On March 2,2017 it was announced that SolarCity eliminated 3,000 jobs in 2016 and this information was disclosed in a regulatory filing the previous day. The company did so to preserve cash, the job cuts affected workers across the entire company, operations, installations, manufacturing, and sales and marketing. In operations, installations, and manufacturing, 22% of jobs were cut, in sales and marketing, 27% of jobs were cut. 2016 was the first year in the history that SolarCity cut its workforce. At the end of 2016, SolarCity had 12,243 employees, at the end of 2015, in 2015, the number of employees had grown by 68. 7%
Solar City
–
Original SolarCity headquarters in
Foster City, California
Solar City
–
SolarCity
Solar City
–
Installation vehicles with the original SolarCity logo
Solar City
–
SolarCity vehicle with current SolarCity logo at night
21.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
22.
Jurisdiction
–
Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area
Jurisdiction
–
United States Federal Civil Procedure doctrines
23.
Customs
–
The movement of people into and out of a country is normally monitored by immigration authorities, under a variety of names and arrangements. Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, the import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden. In most countries, customs are attained through government agreements and international laws, a customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation or exportation of goods. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are held in an area, often called a bonded store. All authorized ports are recognized customs areas, at airports, customs is the point of no return for all passengers, once a passenger has cleared customs, they cannot go back. In many countries, customs procedures for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red, passengers with goods to declare go through the red channel. Passengers with nothing to go through the green channel. Each channel is a point of no return, once a passenger has entered a particular channel, australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States do not officially operate a red and green channel system, however, some airports copy this layout. Airports in EU countries such as Finland, Ireland or the United Kingdom, as the EU is a customs union, travellers between EU countries do not have to pay customs duties. Value-added tax and excise duties may be if the goods are subsequently sold. Passengers arriving from other EU countries go through the blue channel, luggage tickets for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries can use the green lane. All airports in the United Kingdom operate a system, however some dont have a red channel. Customs is part of one of the three functions of a government, namely, administration, maintenance of law, order, and justice. However, in a bid to mitigate corruption, many countries have partly privatised their customs and this has occurred by way of contracting pre-shipment inspection agencies, which examine the cargo and verify the declared value before importation occurs. The countrys customs is obliged to accept the report for the purpose of assessing duties and taxes at the port of entry. It has been found that evasion of customs duty escalated when pre-shipment agencies took over and it has also been alleged that involvement of such agencies has caused shipping delays. Privatization of customs has been viewed as a fatal remedy, the basic customs law is harmonized across Europe within the European Union Customs Union
Customs
–
Customs, Tolls or Duties of the Corporation of
Kinsale (1788)
Customs
–
Officers from
US Customs and Border Protection boarding a ship
Customs
–
The Customs-and-duty House at the
port of Haifa, Israel
24.
Import taxes
–
A tariff is a tax on imports or exports. In other languages and very occasionally in English, tariff or its equivalent may also be used to any list of prices. A customs duty or due is the tax levied on the import or export of goods in international trade. In economic sense, a duty is also a kind of consumption tax, a duty levied on goods being imported is referred to as an import duty. Similarly, a duty levied on exports is called an export duty, a tariff, which is actually a list of commodities along with the leviable rate of customs duty, is popularly referred to as a customs duty. This is no longer the case, Customs duty is calculated on the determination of the assessable value in case of those items for which the duty is levied ad valorem. This is often the transaction value unless a customs officer determines assessable value in accordance with the Harmonized System, However, for certain items like petroleum and alcohol, customs duty is realized at a specific rate applied to the volume of the import or export consignments. For the purpose of assessment of duty, products are given an identification code that has come to be known as the Harmonized System code. This code was developed by the World Customs Organization based in Brussels, a Harmonized System code may be from four to ten digits. For example,17.03 is the HS code for molasses from the extraction or refining of sugar, However, within 17.03, the number 17.03.90 stands for Molasses. Introduction of Harmonized System code in 1990s has largely replaced the Standard International Trade Classification, in drawing up the national tariff, the revenue departments often specifies the rate of customs duty with reference to the HS code of the product. A Customs authority in each country is responsible for collecting taxes on the import into or export of goods out of the country, Evasion of customs duties takes place mainly in two ways. In one, the trader under-declares the value so that the value is lower than actual. In a similar vein, a trader can evade customs duty by understatement of quantity or volume of the product of trade, a trader may also evade duty by misrepresenting traded goods, categorizing goods as items which attract lower customs duties. The Evasion of customs duty may take place with or without the collaboration of customs officials, Evasion of customs duty does not necessarily constitute smuggling. Many countries allow a traveler to bring goods into the country duty-free and these goods may be bought at ports and airports or sometimes within one country without attracting the usual government taxes and then brought into another country duty-free. Some countries impose allowances which limit the number or value of items that one person can bring into the country. These restrictions often apply to tobacco, wine, spirits, cosmetics, gifts, often foreign diplomats and UN officials are entitled to duty-free goods
Import taxes
Import taxes
–
Taxation
Import taxes
–
Terminology
25.
Crime victim
–
Victimology is, however, not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but may include other forms of human rights violations. In criminology and criminal law, a victim of a crime is a person who has been harmed individually and directly by the perpetrator. However, this may not always be the case, as victims of white collar crime. Victims of white collar crime are often denied their status as victims by the construction of the concept. The concept also remains a topic within womens studies. Emotional distress as the result of crime is a theme for all victims of crime. The most common problems, affecting three quarters of victims, were problems, including, fear, anxiety, nervousness, self-blame, anger, shame. These problems often result in the development of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder, post crime distress is also linked to pre-existing emotional problems and sociodemographic variables. This has been known to become a case of the elderly to be more adversely affected. Victims may experience the psychological reactions, Increase in the realization of personal vulnerability. The perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible, the view of themselves in a negative light. The experience of victimization may result in increasing fear on the part of the victim, the environmental theory posits that the location and context of the crime bring the victim of the crime and its perpetrator together. Studies in the early 2010s showed that crimes are negatively correlated to trees in urban environments and this relationship was established by studies in 2010 in Portland, Oregon and in 2012 in Baltimore, Maryland. Geoffrey Donovan of the United States Forest Service, one of the researchers, said, trees, which provide a range of other benefits, could improve quality of life in Portland by reducing crime. Because We believe that large trees can reduce crime by signaling to a potential criminal that a neighborhood is better cared for and, therefore. Note that the presence of street trees especially indicated a reduction in crime. We found that the relationship continued in both contexts, but the magnitude was 40% greater for public than for private lands. There have been some studies recently to quantify the real existence of victim-proneness, contrary to the popular belief that more women are repeat victims, and thus more victim-prone than men, actually men in their prime are more likely to be victims of repeated crimes
Crime victim
–
Criminology and
penology
Crime victim
–
Anna Baldry (left) senior researcher at the International Victimology Institute Tilburg (INTERVICT), watches as participants conduct role-play scenarios during domestic and gender-based violence training at the Central Training Center.
Afghan National Police (ANP)
26.
