1.
Hoboken, New Jersey
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Hoboken is a city in Hudson County, New Jersey, United States. Hoboken is part of the New York metropolitan area and is the site of Hoboken Terminal, Hoboken was first settled as part of the Pavonia, New Netherland colony in the 17th century. During the early 19th century the city was developed by Colonel John Stevens, first as a resort and it became a township in 1849 and was incorporated as a city in 1855. Hoboken is the location of the first recorded game of baseball and of the Stevens Institute of Technology, located on the Hudson Waterfront, the city was an integral part of the Port of New York and New Jersey and home to major industries for most of the 20th century. The character of the city has changed from a blue collar town to one of upscale shops, the name Hoboken was chosen by Colonel John Stevens when he bought land, on a part of which the city still sits. Like Weehawken, its neighbor to the north, Communipaw and Harsimus to the south, Hoebuck, old Dutch for high bluff and likely referring to Castle Point, was used during the colonial era and later spelled as Hobuck, Hobock, Hobuk and Hoboocken. The origin of Hobokens name was not related to the Hoboken district of Antwerp, however, in the nineteenth century, a folk etymology had emerged linking the town of to the similarly-named Flemish town. Hoboken was originally an island, surrounded by the Hudson River on the east and it was a seasonal campsite in the territory of the Hackensack, a phratry of the Lenni Lenape, who used the serpentine rock found there to carve pipes. Soon after it part of the province of New Netherland. Three Lenape sold the land that was to become Hoboken for 80 fathoms of wampum,20 fathoms of cloth,12 kettles, six guns and these transactions, variously dated as July 12,1630 and November 22,1630, represent the earliest known conveyance for the area. Pauw failed to settle the land, and he was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633 and it was later acquired by Hendrick Van Vorst, who leased part of the land to Aert Van Putten, a farmer. In 1643, north of what would be known as Castle Point, Van Putten built a house. In series of Indian and Dutch raids and reprisals, Van Putten was killed and his buildings destroyed, deteriorating relations with the Lenape, its isolation as an island, or relatively long distance from New Amsterdam may have discouraged more settlement. In 1664, the English took possession of New Amsterdam with little or no resistance, english-speaking settlers interspersed with the Dutch, but it remained scarcely populated and agrarian. At the end of the Revolutionary War, Bayards property was confiscated by the Revolutionary Government of New Jersey, in 1784, the land described as William Bayards farm at Hoebuck was bought at auction by Colonel John Stevens for £18,360. In the early 19th century, Colonel John Stevens developed the waterfront as a resort for Manhattanites, on October 11,1811, Stevens ship the Juliana, began to operate as a ferry between Manhattan and Hoboken, making it the worlds first commercial steam ferry. In 1825, he designed and built a locomotive capable of hauling several passenger cars at his estate. Sybils Cave, a cave with a spring, was opened in 1832
2.
San Francisco
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San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is the cultural, commercial, and financial center of Northern California. It is the birthplace of the United Nations, the California Gold Rush of 1849 brought rapid growth, making it the largest city on the West Coast at the time. San Francisco became a consolidated city-county in 1856, after three-quarters of the city was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt, hosting the Panama-Pacific International Exposition nine years later. In World War II, San Francisco was a port of embarkation for service members shipping out to the Pacific Theater. Politically, the city votes strongly along liberal Democratic Party lines, San Francisco is also the headquarters of five major banking institutions and various other companies such as Levi Strauss & Co. Dolby, Airbnb, Weebly, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Yelp, Pinterest, Twitter, Uber, Lyft, Mozilla, Wikimedia Foundation, as of 2016, San Francisco is ranked high on world liveability rankings. The earliest archaeological evidence of habitation of the territory of the city of San Francisco dates to 3000 BC. Upon independence from Spain in 1821, the became part of Mexico. Under Mexican rule, the system gradually ended, and its lands became privatized. In 1835, Englishman William Richardson erected the first independent homestead, together with Alcalde Francisco de Haro, he laid out a street plan for the expanded settlement, and the town, named Yerba Buena, began to attract American settlers. Commodore John D. Sloat claimed California for the United States on July 7,1846, during the Mexican–American War, montgomery arrived to claim Yerba Buena two days later. Yerba Buena was renamed San Francisco on January 30 of the next year, despite its attractive location as a port and naval base, San Francisco was still a small settlement with inhospitable geography. The California Gold Rush brought a flood of treasure seekers, with their sourdough bread in tow, prospectors accumulated in San Francisco over rival Benicia, raising the population from 1,000 in 1848 to 25,000 by December 1849. The promise of fabulous riches was so strong that crews on arriving vessels deserted and rushed off to the gold fields, leaving behind a forest of masts in San Francisco harbor. Some of these approximately 500 abandoned ships were used at times as storeships, saloons and hotels, many were left to rot, by 1851 the harbor was extended out into the bay by wharves while buildings were erected on piles among the ships. By 1870 Yerba Buena Cove had been filled to create new land, buried ships are occasionally exposed when foundations are dug for new buildings. California was quickly granted statehood in 1850 and the U. S. military built Fort Point at the Golden Gate, silver discoveries, including the Comstock Lode in Nevada in 1859, further drove rapid population growth. With hordes of fortune seekers streaming through the city, lawlessness was common, and the Barbary Coast section of town gained notoriety as a haven for criminals, prostitution, entrepreneurs sought to capitalize on the wealth generated by the Gold Rush
3.
Documentary photography
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It is typically covered in professional photojournalism, or real life reportage, but it may also be an amateur, artistic, or academic pursuit. The term document applied to photography antedates the mode or genre itself, photographs meant to accurately describe otherwise unknown, hidden, forbidden, or difficult-to-access places or circumstances. The earliest daguerreotype and calotype surveys of the ruins of the Near East, Egypt, the US Government published Survey photographs in the annual Reports, as well as portfolios designed to encourage continued funding of scientific surveys. This period decisively shifted documentary from antiquarian and landscape subjects to that of the city, the refining of photogravure methods, and then the introduction of halftone reproduction around 1890 made low cost mass-reproduction in newspapers, magazines and books possible. The figure most directly associated with the birth of this new form of documentary is the journalist, Riis was a New York police-beat reporter who had been converted to urban social reform ideas by his contact with medical and public-health officials, some of whom were amateur photographers. Riis used these acquaintances at first to gather photographs, but eventually took up the camera himself, riiss documentary photography was passionately devoted to changing the inhumane conditions under which the poor lived in the rapidly expanding urban-industrial centers. His work succeeded in embedding photography in urban reform movements, notably the Social Gospel, in 1900, Englishwoman Alice Seeley Harris traveled to the Congo Free State with her husband, John Hobbis Harris. There she photographed Belgian atrocities against local people with an early Kodak Brownie camera, in the 1930s, the Great Depression brought a new wave of documentary, both of rural and urban conditions. During the wartime and postwar eras, documentary photography increasingly became subsumed under the rubric of photojournalism, in the 1970s and 1980s, a spirited attack on traditional documentary was mounted by historians, critics, and photographers. Sekula emerged as a champion of these photographers, in critical writing, since the late 1990s, an increased interest in documentary photography and its longer term perspective can be observed. Nicholas Nixon extensively documented issues surrounded by American life, south African documentary photographer Pieter Hugo engaged in documenting art traditions with a focus on African communities. Antonin Kratochvil photographed a variety of subjects, including Mongolias street children for the Museum of Natural History. Fazal Sheikh sought to reflect the realities of the most underprivileged peoples of different third world countries, documentary photography generally relates to longer term projects with a more complex story line, while photojournalism concerns more breaking news stories. Since the late 1970s, the decline of magazine published photography meant traditional forums for such work were vanishing, many documentary photographers have now focused on the art world and galleries of a way of presenting their work and making a living. Traditional documentary photography has found a place in dedicated photography galleries alongside other artists working in painting, sculpture and modern media
4.
Photojournalism
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Photojournalism is a particular form of journalism that employs images in order to tell a news story. It is now understood to refer only to still images. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They deliver news in a format that is not only informative. Timeliness The images have meaning in the context of a published record of events. Objectivity The situation implied by the images is a fair and accurate representation of the events they depict in both content and tone, narrative The images combine with other news elements to make facts relatable to the viewer or reader on a cultural level. Like a writer, a photojournalist is a reporter, but he or she must often make decisions instantly and carry photographic equipment, the practice of illustrating news stories with photographs was made possible by printing and photography innovations that occurred in the mid 19th century. The illustrations were printed with the use of engravings, during the Crimean War, the ILN pioneered the birth of early photojournalism by printing pictures of the war that had been taken by Roger Fenton. Other photographers of the war included William Simpson and Carol Szathmari, similarly, the American Civil War photographs of Mathew Brady were engraved before publication in Harpers Weekly. Disaster, including wrecks and city fires, was also a popular subject for illustrated newspapers in the early days. The printing of images in newspapers remained an isolated occurrence in this period, Photos were used to enhance the text rather than to act as a medium of information in its own right. This began to change with the work of one of the pioneers of photojournalism, John Thomson, in collaboration with the radical journalist Adolphe Smith, he began publishing a monthly magazine, Street Life in London, from 1876 to 1877. The project documented in photographs and text, the lives of the people of London. On March 4,1880, The Daily Graphic published the first halftone reproduction of a news photograph, in March 1886, when General George Crook received word that the Apache leader Geronimo would negotiate surrender terms, photographer C. S. Fly took his equipment and attached himself to the military column, during the three days of negotiations, Fly took about 15 exposures on 8 by 10 inches glass negatives. His photos of Geronimo and the other free Apaches, taken on March 25 and 26, are the known photographs taken of American Indians while still at war with the United States. Fly coolly posed his subjects, asking them to move and turn their heads and faces, the popular publication Harpers Weekly published six of his images in their April 24,1886 issue
5.