Mormons
–
After Smiths death in 1844, the Mormons followed Brigham Young to what would become the Utah Territory. Today, most Mormons are understood to be members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, some Mormons are also either independent or non-practicing. The center of Mormon cultural influence is in Utah, and North America has more Mormons than any other continent, Mormons have developed a strong sense of communality that stems from their doctrine and history. Mormons dedicate large amounts of time and resources to serving in their church, Mormons have a health code which eschews alcoholic beverages, tobacco, coffee, tea, and other addictive substances. They tend to be very family-oriented, and have connections across generations and with extended family. Mormons also have a law of chastity, requiring abstention from sexual relations outside of heterosexual marriage. Mormons self-identify as Christian, although some non-Mormons consider Mormons non-Christian, Mormons believe in the Bible, as well as other books of scripture, such as the Book of Mormon. They have a view of cosmology, and believe that all people are spirit-children of God. Mormons believe that returning to God requires following the example of Jesus Christ and they believe that Christs church was restored through Joseph Smith and is guided by living prophets and apostles. Central to Mormon faith is the belief that God speaks to his children, due to their high birth and conversion rates, the Mormon population has grown significantly in recent decades rising from around three million in 1970 to over 15 million in 2015. The term Mormons has been embraced by most adherents of Mormonism, most notably Mormon fundamentalists, while other Latter Day Saint denominations, both LDS Church members and members of fundamentalist groups commonly use the word Mormon in reference to themselves. The LDS Church, however, disagrees with this self-characterization, Church leaders also encourage members to use the churchs full name to emphasize its focus on Jesus Christ. Today, polygamy is practiced within Mormonism only by people that have broken with the LDS Church, the history of the Mormons has shaped them into a people with a strong sense of unity and communality. From the start, Mormons have tried to establish what they call Zion, in the first period, Smith had tried literally to build a city called Zion, in which converts could gather. During the pioneer era, Zion became a landscape of villages in Utah, in modern times, Zion is still an ideal, though Mormons gather together in their individual congregations rather than a central geographic location. Mormons trace their origins to the visions that Joseph Smith reported having in the early 1820s while living in upstate New York, in 1823, Smith said an angel directed him to a buried book written on golden plates containing the religious history of an ancient people. Smith published what he said was a translation of these plates in March 1830 as the Book of Mormon, named after Mormon, on April 6,1830, Smith founded the Church of Christ. The early church grew westward as Smith sent missionaries to proselytize, in 1833, Missouri settlers, alarmed by the rapid influx of Mormons, expelled them from Jackson County into the nearby Clay County, where local residents were more welcoming
Mormons
–
Orson Scott Card
Mormons
–
A stained glass window showing
Joseph Smith 's
First Vision.
Mormons
–
M. Russell Ballard
Mormons
–
Mia Love
27.
Evangelizing
–
Evangelism is the preaching of the gospel or the practice of proselytizing a particular doctrine or set of beliefs to others with the intention of converting others to the Christian faith. Some Christian traditions consider evangelists to be in a leadership position, Christian groups who actively encourage evangelism are sometimes known as evangelistic or evangelist. The scriptures do not use the word evangelism, but evangelist is used in Acts 21,8, Ephesians 4,11, and 2 Timothy 4,5. The word evangelist comes from the Koine Greek word εὐαγγέλιον via Latinised evangelium as used in the titles of the Four Gospels, authored by Matthew, Mark, Luke. The Greek word εὐαγγέλιον originally meant a reward given to the messenger for good news, the verb form of euangelion, occurs rarely in older Greek literature outside the New Testament, making its meaning more difficult to ascertain. Parallel texts of the Gospels of Luke and Mark reveal a relationship between the verb euangelizo and a Greek verb kerusso, which means to proclaim. While evangelism is usually regarded as converting non-Christians to Christianity, this is not always the proper usage of the word, if converting to Christianity includes services or material benefits, evangelism is called proselytism. Different denominations follow different theological interpretations which reflect upon the point of who is doing the actual conversion, calvinists, for example, believe the soul is converted only if the Holy Spirit is effective in the act. Catholic missionary work in Russia is commonly seen as evangelism, not proselytism and it is entrance into the gift of communion with Christ. In recent history, certain Bible passages have been used to promote evangelism, breaking from tradition and going beyond television and radio a wide range of methods have been developed to reach people not inclined to attend traditional events in churches or revival meetings. Dramas such as Heavens Gates, Hells Flames have gained popularity since the 1980s. These dramas typically depict characters who die and learn whether they will go to heaven or hell. The child evangelism movement is a Christian evangelism movement that originated in the 20th century and it focuses on the 4/14 Window which centers on evangelizing children between the ages of 4 and 14 years old. Other entertainment-based Christian evangelism events include comedy, live theater and music, the Christian music industry has also played a significant role in modern evangelism. Evangelists such as Reinhard Bonnke conduct mass evangelistic crusades around the world, sometimes, the regular minister of a church is called a preacher in a way that other groups would typically use the term pastor. The evangelist in some churches is one that travels from town to town and from church to church, many Christians of various theological perspectives would call themselves evangelists because they are spreaders of the gospel. Many churches believe one of their functions is to function as evangelists to spread the evangelist belief that Jesus is savior of humanity. The title of evangelist is often associated with those who lead large meetings like those of Billy Graham, Luis Palau, pérez possibly in tents or existing church buildings, or those who address the public in street corner preaching, which targets listeners who happen to pass nearby
Evangelizing
–
The Four Evangelists
Evangelizing
–
Billy Graham in
Düsseldorf (1954)
28.
Begging
–
Begging or panhandling is the practice of imploring others to grant a favor, often a gift of money, with little or no expectation of reciprocation. Beggars may be found in places such as transport routes, urban parks. Besides money, they may ask for food, drink. According to a study in the journal of the Canadian Medical Association, stated that they would prefer a minimum-wage job, however, many felt they could not handle conventional jobs because of mental illness, physical disability or lack of skills. Beggars have existed in society since before the dawn of recorded history. Begging has happened in most societies around the world, though its prevalence, ancient Greeks distinguished between the ptochos and the penes, with the latter being accorded a higher social status. The New Testament contains several references to Jesus status as the savior of the ptochos, usually translated as the poor, a Caveat or Warning for Common Cursitors, vulgarly called vagabonds, was first published in 1566 by Thomas Harman. The Beggars Opera is an opera in three acts written in 1728 by John Gay. The Life and Adventures of Bampfylde Moore Carew was first published in 1745, there are similar writers for many European countries in the early modern period. According to Jackson J. Spielvogel, Poverty was a visible problem in the eighteenth century. Beggars in Bologna were estimated at 25 percent of the population, in Mainz, in France and Britain by the end of the century, an estimated 10 percent of the people depended on charity or begging for their food. The British Poor Laws, dating from the Renaissance, placed restrictions on begging. At various times, begging was restricted to the disabled, the welfare state of the 20th century greatly reduced the number of beggars by directly providing for the basic necessities of the poor from state funds. Beggary is an age old social phenomenon in India, in the medieval and earlier times begging was considered to be an acceptable occupation which was embraced within the traditional social structure. This system of begging and alms-giving to mendicants and the poor is still practiced in India with over 400,000 beggars in 2015. In contemporary India, beggars are often stigmatized as undeserving, people often believe that beggars are not destitute and instead call them professional beggars. There is a perception of begging scams. This view is refuted by grass root research organizations such as Aashray Adhikar Abhiyan and their studies indicate that 99 percent men and 97 percent women resort to beggary due to abject poverty, distress migration from rural villages and the unavailability of employment
Begging
–
A beggar in 1880s
Tehran, photographed by
Antoin Sevruguin
Begging
–
The Singing Beggars by Russian painter Ivan Yermenyov c. 1775
Begging
–
In a 1786
James Gillray caricature, the plentiful
money bags handed to
King George III are contrasted with the beggar whose legs and arms were amputated, in the left corner
Begging
–
Kashkul, or Beggar’s Bowl, with Portrait of Dervishes and a Mounted Falconer, A.H. 1280.