Maynard Dixon
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Maynard Dixon was a 20th-century American artist whose body of work focused on the American West. He was married for a time to American photographer Dorothea Lange, Dixon was born in Fresno, California, into a family of aristocratic Virginia Confederates who had found a new home there after the American Civil War. His mother, a daughter of a Navy officer from San Francisco, shared her love of classic literature with the young boy. Dixon later studied briefly with the tonalist painter Arthur Mathews at the California School of Design where he became friends with Xavier Martinez. To support himself he accepted numerous illustration jobs, Great illustrators were plentiful around the turn of the century, yet Dixon obtained work from the Overland Monthly and several San Francisco newspapers. In 1900 Dixon visited Arizona and New Mexico and this was the start of his lifelong passion for roaming the West. The next year he accompanied artist Edward Borein on a trip through several Western states. In California, he illustrated books and magazines with Western themes, some of his most memorable work from these early years appeared in Clarence Mulford’s books about Hopalong Cassidy. Shortly after he began a new life in San Francisco, his first marriage ended, Dixon developed his style during this early period, and Western themes became a trademark for him. In San Francisco, Dixon was considered a character with a good sense of humor. He often dressed like a cowboy and seemed determined to impart a Western style, most often in the form of a black Stetson, boots and a bola tie. Influenced in part by the Panama Pacific International Exposition of 1915, Dixon began to search for a new expression, moving away from impressionism and into a simpler, meeting and marrying Dorothea Lange, a portrait photographer from the East, had a great influence on his art. The power of low horizons and marching cloud formations, simplified and distilled, became his own brand, in 1929 his second son was born, John Eaglefeather Dixon. During the Great Depression, Dixon painted a series of social realism depicting the prevailing politics of maritime strikes, displaced workers. Simultaneously, Lange captured on film images of the migrant workers in the Salinas Valley, in 1933 the Dixons spent the summer in Zion National Park with sojourns to the hamlet of Mount Carmel, Utah. Lange was called back to San Francisco, a separation which led to the divorce in 1935. Two years later, Dixon married San Francisco muralist Edith Hamlin, the couple left San Francisco two years later for southern Utah, the source of some of Dixon’s greatest art. In 1939, the built an summer home in Mount Carmel
6.
Photographer
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A photographer is a person who makes photographs. As in other arts, the definitions of amateur and professional are not entirely categorical, a professional photographer is likely to take photographs to make money, by salary or through the display, sale or use of those photographs. An amateur photographer may take photographs for pleasure and to record an event, emotion, place, as a person without a monetary motivation. A professional photographer may be an employee, for example of a newspaper, or may contract to cover a planned event such as a wedding or graduation. Others, including paparazzi and fine art photographers, are freelancers, first making a picture, some workers, such as crime scene detectives, estate agents, journalists and scientists, make photographs as part of other work. Photographers who produce moving rather than still pictures are often called cinematographers, videographers or camera operators, an amateur may make considerable sums entering work in contests for prize money or through occasional inclusion of their work in magazines or the archive of a photo agency. The term professional may also imply preparation, for example, by academic study, Photographers are also categorized based on the subjects they photograph. Some photographers explore subjects typical of such as landscape, still life. The exclusive right of photographers to copy and use their products is protected by copyright, countless industries purchase photographs for use in publications and on products. This is usually referred to as usage fee and is used to distinguish from production fees, an additional contract and royalty would apply for each additional use of the photograph. The contract may be for one year, or other duration. The photographer usually charges a royalty as well as a one-time fee, the contract may be for non-exclusive use of the photograph or for exclusive use of the photograph. The contract can also stipulate that the photographer is entitled to audit the company for determination of royalty payments. A royalty is also based on the size at which the photo will be used in a magazine or book. Photos taken by a photographer working on assignment are often work for hire belonging to the company or publication unless stipulated otherwise by contract. There are major companies who have maintained catalogues of stock photography and images for decades, such as Getty Images, commercial photographers may also promote their work to advertising and editorial art buyers via printed and online marketing vehicles. Many people upload their photographs to social networking websites and other websites and those interested in legal precision may explicitly release them to the public domain or under a free content license. Some sites, including Wikimedia Commons, are punctilious about licenses, the dictionary definition of photographer at Wiktionary Media related to Photographers at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Great Depression
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The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that took place during the 1930s. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, in most countries it started in 1929 and it was the longest, deepest, and most widespread depression of the 20th century. In the 21st century, the Great Depression is commonly used as an example of how far the economy can decline. The depression originated in the United States, after a fall in stock prices that began around September 4,1929. Between 1929 and 1932, worldwide GDP fell by an estimated 15%, by comparison, worldwide GDP fell by less than 1% from 2008 to 2009 during the Great Recession. Some economies started to recover by the mid-1930s, however, in many countries, the negative effects of the Great Depression lasted until the beginning of World War II. The Great Depression had devastating effects in both rich and poor. Personal income, tax revenue, profits and prices dropped, while international trade plunged by more than 50%, unemployment in the U. S. rose to 25% and in some countries rose as high as 33%. Cities all around the world were hit hard, especially dependent on heavy industry. Construction was virtually halted in many countries, farming communities and rural areas suffered as crop prices fell by about 60%. Facing plummeting demand with few sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries such as mining and logging suffered the most. Even after the Wall Street Crash of 1929 optimism persisted for some time, john D. Rockefeller said These are days when many are discouraged. In the 93 years of my life, depressions have come, prosperity has always returned and will again. The stock market turned upward in early 1930, returning to early 1929 levels by April and this was still almost 30% below the peak of September 1929. Together, government and business spent more in the first half of 1930 than in the period of the previous year. On the other hand, consumers, many of whom had suffered losses in the stock market the previous year. In addition, beginning in the mid-1930s, a severe drought ravaged the agricultural heartland of the U. S, by mid-1930, interest rates had dropped to low levels, but expected deflation and the continuing reluctance of people to borrow meant that consumer spending and investment were depressed. By May 1930, automobile sales had declined to below the levels of 1928, prices in general began to decline, although wages held steady in 1930
8.
Farm Security Administration
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The FSA is famous for its small but highly influential photography program, 1935–44, that portrayed the challenges of rural poverty. The projects that were combined in 1935 to form the RA started in 1933 as an assortment of programs tried out by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, the RA was headed by Rexford Tugwell, an economic advisor to President Roosevelt. However, Tugwells goal moving 650,000 people into 100,000,000 acres of exhausted and this goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce. The main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers and this move was resisted by a large share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, on July 22,1937, Congress passed the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. This law authorized a modest credit program to assist tenant farmers to purchase land, following the passage of the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, Congress passed the Farm Security Act into law. The Farm Security Act officially transformed the Resettlement Administration into the Farm Security Administration, the FSA expanded through funds given by the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act. They were not allowed to purchase their farms for fear that they would back into inefficient practices not guided by RA. The Dust Bowl in the Great Plains displaced thousands of tenant farmers, sharecroppers, the FSA operated camps for them, such as Weedpatch Camp as depicted in The Grapes of Wrath. The RA and the FSA gave educational aid to 455,000 farm families during the period 1936-1943, in June,1936, Roosevelt wrote, You are right about the farmers who suffer through their own fault. I wish you would have a talk with Tugwell about what he is doing to educate this type of farmer to become self-sustaining, during the past year his organization has made 104,000 farm families practically self-sustaining by supervision and education along practical lines. That is a pretty good record, the FSAs primary mission was not to aid farm production or prices. Roosevelts agricultural policy had, in fact, been to try to decrease agricultural production in order to increase prices, however, when production was discouraged, the tenant farmers and small holders suffered most by not being able to ship enough to market to pay rents. Many renters wanted money to buy farms, but the Agriculture Department realized there already were too many farmers, instead they used education to help the poor stretch their money further. Congress however demanded that the FSA help tenant farmers purchase farms, and purchase loans of $191 million were made, a much larger program was $778 million in loans to 950,000 tenant farmers. The goal was to make the more efficient so the loans were used for new machinery, trucks, or animals. At all times the borrower was closely advised by a government agent, family needs were on the agenda, as the FSA set up a health insurance program and taught farm wives how to cook and raise children
9.
Germans
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Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe, who share a common German ancestry, culture and history. German is the mother tongue of a substantial majority of ethnic Germans. The English term Germans has historically referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages, before the collapse of communism and the reunification of Germany in 1990, Germans constituted the largest divided nation in Europe by far. Ever since the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire, of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, roughly 80 million consider themselves Germans. Thus, the number of Germans lies somewhere between 100 and more than 150 million, depending on the criteria applied. Today, people from countries with German-speaking majorities most often subscribe to their own national identities, the German term Deutsche originates from the Old High German word diutisc, referring to the Germanic language of the people. It is not clear how commonly, if at all, the word was used as an ethnonym in Old High German, used as a noun, ein diutscher in the sense of a German emerges in Middle High German, attested from the second half of the 12th century. The Old French term alemans is taken from the name of the Alamanni and it was loaned into Middle English as almains in the early 14th century. The word Dutch is attested in English from the 14th century, denoting continental West Germanic dialects, while in most Romance languages the Germans have been named from the Alamanni, the Old Norse, Finnish and Estonian names for the Germans were taken from that of the Saxons. In Slavic languages, the Germans were given the name of němьci, originally with a meaning foreigner, the English term Germans is only attested from the mid-16th century, based on the classical Latin term Germani used by Julius Caesar and later Tacitus. It gradually replaced Dutch and Almains, the latter becoming mostly obsolete by the early 18th century, the Germans are a Germanic people, who as an ethnicity emerged during the Middle Ages. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, around 300 independent German states emerged during its decline after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 ending the Thirty Years War and these states eventually formed into modern Germany in the 19th century. The concept of a German ethnicity is linked to Germanic tribes of antiquity in central Europe, the early Germans originated on the North German Plain as well as southern Scandinavia. By the 2nd century BC, the number of Germans was significantly increasing and they began expanding into eastern Europe, during antiquity these Germanic tribes remained separate from each other and did not have writing systems at that time. In the European Iron Age the area that is now Germany was divided into the La Tène horizon in Southern Germany and the Jastorf culture in Northern Germany. By 55 BC, the Germans had reached the Danube river and had either assimilated or otherwise driven out the Celts who had lived there, and had spread west into what is now Belgium and France. Conflict between the Germanic tribes and the forces of Rome under Julius Caesar forced major Germanic tribes to retreat to the east bank of the Rhine, in Roman-held territories with Germanic populations, the Germanic and Roman peoples intermarried, and Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions intermingled. The adoption of Christianity would later become an influence in the development of a common German identity
10.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
11.