Brooklyn Museum.
29.
Hawker (trade)
–
A hawker is a vendor of merchandise that can be easily transported, the term is roughly synonymous with peddler or costermonger. In most places where the term is used, a hawker sells inexpensive items, whether stationary or mobile, hawkers often advertise by loud street cries or chants, and conduct banter with customers, so to attract attention and enhance sales. When accompanied by a demonstration or detailed explanation of the product, most of them are immigrants or laid-off workers, work for an average 10–12 hours a day, and remain impoverished. Though the prevalent license-permit raj in Indian bureaucracy ended for most retailing in the 1990s, in Kolkata, the profession was a cognisable and non-bailable offense. Over the years the street vendors have organized themselves into trade unions and associations, in fact, The National Association of Street Vendors of India based in Delhi, is a federation of 715 street vendor organizations, trade unions and non-governmental organizations. Kolkata has two such unions, namely the Bengal Hawkers Association and the Calcutta Hawkers Men Union, in September,2012, long-awaited Street Vendors Act was introduced in the Lok Sabha aimed at providing social security and livelihood rights, and regulated the prevalent license system. The Bill was passed in the Lok Sabha on 6 September 2013, the bill received the assent of the President of India on 4 March 2014. The commencement of the Act has not been notified, balut is a popular dish sold by hawkers in the Philippines, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. In both China and Hong Kong, hawkers inventories often include fish ball, beef ball, butzaigo, roasted chestnuts, in Singapore and Malaysia, these stands have become so successful that many have chosen to set up shop more permanently in a hawker center. Across Asia, stalls have been set up with little to no government monitoring, due to health concerns and other liability problems, the food culture has been seriously challenged in Indonesia, though without marked success. However, in Hong Kong, the lease versus licensed hawker restrictions have put a burden on this mobile food culture, the term Jau Gwei has been used to describe vendors often running away from local police. The costermongers of London, England were at their peak in the 19th century, organised, yet semi-obvious, they were ubiquitous, and their street cries could be heard everywhere. Street vendors in Latin America are known in local Spanish and Portuguese variously as vendedores ambulantes or simply ambulantes, in Argentina they are known as manteros. In Brazil, they are known as camelôs. Some ambulantes set up in a location while others are mobile. Some ambulantes sell their goods door-to-door, puestos are market stalls or stands. Street vendors face various regulations and fees, there are sometimes disputes between established merchants and ambulantes. In order to avoid overwhelming tourists or shoppers, ambulantes are known to establish territories, thieves stealing their goods can be a problem
Hawker (trade)
–
Street hawkers selling bags and sunglasses in central
Rome,
Italy
Hawker (trade)
–
Street vendors selling
durians out of a car in
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Hawker (trade)
–
A hawker selling
goat meat in
Kabul
Hawker (trade)
–
A girl selling plastic containers for carrying Ganges water,
Haridwar, India. Many street vendors in Asia are children.
30.
Peddler
–
A peddler, in British English pedlar, also known as a canvasser, chapman, cheapjack, hawker, higler, huckster, monger, or solicitor, is a traveling vendor of goods. In England, the term was used for travellers hawking goods in the countryside to small towns and villages. In London more specific terms were used, such as costermonger, Peddlers have a long and colourful history. From antiquity, peddlers filled the gaps in the market economy by providing consumers with the convenience of door-to-door service. They operated alongside town markets and fairs where they often purchased surplus stocks which were resold to consumers. Thus, peddlers played an important role in linking these consumers, some peddlers worked as agents or travelling salesmen for larger manufacturers, thus were the precursor to the modern travelling salesman. In Europe, suspicions of dishonest or petty criminal activity was associated with peddlers and travellers. From the 16th century, peddlers were often associated with negative connotations - attitudes which persisted well into the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The origin of the word, known in English since 1225, is unknown, historically, peddlers travelled on foot, carrying their wares, or by means of a person- or animal-drawn cart or wagon. Peddlers were known by a variety of names throughout the ages, including Arabber, hawker), costermonger, chapman, huckster, typically, peddlers operated door-to-door, plied the streets or stationed themselves at the fringes of formal trade venues such as open air markets or fairs. Peddlers sometimes doubled as performers, healers, or fortune-tellers, as market towns flourished in medieval Europe, peddlers found a role operating on the fringes of the formal economy. They called directly on homes, delivering produce to the door thereby saving customers time travelling to markets or fairs, however, customers paied a higher price for this convenience. Some peddlers operated out of inns or taverns, where they acted as an agent rather than a reseller. Peddlers played an important role providing services to geographically isolated districts, such as in the regions of Europe, thereby linking these districs with wider trading routes. ”By the eighteenth century, some peddlers worked for industrial producers. In England, these peddlers were known as “Manchester men. ”Employed by a factory or entrepreneur and they were the precursors to the modern sales representative. In the United States, the era of the traveling peddler probably peaked in the decades just before the American Civil War, the large advances in industrial mass production and freight transportation as a result of the war laid the groundwork for the beginnings of modern retail and distribution networks. Further, the rise of mail order catalogues offered another way for people in rural or other remote areas to obtain items not readily available in local stores. In the United States, the travelling salesman became a character in countless jokes
Peddler
–
Peddler woman in
Nishapur
Peddler
–
De Marskramer, by
Hieronymus Bosch,
Museum Boijmans van Beuningen
Peddler
–
Belgian milk peddlers, c. 1890-1900
Peddler
–
A
Moroccan peddler in
Ceriale,
Italy
31.
Solicitation
–
Solicitation is the act of offering, or attempting to purchase, goods or services. Legal status may be specific to the time or place where occurs, in the United States, the term solicitation implies some part of commercial element, consideration, or payment. Unlike conspiracy, there is no overt step necessary for solicitation, one person can be a defendant and it is not necessary that the person commit the crime, nor is it necessary that the person solicited be willing or able to commit the crime. For example, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie, and Alice intends for Bob to assault Charlie, however, if Alice commands Bob to assault Charlie without intending that a crime be committed, then there is no solicitation. Solicitation is also subject to the doctrine of merger, which applies in situations where the person solicited commits the crime, city ordinances vary but may require a soliciting sign to be of a certain dimension to qualify for legal protection. Some signs are designed to clearly cite the city ordinance and describe the consequences to the solicitor, although certainly not required, such methods may be more effective at deterring unwanted solicitation
Solicitation
–
Not to be confused with
solicitude.