Clarence Hudson White
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Clarence Hudson White was an American photographer, teacher and a founding member of the Photo-Secession movement. He grew up in towns in Ohio, where his primary influences were his family. After visiting the Worlds Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893, he took up photography, as he became well known for his images, White was sought out by other photographers who often traveled to Ohio to learn from him. He became friends with Alfred Stieglitz and helped advance the cause of photography as an art form. In 1906 White and his moved to New York City in order to be closer to Stieglitz and his circle. Due to the demands of his duties, his own photography declined. In 1925 he suffered an attack and died while teaching students in Mexico City. White was born in 1871 in West Carlisle, Ohio, the son and youngest child of Lewis Perry White. He was raised in what was known as The American House and his childhood was described as idyllic, and, unlike many children of the time, he grew up in good health and with no deaths or tragedies in his family. He and his brother Pressley, who was two years older, spent much of their playing in the fields and hills near their small hometown. When White was sixteen the family moved to the town of Newark, Ohio. With his father gone much of the time White was left to pursue his own interests, from his late teens into his mid-twenties White kept a diary in which recorded both the events of his days and also his interests and opinions. He wrote increasingly of his interest in music and pictorial arts, after high school White became a bookkeeper at the firm where his father worked. He was a diligent worker, but his job gave him opportunity to pursue his artistic interests. He wrote that he reported to work at 7 am six days a week and left at 6 in the evening, some of the artistic vision White developed during this time he later applied to his photography. He learned how to use light, or the lack of it and he also learned how to visualize his subjects in his mind. This same imagery later appeared repeatedly in Whites photography and it was through his musical interests that White met his future wife, Jane Felix, sometime in 1891-92. She was a schoolteacher, and his diaries contain notes about his taking her on dates to concerts in at nearby Denison University and in Columbus, Ohio
12.
Arnold Genthe
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Arnold Genthe was born in Berlin, Prussia, to Louise Zober and Hermann Genthe, a professor of Latin and Greek at the Graues Kloster in Berlin. After emigrating to San Francisco in 1895 to work as a tutor for the son of Baron and Baroness J. Henrich von Schroeder and he also sometimes removed evidence of Western culture from these pictures, cropping or erasing as needed. About 200 of his Chinatown pictures survive, and these comprise the only known depictions of the area before the 1906 earthquake. After local magazines published some of his photographs in the late 1890s and he knew some of the citys wealthy matrons, and as his reputation grew, his clientele included Nance ONeil, Sarah Bernhardt, Nora May French, and Jack London. In 1904 he traveled to Western Europe and Tangier with the famous watercolorist, in 1906, the San Francisco earthquake and fire destroyed Genthes studio, but he rebuilt. His photograph of the aftermath, Looking Down Sacramento Street, San Francisco. Here he was able to pursue his work in color photography, of his new residence, he wrote, The cypresses and rocks of Point Lobos, the always varying sunsets and the intriguing shadows of the sand dunes offered a rich field for color experiments. In 1911 he moved to New York City, where he remained until his death of an attack in 1942. He worked primarily in portraiture, and Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson and his photos of Greta Garbo were credited with boosting her career. He also photographed modern dancers, including Anna Pavlova, Isadora Duncan, and Ruth St. Denis, Genthe was an early adopter of the autochrome color photography process. He began experimenting with the process in 1905 in Carmel, California and he claimed credit for the first exhibition of color photographs in America, later scholars determined this is not accurate, but he was undoubtedly one of the earliest. His subjects included portraits, artistic nudes, and landscapes, Genthe owned a cat called Buzzer. Buzzer often appeared in portraitures with Genthes subjects, most notably Broadway actresses to whom the cat warmed, one such sitting in autochrome was with actress Ann Murdock. Text by Will Irwin, images by Arnold Genthe, Pictures of old Chinatown, New York, Moffat, Yard and Co.1908 Arnold Genthe, The Book of the Dance, Boston, Mass. 1984 ISBN 0-486-24592-6 William Bronson, The Earth Shook, The Sky Burned, Garden City, NY,1959, many images of the San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906 taken by Arnold Genthe Mel Byars, N. Elizabeth Schlatter, Genthe, Arnold
13.
Resettlement Administration
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Roosevelt established the RA under Executive Order 7027, as one of the New Deals alphabet agencies, and Tugwell became its first and only head. The new organization had four divisions, Rural Rehabilitation, Rural Resettlement, Land Utilization, however, Tugwells goal of moving 651,000 people from 100,000,000 acres of agriculturally exhausted, worn-out land was unpopular among the majority in Congress. This goal seemed socialistic to some and threatened to deprive influential farm owners of their tenant workforce, the main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers, especially refugees from the drought-struck Dust Bowl of the Southwest. This move was resisted by a share of Californians, who did not want destitute migrants to settle in their midst. After facing enormous criticism for his management of the RA. On January 1,1937, with hopes of making the RA more effective, the Weedpatch Camp now on the National Register of Historic Places, was built in 1936 south of Bakersfield, California, not by the RA but the FSA. The camp inspired John Steinbecks 1939 novel, The Grapes of Wrath, a 1940 film adaptation directed by John Ford, a Tony Award-winning play and an opera. In the face of Congressional criticism, in September 1937 it was folded into a new body, the Farm Security Administration, Farm Security Administration Dust Bowl Meriam, Lewis. Relief and Social Security The Brookings Institution, presented by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center and Mills Music Library Special Collections
14.
University of California, Berkeley
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The University of California, Berkeley, is a public research university located in Berkeley, California. In 1960s, UC Berkeley was particularly noted for the Free Speech Movement as well as the Anti-Vietnam War Movement led by its students. S, Department of Energy, and is home to many world-renowned research institutes and organizations including Mathematical Sciences Research Institute and Space Sciences Laboratory. Faculty member J. R. Oppenheimer, the father of the atomic bomb, Lawrence Livermore Lab also discovered or co-discovered six chemical elements. The Academic Ranking of World Universities also ranks the University of California, Berkeley, third in the world overall, in 1866, the private College of California purchased the land comprising the current Berkeley campus. Ten faculty members and almost 40 students made up the new University of California when it opened in Oakland in 1869, billings was a trustee of the College of California and suggested that the college be named in honor of the Anglo-Irish philosopher George Berkeley. In 1870, Henry Durant, the founder of the College of California, with the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students and held its first classes. In 1905, the University Farm was established near Sacramento, ultimately becoming the University of California, by the 1920s, the number of campus buildings had grown substantially, and included twenty structures designed by architect John Galen Howard. Robert Gordon Sproul served as president from 1930 to 1958, by 1942, the American Council on Education ranked UC Berkeley second only to Harvard University in the number of distinguished departments. During World War II, following Glenn Seaborgs then-secret discovery of plutonium, UC Berkeley physics professor J. Robert Oppenheimer was named scientific head of the Manhattan Project in 1942. Along with the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley is now a partner in managing two other labs, Los Alamos National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, originally, military training was compulsory for male undergraduates, and Berkeley housed an armory for that purpose. In 1917, Berkeleys ROTC program was established, and its School of Military Aeronautics trained future pilots, including Jimmy Doolittle, both Robert McNamara and Frederick C. Weyand graduated from UC Berkeleys ROTC program, earning B. A. degrees in 1937 and 1938, in 1926, future fleet admiral Chester W. Nimitz established the first Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps unit at Berkeley. The Board of Regents ended compulsory military training at Berkeley in 1962, during the McCarthy era in 1949, the Board of Regents adopted an anti-communist loyalty oath. A number of faculty members objected and were dismissed, ten years passed before they were reinstated with back pay, in 1952, the University of California became an entity separate from the Berkeley campus. Each campus was given autonomy and its own Chancellor. Then-president Sproul assumed presidency of the entire University of California system, Berkeley gained a reputation for student activism in the 1960s with the Free Speech Movement of 1964 and opposition to the Vietnam War. In the highly publicized Peoples Park protest in 1969, students and the school conflicted over use of a plot of land, then governor of California Ronald Reagan called the Berkeley campus a haven for communist sympathizers, protesters, and sex deviants. Modern students at Berkeley are less active, with a greater percentage of moderates and conservatives
15.
Sharecropping
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Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a history and there are a wide range of different situations. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law, legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely. Sharecropping has benefits and costs for both the owners and the tenant and it encourages the cropper to remain on the land, solving the harvest rush problem. At the same time, since the cropper pays in shares of his harvest, owners and croppers share the risks of harvests being large or small and of prices being high or low. Because tenants benefit from larger harvests, they have an incentive to work harder, however, by dividing the working force into many individual workers, large farms no longer benefit from economies of scale. On the whole, sharecropping was not as efficient as the gang agriculture of slave plantations. In the U. S. tenant farmers own their own mules and equipment, and sharecroppers do not, Sharecropping occurred extensively in Scotland, Ireland and colonial Africa, and came into wide use in the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era. The South had been devastated by war - planters had ample land, at the same time, most of the former slaves had labor but no money and no land - they rejected the kind of gang labor that typified slavery. A solution was the system focused on cotton, which was the only crop that could generate cash for the croppers, landowners, merchants. Poor white farmers, who previously had done little cotton farming, needed cash as well, jeffery Paige made a distinction between centralized sharecropping found on cotton plantations and the decentralized sharecropping with other crops. The former is characterized by political conservatism and long lasting tenure, tenants are tied to the landlord through the plantation store. Their work is heavily supervised as slave plantations were and this form of tenure tends to be replaced by wage slavery as markets penetrate. Decentralized sharecropping involves virtually no role for the landlord, plots are scattered, peasants manage their own labor, leases are very short which leads to peasant radicalism. This form of tenure becomes more common when markets penetrate, use of the sharecropper system has also been identified in England. It is still used in many poor areas today, notably in Pakistan. It has therefore been seen as an issue of reform in contexts such as the Mexican Revolution. Sharecropping agreements can however be made fairly, as a form of tenant farming or sharefarming that has a variable rental payment, there are three different types of contracts
16.
Berkeley, California
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Berkeley is a city on the east shore of San Francisco Bay in northern Alameda County, California. It is named after the 18th-century Anglo-Irish bishop and philosopher George Berkeley and it borders the cities of Oakland and Emeryville to the south and the city of Albany and the unincorporated community of Kensington to the north. Its eastern border with Contra Costa County generally follows the ridge of the Berkeley Hills, the 2010 census recorded a population of 112,580. It also has the Graduate Theological Union, one of the largest religious studies institutions in the world and it is one of the most politically liberal cities in the United States. The site of todays City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochenyo/Huchiun band of the Ohlone people when the first Europeans arrived, other artifacts were discovered in the 1950s in the downtown area during remodeling of a commercial building, near the upper course of the creek. The first people of European descent arrived with the De Anza Expedition in 1776, today, this is noted by signage on Interstate 80, which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley. The De Anza Expedition led to establishment of the Spanish Presidio of San Francisco at the entrance to San Francisco Bay, luis Peralta was among the soldiers at the Presidio. For his services to the King of Spain, he was granted a vast stretch of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay for a ranch, luis Peralta named his holding Rancho San Antonio. The primary activity of the ranch was raising cattle for meat and hides, eventually, Peralta gave portions of the ranch to each of his four sons. What is now Berkeley lies mostly in the portion that went to Peraltas son Domingo, with a little in the portion that went to another son, no artifact survives of the Domingo or Vicente ranches, but their names survive in Berkeley street names. However, legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant, the Peraltas Rancho San Antonio continued after Alta California passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty after the Mexican War of Independence. The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes, the rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants. Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast Contra Costa County, on March 25,1853, Alameda County was created from a division within Contra Costa County, as well as from a small portion of Santa Clara County. The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of land, farms and ranches. It was not yet Berkeley, but merely the part of the Oakland Township subdivision of Alameda County. In 1866, Oaklands private College of California looked for a new site, according to the Centennial Record of the University of California, In 1866…at Founders Rock, a group of College of California men watched two ships standing out to sea through the Golden Gate. Although the philosophers name is pronounced bark-lee, the pronunciation of the name has evolved to suit American English as burk-lee. The College of Californias College Homestead Association planned to raise funds for the new campus by selling off adjacent parcels of land, to this end, they laid out a plat and street grid that became the basis of Berkeleys modern street plan
17.