32.
Media manipulation
–
Media manipulation is a series of related techniques in which partisans create an image or argument that favours their particular interests. It is used within public relations, propaganda, marketing, etc, while the objective for each context is quite different, the broad techniques are often similar. As illustrated below, many of the modern mass media manipulation methods are types of distraction, on the assumption that the public has a limited attention span. Activism is the practice or doctrine that has an emphasis on direct vigorous action especially supporting or opposing one side of a controversial matter and it is quite simply starting a movement to effect or change social views. It is frequently started by individuals but is done collectively through social movements with large masses. These social movements can be done through public rallies, strikes, street marches, most of Kings movements were done through non-violence rallies and public speeches to show the white American population that they were peaceful but also wanted change in their community. In 1964, the Civil Rights Acts commenced giving African Americans equality with all races, advertising is the action of attracting public attention to something, especially through paid announcements for products and services. This tends to be done by businesses who wish to sell their product by paying media outlets to show their products or services on television breaks, banners on websites and these advertisements are not only done by businesses but can also be done by certain groups. Non-commercial advertisers are those who spend money on advertising in a hope to raise awareness for a cause or promote specific ideas and these include groups such as interest groups, political parties, government organizations and religious movements. Most of these organizations intend to spread a message or sway public opinion instead of trying to sell products or services, advertising can not only be found on social media, it is also evident on billboards, newspapers, magazines and even word of mouth. A hoax is something intended to deceive or defraud, when a newspaper or the news reports a fake story, it is known as a hoax. Misleading public stunts, scientific frauds, false bomb threats and business scams as hoaxes, a common aspect that hoaxes have is that they are all meant to deceive or lie. For something to become a hoax, the lie must have something more to offer and it must be outrageous, dramatic but also has to be believable and ingenious. Above all, it must be able to attract attention from the public, once it has done that then a hoax is in full effect. The word hoax became popular in the middle to late eighteenth century and it is thought to have come from the saying hocus pocus. Hocus pocus means meaningless talk which is designed to trick others or conceal the truth about a situation. The key word in something becoming a hoax is public, a lie or a deception only becomes a hoax when it is acknowledged by the public. A popular hoax that is evident in todays times would be the Microwave your spoon hoax and this hoax originated from a video which shows a metallic spoon being heated inside a microwave oven
Media manipulation
33.
Media bias
–
Media bias is the bias or perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered. The term media bias implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening the standards of journalism, the direction and degree of media bias in various countries is widely disputed. Practical limitations to media neutrality include the inability of journalists to report all available stories and facts, government influence, including overt and covert censorship, biases the media in some countries, for example North Korea and Burma. There are a number of national and international groups that report on bias in the media. The most commonly discussed forms of bias occur when the support or attack a particular political party, candidate. DAlessio and Allen list three forms of bias as the most widely studied, Coverage bias, when actors or issues are more or less visible in the news. Gatekeeping bias, when stories are selected or deselected, sometimes on ideological grounds and it is sometimes also referred to as agenda bias, when the focus is on political actors and whether they are covered based on their preferred policy issues. Statement bias, when coverage is slanted towards or against particular actors or issues. Other common forms of political and non-political media bias include, Advertising bias, concision bias, a tendency to report views that can be summarized succinctly, crowding out more unconventional views that take time to explain. Corporate bias, when stories are selected or slanted to please corporate owners of media, mainstream bias, a tendency to report what everyone else is reporting, and to avoid stories that will offend anyone. Sensationalism, bias in favor of the exceptional over the ordinary, giving the impression that rare events, such as crashes, are more common than common events. Structural bias, when an actor or issue receives more or less favorable coverage as a result of newsworthiness and media routines, not as the result of ideological decisions. Other forms of bias include reporting that favors or attacks a particular race, religion, gender, age, sexual orientation, ethnic group, or even person. Media bias in the United States occurs when the media in the United States systematically emphasizes one particular point of view in a way that contravenes the standards of professional journalism. Claims of media bias in the United States include claims of bias, conservative bias, mainstream bias. To combat this, a variety of groups that attempt to find the facts behind both biased reporting and unfounded claims of bias have been founded. Research about media bias is now a subject of scholarship in a variety of disciplines. Media bias is studied at schools of journalism, university departments, in the United States, many of these studies focus on issues of a conservative/liberal balance in the media
Media bias
–
Journalism
34.
Deception
–
Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
Deception
–
The Beguiling of Merlin, by
Edward Burne-Jones, 1874
Deception
–
Deception of woman, with self-portrait by
Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz, 1927 (
National Museum, Warsaw.
Deception
–
This
wallaby has adaptive colouration which allows it to blend with its environment.
35.
Machiavellianism
–
Machiavellianism is the employment of cunning and duplicity in statecraft or in general conduct. The word comes from the Italian Renaissance diplomat and writer Niccolò Machiavelli, born in 1469 and it was in this context that the St. The English playwrights William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe were enthusiastic proponents of this view, the Anti-Machiavel is an 18th-century essay by Frederick the Great, King of Prussia and patron of Voltaire, rebutting The Prince, and Machiavellianism. It was first published in September 1740, a few months after Frederick became king, denis Diderot, the French philosopher, viewed Machiavellianism as an abhorrent type of politics and the art of tyranny. In the 1960s, Richard Christie and Florence L. Geis developed a test for measuring a persons level of Machiavellianism and their Mach - IV test, a twenty-statement personality survey, became the standard self-assessment tool of Machiavellianism. Using their scale, Christie and Geis conducted multiple experimental tests showed that the interpersonal strategies and behavior of High Machs. Their basic results have been widely replicated, measured on the Mach - IV scale, males are, on average, slightly more Machiavellian than females. A1992 review described Machiavellian motivation as related to cold selfishness and pure instrumentality, High Machs admitted to focusing on unmitigated achievement and winning at any cost. Due to their skill at interpersonal manipulation, there has often been an assumption that high Machs possess superior intelligence, however, research has firmly established that Machiavellianism is unrelated to IQ. Both empathy and emotion recognition have been shown to have negative correlations with Machiavellianism, additionally, research has shown that Machiavellianism is unrelated to a more advanced theory of mind, that is, the ability to anticipate what others are thinking in social situations. If high Machs actually are skilled at manipulating others this appears to be unrelated to any special abilities as such. Machiavellianism is one of the three personality traits referred to as the triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. Machiavellianism has been found to be correlated with Agreeableness and Conscientiousness. However, Machiavellianism correlates more highly with the Honesty-humility dimension of the six-factor HEXACO model than any of the Big Five dimensions. Machiavellianism has also located within the interpersonal circumplex, which consists of the two independent dimensions of agency and communion. Agency refers to motivation to succeed and to individuate the self, whereas communion refers to motivation to merge with others, Machiavellianism lies in the quadrant of the circumplex defined by high agency and low communion. Machiavellianism has been found to lie diagonally opposite from a construct called self-construal. This suggests that high in Machiavellianism do not simply wish to achieve
Machiavellianism
–
Niccolò Machiavelli
Machiavellianism
–
General
36.