Florence Owens Thompson
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Florence Owens Thompson, born Florence Leona Christie, was the subject of Dorothea Langes famous photo Migrant Mother, an iconic image of the Great Depression. The Library of Congress titled the image, Destitute pea pickers in California, Florence Owens Thompson was born Florence Leona Christie on September 1,1903, in Indian Territory, present-day Oklahoma. Her father, Jackson Christie, had abandoned her mother, Mary Jane Cobb, before Florence was born, the family lived on a small farm in Indian Territory outside of Tahlequah, Oklahoma. Seventeen-year-old Florence married Cleo Owens, a 23-year-old farmers son from Stone County, Missouri and they soon had their first daughter, Violet, followed by a second daughter, Viola, and a son, Leroy. The family migrated west with other Owens relatives to Oroville, California, by 1931, Florence was pregnant with her sixth child when her husband Cleo died of tuberculosis. Florence then worked in the fields and in restaurants to support her six children, in 1933 Florence had another child, returned to Oklahoma for a time, and then was joined by her parents as they migrated to Shafter, California, north of Bakersfield. There Florence met Jim Hill, with whom she had three more children, during the 1930s the family worked as migrant farm workers following the crops in California and at times into Arizona. Florence later recalled periods when she picked 400–500 pounds of cotton from first daylight until after it was too dark to work and she said, I worked in hospitals. I done a bit of everything to make a living for my kids. The family settled in Modesto, California, in 1945, well after World War II, Florence met and married hospital administrator George Thompson. This marriage brought her far greater security than she had ever enjoyed. On the road, the timing chain snapped and they coasted to a stop just inside a pea-pickers camp on Nipomo Mesa. They were shocked to find so many people camping there – as many as 2,500 to 3,500, a notice had been sent out for pickers, but the crops had been destroyed by freezing rain, leaving them without work or pay. Years later Florence told an interviewer that when she cooked food for her children that day little children appeared from the pea pickers camp asking, Can I have a bite. While Jim Hill, her husband, and two of Florences sons went into town to get the damaged radiator repaired, Florence. As Florence waited, photographer Dorothea Lange, working for the Resettlement Administration, drove up and started taking photos of Florence and she took 6 images in the course of 10 minutes. Langes field notes of the read, Seven hungry children. Destitute in pea pickers’ camp … because of failure of the pea crop
18.
The Harvest Gypsies
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The Harvest Gypsies is a series of articles by John Steinbeck written on commission for the San Francisco News focusing on the lives and times of migrant workers in Californias Central Valley. From 1931 to 1939, drought and soil erosion across the Midwestern and Southern Plains created one of the images of the Great Depression. During this time, over one million Americans emigrated from their states to California. The number of emigrants was equal to more than twenty percent of the population of California at the time. The abundance of workers desperate for employment led to low wages. Resultant of these conditions were the camps, labor strife. Steinbeck, a California native himself, sought to capture these new developments and he first addressed the issue with his novel In Dubious Battle, which took a harvesters’ strike as its subject. Impressed by the novel, San Francisco News editor George West commissioned Steinbeck to report on the situation with a series of articles in the fall of 1936. Steinbeck obtained significant assistance from Farm Security Administration documents, including reports compiled by Tom Collins, manager of a camp for migrants in Arvin. Many of these reports were drafted by Sanora Babb, who worked for Collins, unbeknownst to Babb, Collins was sharing her reports with writer John Steinbeck. The Harvest Gypsies preceded several of Steinbeck’s celebrated works with migrant workers at the center, among them Of Mice and Men and The Grapes of Wrath. This rich information would figure in his works, as Steinbeck used the experience to create not only the vibrant characters. Even the famous conclusion of The Grapes of Wrath finds a basis within the account of a child in The Harvest Gypsies. The impact of Steinbecks investigative reporting for The Harvest Gypsies on his career cannot be underestimated. Helen Hosmer, a figure in California labor circles, was responsible for the re-publication of the articles as Their Blood Is Strong. Steinbeck did not initiate the re-publishing of the series, by 1938, he had moved on to writing The Grapes of Wrath full-time and had to be persuaded by Hosmer to get involved in reissuing the series. Hosmer had worked as a researcher for the Farm Security Administration in the mid 1930s and she met Steinbeck in that period and supplied him with data files she had collected for the Farm Security Administration. After Hosmer left the FSA, she founded the Simon J. Lubin Society to advocate on behalf of workers, according to Hosmer, Steinbeck was reluctant to participate in the project
19.