Mass media
–
The mass media is a diversified collection of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically, via such media as film, radio, recorded music, digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social sites, websites. Print media transmit information via physical objects, such as books, comics, magazines, newspapers, event organizing and public speaking can also be considered forms of mass media. The organizations that control these technologies, such as studios, publishing companies. In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries, books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital technology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries made prominent the question. For example, it is whether to include cell phones, computer games. In the 2000s, a called the seven mass media became popular. For example, the Internet includes blogs, podcasts, web sites, the sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as digital media, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as broadcast media. Some argue that video games have developed into a mass form of media. While a telephone is a communication device, mass media communicates to a large group. In addition, the telephone has transformed into a phone which is equipped with Internet access. A question arises whether this makes cell phones a mass medium or simply a device used to access a mass medium. There is currently a system by which marketers and advertisers are able to tap into satellites and this transmission of mass advertising to millions of people is another form of mass communication. Video games may also be evolving into a mass medium, video games provide a common gaming experience to millions of users across the globe and convey the same messages and ideologies to all their users. Users sometimes share the experience with one another by playing online, excluding the Internet however, it is questionable whether players of video games are sharing a common experience when they play the game individually
Mass media
–
Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902
Mass media
–
A family listening to a
crystal radio in the 1920s
Mass media
–
A panel in the
Newseum in
Washington, D.C., shows the September 12 headlines in America and around the world
Mass media
–
Early
minstrel shows lampooned the assumed stupidity of black people. Detail from cover of The Celebrated Negro Melodies, as Sung by the Virginia Minstrels, 1843
37.
Orwellian
–
Orwellian is an adjective describing a situation, idea, or societal condition that George Orwell identified as being destructive to the welfare of a free and open society. Nineteen Eighty-Four uses themes from life in the Soviet Union and wartime life in Great Britain as sources for many of its motifs, bibliography of George Orwell Mass surveillance National security Doublespeak Award Finding Orwell in Burma
Orwellian
–
External video
38.
Persuasion
–
Persuasion is an umbrella term of influence. Persuasion can attempt to influence a persons beliefs, attitudes, intentions, motivations, Persuasion is also an often used tool in the pursuit of personal gain, such as election campaigning, giving a sales pitch, or in trial advocacy. Persuasion can also be interpreted as using ones personal or positional resources to change behaviors or attitudes. Systematic persuasion is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to logic, heuristic persuasion on the other hand is the process through which attitudes or beliefs are leveraged by appeals to habit or emotion. Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution as the highest standard for a successful politician, all trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the persuasiveness of the speaker. Rhetoric was the ability to find the means of persuasion in any instance. Aristotles rhetorical proofs, ethos logos pathos Humans attempt to explain the actions of others through either dispositional attribution or situational attribution. Dispositional attribution, also referred to as attribution, attempts to point to a person’s traits, abilities, motives. A citizen claiming that a lack of progress is not a fault of the president. Fundamental attribution error occurs when people wrongly attribute either a shortcoming or accomplishment to internal factors, in general, people tend to make dispositional attributions more often than situational attributions when trying to explain or understand a person’s behavior. This happens when we are more focused on the individual because we do not know much about their situation or context. Conditioning plays a part in the concept of persuasion. It is more often about leading someone into taking certain actions of their own, in advertisements for example, this is done by attempting to connect a positive emotion to a brand/product logo. This is often done by creating commercials that make people laugh, using a sexual undertone, inserting uplifting images and/or music etc. great examples of this are professional athletes. The important thing for the advertiser is to establish a connection to the consumer and this conditioning is thought to affect how people view certain products, knowing that most purchases are made on the basis of emotion. Just like you sometimes recall a memory from a certain smell or sound, stefano DellaVigna and Matthew Gentzkow did a comprehensive study on the effects of persuasion in different domains. They discovered that persuasion has little or no effect on advertisement, however, leon Festinger originally proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance in 1957. He theorized that human beings strive for mental consistency
Persuasion
–
Persuasion, novel by
Jane Austen. Illustrated by
C. E. Brock For Sir Walter Elliot, baronet, the hints of Mr Shepherd, his agent, were quite unwelcome
Persuasion
–
The art of persuasion'--returning from a ball in India from "The Graphic", 1890
39.
Activism
–
Activism consists of efforts to promote, impede, or direct social, political, economic, and/or environmental reform or stasis with the desire to make improvements in society. One can also express activism through different forms of art, daily acts of protest such as not buying clothes from a certain clothing company because they exploit workers is another form of activism. One view holds that acknowledging privileges and oppressions on a daily basis ranks as a form of activism, research has begun to explore how activist groups use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. The Online Etymology Dictionary records the English words activism and activist from 1920, Activists can function in roles as public officials, as in judicial activism. Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. introduced the term judicial activism in a January 1946 Fortune magazine article titled The Supreme Court,1947, some activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than to persuade governments to change or not to change laws. Other activists try to persuade people to remain the same, in an effort to counter change, the cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Activism is not always an action by Activists, every year more than 100 environmental activists are killed, in 2014116 environmental activists were assassinated, in 2015185 activists were killed around this planet. Since the 1990s, the Internet has been a tool used by activists for mobilization and communication of causes, specific platforms like MoveOn. org, founded in 1998, allow individuals to establish petitions and movements for social change. Protesters in Seattle in 1999 used email to organize protests against the WTO Ministerial Conference, throughout the 2000s, protesters continued to use social media platforms to generate interest. The power of Internet Activism came into a lens with the Arab Spring protests. They use different means to political persecution, such as Tor Browser. The activism industry consists of organizations and individuals engaged in activism, Activism is often done full-time, as part of an organizations core business. Many organizations in the industry are either non profit organizations or non-governmental organizations. Most activist organizations do not manufacture goods, the term activism industry has often been used to refer to outsourced fundraising operations. However, activist organizations engage in activities as well. Lobbying, or the influencing of decisions made by government, is another activist tactic, many groups, including law firms, have designated staff assigned specifically for lobbying purposes. In the United States, lobbying is regulated by the federal government, many government systems encourage public support of non-profit organizations by granting various forms of tax relief for donations to charitable organizations. Governments may attempt to deny these benefits to activists by restricting the political activity of tax-exempt organizations, randy Shaw, The Activists Handbook, A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond
Activism
–
Barricade at the
Paris Commune, 1871
Activism
–
Civil rights activists at the
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963
Activism
–
A
Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970
Activism
–
The longest running
peace vigil in U.S. history, started by activist
Thomas in 1981.
40.
Alternative media
–
Alternative media are media that differ from established or dominant types of media in terms of their content, production, or distribution. Alternative media take many forms including print, audio, video, alternative media challenge the dominant beliefs and values of a culture and have been described as counter-hegemonic by adherents of Antonio Gramscis theory of cultural hegemony. There are various definitions of alternative media, john Downing, for example, defines radical alternative media as media that express an alternative vision to hegemonic policies, priorities, and perspectives. One way of understanding alternative media is to consider their role in the process of democratic communication, philosopher Jürgen Habermas proposed that a healthy democratic community requires a space where rational debate can take place between engaged citizens. It is essential that the dialogue in this public sphere occurs outside the control of any authority so that citizens can exchange ideas as equals and this translates to the need for free speech and a free press. In Habermass idea of the sphere, participation is open to everyone, all participants are considered equal. However, this fails to note the inherent exclusion of women. The alternative media associated with these spheres are critical in developing the needs and identity of the group. Social movements are a type of collective action and they involve large, sometimes informal, groups or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues and instigate, resist or undo social change. Social movement media is how social movements use media, and oftentimes, due to the nature of social movements, communication is vital to the success of social movements. As a result, social movements often turn to media forms. An example of how the mainstream media problematically covers social movements is the Occupy movement, in comparing the mainstream news coverage of the Occupy movement against coverage from alternative press several trends emerge. First, mainstream media used confusion over the event as the dominant frame while alternative media focused on what the demonstrators were trying to accomplish. Second, the media placed the protesters at fault of any violence while the alternative media focused on the brutality of the police. For more information about social movements, and alternative media, see Social movement theory, Social movements in areas such as human rights, the environmental movement, and civil rights produce alternative media to further their goals, spread awareness, and inspire participation and support. An example of a human rights social movement using alternative media is the group WITNESS and they rely on video recordings using technology such as handheld camcorders and smart phones to capture the worlds attention and viscerally communicate human rights abuses. An example of an environment movement using alternative media is the group Green Peace and it uses direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its goals, as well as alternative media. They use online tactics such as podcasts and blogs as well as performance art, an example of a civil rights movement group using alternative media was the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee
Alternative media
–
Journalism
Alternative media
–
Example of a sign used during the Occupy Wall Street movement
Alternative media
–
A favela in Brazil
Alternative media
–
Protester at a Greenpeace march in 2009
41.
Boycott
–
The purpose of a boycott is to inflict some economic loss on the target, or to indicate a moral outrage, to try to compel the target to alter an objectionable behavior. Sometimes, a boycott can be a form of consumer activism, when a similar practice is legislated by a national government, it is known as a sanction. As harvests had been poor that year, Lord Erne offered his tenants a ten percent reduction in their rents, in September of that year, protesting tenants demanded a twenty five percent reduction, which Lord Erne refused. Boycott then attempted to evict eleven tenants from the land, while Parnells speech did not refer to land agents or landlords, the tactic was first applied to Boycott when the alarm was raised about the evictions. Despite the short-term economic hardship to those undertaking this action, Boycott soon found himself isolated – his workers stopped work in the fields and stables, local businessmen stopped trading with him, and the local postman refused to deliver mail. The concerted action taken against him meant that Boycott was unable to hire anyone to harvest the crops in his charge, eventually 50 Orangemen from Cavan and Monaghan volunteered to do the work. This protection ended up costing far more than the harvest was worth, after the harvest, the boycott was successfully continued. Within weeks Boycotts name was everywhere, the New York Tribune reporter, James Redpath, first wrote of the boycott in the international press. The Irish author, George Moore, reported, Like a comet the verb boycott appeared and it was used by The Times in November 1880 as a term for organized isolation. According to an account in the book The Fall of Feudalism in Ireland by Michael Davitt, john OMalley of County Mayo to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or agent like Boycott. The Times first reported on November 20,1880, The people of New Pallas have resolved to boycott them, the Daily News wrote on December 13,1880, Already the stoutest-hearted are yielding on every side to the dread of being Boycotted. By January of the year, the word was being used figuratively. She Boycotted London from Kew to Mile End, girlcott is a portmanteau of girl and boycott intended to focus on the rights or actions of women. The term was coined in 1968 by American track star Lacey ONeal during the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, speaking for black women athletes, she advised that the group would not girlcott the Olympic Games, because female athletes were still focused on being recognized. It also appeared in Time magazine in 1970, and was used by retired tennis player Billie Jean King in reference to Wimbledon. The term girlcott was revived in 2005 by women in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania protesting what they said were sexist, during the 1973 oil crisis, the Arab countries enacted a crude oil embargo against the West. The first Olympic boycott was in the 1956 Summer Olympics with several countries boycotting the games for different reasons, iran also has an informal Olympic boycott against participating against Israel, and Iranian athletes typically bow out or claim injuries when pitted against Israelis. A boycott is typically a one-time affair intended to correct a single wrong. g
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
Kentucky Fried Chicken due to
animal rights issues
Boycott
–
Vanity Fair caricature of Charles C. Boycott
Boycott
–
Nameplate of Dr. Werner Liebenthal,
Notary &
Advocate. The plate was hung outside his office on Martin Luther Str,
Schöneberg,
Berlin. In 1933, following the
Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service the plate was painted black by the Nazis, who boycotted Jewish owned offices.
Boycott
–
Protesters advocating boycott of
BP due to the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
42.
Civil disobedience
–
Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a government, or of an occupying international power. Civil disobedience is a symbolic or ritualistic violation of the law, Civil disobedience is sometimes, though not always, defined as being nonviolent resistance. One of its earliest massive implementations was brought about by Egyptians against the British occupation in the 1919 Revolution, Civil disobedience is one of the many ways people have rebelled against what they deem to be unfair laws. She gives a speech in which she tells him that she must obey her conscience rather than human law. She is not at all afraid of the death he threatens her with and it is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. A version was taken up by the author Henry David Thoreau in his essay Civil Disobedience, gandhis Satyagraha was partially influenced and inspired by Shelleys nonviolence in protest and political action. In particular, it is known that Gandhi would often quote Shelleys Masque of Anarchy to vast audiences during the campaign for a free India, Thoreaus 1848 essay Civil Disobedience, originally titled Resistance to Civil Government, has had a wide influence on many later practitioners of civil disobedience. The driving idea behind the essay is that citizens are morally responsible for their support of aggressors, in the essay, Thoreau explained his reasons for having refused to pay taxes as an act of protest against slavery and against the Mexican–American War. He writes, If I devote myself to other pursuits and contemplations, I must first see, at least, I must get off him first, that he may pursue his contemplations too. See what gross inconsistency is tolerated, public and typically peaceful resistance to public power would remain an integral tactic in modern American minority-rights politics. Henry David Thoreaus 1849 essay Resistance to Civil Government was eventually renamed Essay on Civil Disobedience, after his landmark lectures were published in 1866, the term began to appear in numerous sermons and lectures relating to slavery and the war in Mexico. Thus, by the time Thoreaus lectures were first published under the title Civil Disobedience, in 1866, four years after his death and it has been argued that the term civil disobedience has always suffered from ambiguity and in modern times, become utterly debased. Marshall Cohen notes, It has been used to everything from bringing a test-case in the federal courts to taking aim at a federal official. LeGrande writes that the formulation of a single all-encompassing definition of the term is extremely difficult, in reviewing the voluminous literature on the subject, the student of civil disobedience rapidly finds himself surrounded by a maze of semantical problems and grammatical niceties. Like Alice in Wonderland, he finds that specific terminology has no more meaning than the individual orator intends it to have. He encourages a distinction between lawful protest demonstration, nonviolent civil disobedience, and violent civil disobedience, the resistance to authority in South Africa was well advanced before I got the essay. When I saw the title of Thoreaus great essay, I began to use his phrase to explain our struggle to the English readers, but I found that even Civil Disobedience failed to convey the full meaning of the struggle. I therefore adopted the phrase Civil Resistance, often there is an expectation to be attacked or even beaten by the authorities
Civil disobedience
–
Mahatma Gandhi employed civil disobedience during the
Indian independence movement.
Civil disobedience
–
Henry David Thoreau 's classic essay
Civil Disobedience inspired
Martin Luther King and many other
activists.
Civil disobedience
–
A police officer speaks with a demonstrator at a union picket, explaining that she will be arrested if she does not leave the street. The demonstrator was arrested moments later.
43.
Culture jamming
–
Culture jamming is a tactic used by many anti-consumerist social movements to disrupt or subvert media culture and its mainstream cultural institutions, including corporate advertising. It attempts to expose the methods of domination of a society to foster progressive change. Culture jamming is a form of subvertising, many culture jams are intended to expose questionable political assumptions behind commercial culture. Tactics include re-figuring logos, fashion statements, and product images as a means to challenge the idea of whats cool, Culture jamming often entails using mass media to produce ironic or satirical commentary about itself, commonly using the original mediums communication method. Culture jamming is employed as a reaction against social conformity, prominent examples of culture jamming include the adulteration of billboard advertising by the Billboard Liberation Front, and contemporary artists such as Ron English. Culture jamming may involve street parties and protests, the term was coined in 1984 by Don Joyce of the sound collage band Negativland, with the release of their album JamCon 84. The phrase culture jamming comes from the idea of radio jamming, in one of the tracks of the album, they stated, According to Vince Carducci, although the term was coined by Negativland, culture jamming can be traced as far back as the 1950s. One particularly influential group that was active in Europe was the Situationist International and was led by Guy Debord, the SI asserted that in the past humans dealt with life and the consumer market directly. They argued that this way of life was slowly deteriorating as a direct result of the new modern way of life. Through playful activity, individuals could create situations, the opposite of spectacles, the SI first compared its own activities to radio jamming in 1968, when it proposed the use of guerrilla communication within mass media to sow confusion within the dominant culture. In 1985, the Guerrilla Girls formed to expose discrimination and corruption in the artworld, for example, T-Mobile utilized the Liverpool street underground station to host a flashmob to sell their mobile services. Culture jamming is a form of disruption that plays on the emotions of viewers and bystanders, Jammers want to disrupt the unconscious thought process that takes place when most consumers view a popular advertising and bring about a détournement. Activists that utilize this tactic are counting on their meme to pull on the strings of people. The reactions that most cultural jammers are hoping to evoke are behavioral change, there are four emotions that activists often want viewers to feel. These emotions – shock, shame, fear, and anger – are believed to be the catalysts for social change, the basic unit in which a message is transmitted in culture jamming is the meme. Memes are condensed images that stimulate visual, verbal, musical, or behavioral associations that people can easily imitate and transmit to others. The term meme was coined and first popularized by geneticist Richard Dawkins, but later used by critics such as Douglas Rushkoff. Memes are seen as genes that can jump from outlet to outlet, Culture jammers will often use common symbols such as the McDonalds golden arches or Nike swoosh to engage people and force them to think about their eating habits or fashion sense
Culture jamming
–
Graffitied text on billboard in
Cambridge,
UK
Culture jamming
–
Culture
44.
Demonstration (protest)
–
Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations. Demonstrations can be nonviolent or violent, or can begin as nonviolent, sometimes riot police or other forms of law enforcement become involved. In some cases this may be in order to try to prevent the protest from taking place at all, in other cases it may be to prevent clashes between rival groups, or to prevent a demonstration from spreading and turning into a riot. Demonstrations are a form of activism, usually taking the form of a gathering of people in a rally or walking in a march. Thus, the opinion is demonstrated to be significant by gathering in a associated with that opinion. Demonstrations can be used to show a viewpoint regarding a public issue, a demonstration is usually considered more successful if more people participate. There are many types of demonstrations, including a variety of elements and these may include, Marches, in which a parade demonstrate while moving along a set route. Rallies, in which people gather to listen to speakers or musicians, picketing, in which people surround an area. Nudity, in which they protest naked - here the antagonist may give in before the demonstration happens to avoid embarrassment, Demonstrations are sometimes spontaneous gatherings, but are also utilized as a tactical choice by movements. They often form part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance. Demonstrations are usually physical gatherings, but virtual or online demonstrations are certainly possible, topics of demonstrations often deal with political, economic, and social issues. Clashes between demonstrators and counter-demonstrators may turn violent, government-organized demonstrations are demonstrations which are organized by a government. The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Peoples Republic of China, Republic of Cuba, sometimes the date or location chosen for the demonstration is of historical or cultural significance, such as the anniversary of some event that is relevant to the topic of the demonstration. Locations are also chosen because of some relevance to the issue at hand. Protest marches and demonstrations are a nonviolent tactic. They are thus one tactic available to proponents of strategic nonviolence, some demonstrations and protests can turn, at least partially, into riots or mob violence against objects such as automobiles and businesses, bystanders and the police. Police and military authorities often use force or less-lethal weapons, such as tasers, rubber bullets, pepper spray. Sometimes violent situations are caused by the preemptive or offensive use of weapons which can provoke, destabilize
Demonstration (protest)
–
Monday demonstrations in East Germany helped to bring down the
Berlin Wall.
Demonstration (protest)
–
Demonstration in Canada against oil tankers, 1970
Demonstration (protest)
–
Greece, 2013: a
working class political
protest calling for the
boycott of a
bookshop after an employee was fired, allegedly for her
labor rights political
activism
Demonstration (protest)
–
American Civil Rights March on Washington, leaders marching from the
Washington Monument to the
Lincoln Memorial, August 28, 1963.
45.
Media activism
–
Media activism is a broad category of activism that utilizes media and communication technologies for social and political movements. Media activism can be used for different purposes. It is often employed by grassroots activists and anarchists to spread information not available via mainstream media or to share censored news stories, certain forms of politically motivated hacking and net-based campaigns are also considered media activism. Often, the focus of media activism is to change policies relating to media, social media is often used as a form of media activism. Because of the features and widespread adoption users can quickly disseminate information. Our ideas, our demands are discussed on Facebook, there are no meetings, no rules. Live streams applications or websites such as Livestream is a media form which can replace TV when there is a kind of censorship. The protests in Istanbul can be an example of this way of broadcasting in terms of the lack of the objectivity of the actual media, moreover, the usage of applications such as Whatsapp can increase the organisation of the protestors due to the group messages. YouTube is another efficient tool of spreading information and it is generally used with other social media forms such as Facebook and Twitter. The most important example to the media activism through YouTube can be the video of Kony which reached to one hundred million views in 6 days, manifesting by using videos allows protesters to reach the whole world easier than just publishing in a local language. Media activism has expanded its scope to include fields of such as journalism. Media activism additionally educates the audience to be producers of their own media, Media activism to be expanded to facilitate action through media production and involvement. Social Media has become an organizing tool for political and social movements globally. They serve to strengthen already existing networks of political and social relationships among activists offline, Media activism among youth can be linked to the way youth protest and create communities online over specific issues and social connections. Today nearly 32 percent of Venezuelan internet-users utilize social media on regular basis, social media was used to organize rallies and political platforms and affected campaign content. Opposition candidate Capriles used social media as an activist approach to drum up support and this form of media activism connected most dominantly in the Venezuelan youth population—a generation considered to be tech-savvy. The 2011 Arab Spring uprisings made extensive use of media activism within the countries of Tunisia, Libya. These nations concentrated on the ability of the society to operate social media, Arab youth population are described as opening societies through social media in places where governments are otherwise repressive
Media activism
–
Occupy Wall Street protesters in
Zuccotti Park using their laptops, September 2011
46.
Protest
–
A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
Protest
–
Demonstration against the President of Iran
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during the
Rio+20 conference in
Brazil, June 2012
Protest
–
March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom
Protest
–
A
working class political protest in
Greece calling for the boycott of a bookshop after an employee was fired, allegedly for her political activism
Protest
–
Anti-nuclear Power Plant Rally on 19 September 2011 at
Meiji Shrine complex in Tokyo. Sixty thousand people marched chanting "Sayonara nuclear power" and waving banners, to call on Japan's government to abandon nuclear power, following the
Fukushima nuclear disaster.
47.
Youth activism
–
Youth activism is youth engagement in community organizing for social change. Youth participation in social change focuses more on issue-oriented activism than traditional partisan or electoral politics, technology and the use of digital media has changed the way youth participate in activism globally, and youth are more active in media than older generations. Teens are often out of participation in politics because adults dominate the discourse. However, youth are also concerned and informed citizens who can advocate for change within their communities and these may include politics, health, and social issues. Sociopolitical development is a process that covers the range of cognitions, skills, attitudes, worldviews. Social activism is the predominant form of youth today, as millions of young people around the world participate in social activism that is organized, informed, led. Many efforts, including education reform, childrens rights, and government reform call on youth to participate this way, Youth councils are an example of this. Youth-driven activism requires young people to be the primary movers within an adult-led movement, such is the case with the Sierra Club, where youth compel their peers to join and become active in the environmental movement. This is also true of many organizations that were founded by youth who became adults, such as SEAC, as the central beneficiaries of public schools, youth are also advocating for student-led school change and education reform through student activism and meaningful student involvement. There are structural inequalities that keep youth from engaging in political talk, school clubs require an adult adviser to make the club official, further adding to school hierarchies of adult power. Facebook has become a tool for youth to not only information, but broadcast events and activities, participate in activist groups. Twitter, although it is used to provide links to activism, is not regarded to be as useful because of the limitation of 140 characters, Twitter has also been used to spread awareness of social issues by using hashtags. Some of these movements included Kony 2012 and Trayvon Martin, video blogging is used as a tool by youth activist to reach out to their peers, gather support, establish a discourse and even to mobilize others. Youth use videos to articulate ideas and needs, organize resources and people and it has also led to the recognition of youth as political actors in the public domain. Youth activism in the Global South increased in the first years of the 2010s, people under the age of 18 comprise 46% of the global population, and these youth played a crucial role around the world during the first two decades of the twenty-first century. A classic example of youth engagement in political activism is the Soweto riots, to the people in South Africa, June 16 is a constant reminder of the political events that occurred in 1976. When teachers started instructing in Afrikaans, the language of their oppressors, the police reaction was brutal and that day at least twenty-five people were killed. The violence continued and spread all across the country, by the end of the year 575 people died and 2,389 were wounded
Youth activism
–
Child and youth activists protesting at a demonstration in
Hong Kong.
48.
Billboard
–
A billboard is a large outdoor advertising structure, typically found in high-traffic areas such as alongside busy roads. Billboards present large advertisements to passing pedestrians and drivers, typically showing large, ostensibly witty slogans, and distinctive visuals, billboards are highly visible in the top designated market areas. The largest standard-size billboards, known as Bulletins, are located primarily on highways, expressways or principal arterials. Bulletins afford greatest visibility due not only to their size, but because they allow creative customizing through extensions, posters are the other common form of billboard advertising, located mostly along primary and secondary arterial roads. Posters are a smaller format than bulletins and are viewed principally by residents and commuter traffic, billboard advertisements are designed to catch a persons attention and create a memorable impression very quickly, leaving the reader thinking about the advertisement after they have driven past it. They have to be readable in a short time because they are usually read while being passed at high speeds. Thus there are only a few words, in large print. Some billboard designs spill outside the space given to them by the billboard. The sign depicted a giant cube of beef being pierced by a fork that extended to the ground. The scents were emitted between 7–10 a. m. and 4– to 7 pm from 28 May 2010 through 18 June 2010, almost all these billboards were painted in large studios. The image was projected on the series of panels that made up the billboard. Line drawings were done, then traced with a wheel that created perforated lines. The patterns were then pounced onto the board with a chalk filled pounce bag, using oil paints, artists would use large brushes to paint the image. Once the panels were installed using hydraulic cranes, artists would go up on the installed billboard and these large, painted billboards were especially popular in Los Angeles where historic firms such as Foster & Kleiser and Pacific Outdoor Advertising dominated the industry. Eventually, these painted billboards gave way to graphic reproduction, the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles is one area where hand-painted billboards can still be found, usually to advertise upcoming films or albums. A digital billboard is a billboard that is created from computer programs, digital billboards can be designed to display running text, display several different displays from the same company, and even provide several companies a certain time slot during the day. The constantly changing texts ensure maximum impact and wide exposure to target audiences, in May 2014, Becks Beer released a billboard poster that plays audio. Conductive ink linked to sensors and speakers means that when touched, the beer company claim it to be the worlds first playable music poster
Billboard
–
A 'classic' billboard, consisting of large pieces of printed paper attached to a durable backing on a structure
Billboard
–
"World's tallest billboard" –
One Times Square,
New York
Billboard
–
Billboard at the closed Forum Hotel in
Kraków, Poland. It is the biggest billboard in Europe. It displays a new advertisement every month.
Billboard
–
Digital billboard with changing images,
Ypsilanti, MI