Pledge of Allegiance (United States)
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The official name of The Pledge of Allegiance was adopted in 1945. The last change in language came on Flag Day 1954 when the words under God were added, congressional sessions open with the recital of the Pledge, as do many government meetings at local levels, and meetings held by many private organizations. All states except four give time for the pledge to be recited as part of the school day, when not in uniform men should remove any non-religious headdress with their right hand and hold it at the left shoulder, the hand being over the heart. Persons in uniform should remain silent, face the flag, members of the Armed Forces not in uniform and veterans may render the military salute in the manner provided for persons in uniform. However, there existed a version created by Colonel George Balch. Balchs pledge, which existed parallel to the Bellamy version until the 1923 National Flag Conference, read, We give our heads and hearts to God and our country, one country, one language, one flag. Bellamy, however, did not approve of the pledge as Balch had written it, referring to the text as too juvenile, the event was conceived and promoted by James B. Upham, a marketer for the magazine, as a campaign to instill the idea of American nationalism in students, according to author Margarette S. Miller, this campaign was in line both with Uphams patriotic vision as well as with his commercial interest. Bellamys original Pledge read, I pledge allegiance to my Flag, the Pledge was supposed to be quick and to the point. Bellamy designed it to be recited in 15 seconds and this arrangement was formalized when Harrison issued Presidential Proclamation 335. In his recollection of the creation of the Pledge Francis Bellamy said, At the beginning of the nineties patriotism, the patriotic ardor of the Civil War was an old story. The time was ripe for a reawakening of simple Americanism and the leaders in the new movement rightly felt that education should begin in the public schools. Would have a flag raising, under the most impressive conditions, Bellamy recalled that the event had to be more than a list of exercises. The ritual must be prepared with simplicity and dignity, edna Dean Proctor wrote an ode for the event, and There was also an oration suitable for declamation. Bellamy held that Of course, the nub of the program was to be the raising of the flag and he found There was not a satisfactory enough form for this salute. The Balch salute, which ran, I give my heart and my hand to my country, one country, one language, one flag, seemed to him too juvenile and lacking in dignity. After working on the idea with Upham, Bellamy concluded, It was my thought that a vow of loyalty or allegiance to the flag should be the dominant idea, I especially stressed the word allegiance. Bellamy considered the country, nation, or Republic, choosing the last as it distinguished the form of government chosen by the founding fathers
20.
Manzanar
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Located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada in Californias Owens Valley between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, it is approximately 230 miles north of Los Angeles. Long before the first incarcerees arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to Native Americans, ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910, but abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area. As different as these groups were, their histories displayed a common thread of forced relocation, the primary focus is the Japanese American incarceration era, as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site. The site also interprets the former town of Manzanar, the days, the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute. Let us review the main points of the debate, over 120,000 residents of the U. S. A. two thirds of whom were American citizens, were incarcerated under armed guard. There were no crimes committed, no trials, and no convictions, to detain American citizens in a site under armed guard surely constitutes a concentration camp. But what were the used by the government officials who were involved in the process. Raymond Okamura provides us with a detailed list of terms, lets consider three such euphemisms, evacuation, relocation, and non-aliens. Earthquake and flood victims are evacuated and relocated, the words refer to moving people in order to rescue and protect them from danger. The official government policy makers consistently used evacuation to refer to the removal of the Japanese Americans. These are euphemisms as the terms do not imply forced removal nor incarceration in enclosures patrolled by armed guards. Hirabayashi went on to describe the harm done by the use of such euphemisms, the harm in continuing to use the governments euphemisms is that it disguises or softens the reality which subsequently has been legally recognized as a grave error. The actions abrogated some fundamental principles underlying the Constitution, the document under which we govern ourselves. This erosion of fundamental rights has consequences for all citizens of our society, some have argued that the Nazi Germany camps during the Holocaust were concentration camps and to refer to the Japanese American camps likewise would be an affront to the Jews. It is certainly true that the Japanese Americans did not suffer the fate of the Jews in the terrible concentration camps or death camps where Nazi Germany practiced a policy of genocide. Although the loss of life was minimal in Americas concentration camps, michi and Walter Weglyns research concerning Nazi Germanys euphemisms for their concentration camps revealed such phrases as protective custody camps, reception centers, and transit camps. Ironically, two Nazi euphemisms were identical to our governments usage, assembly centers and relocation centers and it might be well to point out, also, that the Nazis were not operating under the U. S. Constitution. Comparisons usually neglect to point out that Hitler was operating under the rules of the Third Reich
21.
Pearl Harbor
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Pearl Harbor is a lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. Much of the harbor and surrounding lands is a United States Navy deep-water naval base and it is also the headquarters of the United States Pacific Fleet. The U. S. government first obtained exclusive use of the inlet, the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Empire of Japan on December 7,1941, was the immediate cause of the United States entry into World War II. Pearl Harbor was originally a shallow embayment called Wai Momi or Puʻuloa by the Hawaiians. Puʻuloa was regarded as the home of the goddess, Kaʻahupahau. Making due allowance for legendary amplification, the estuary already had an outlet for its waters where the present gap is, during the early 19th century, Pearl Harbor was not used for large ships due to its shallow entrance. The interest of United States in the Hawaiian Islands grew as a result of its whaling, shipping and trading activity in the Pacific. As early as 1820, an Agent of the United States for Commerce and these commercial ties to the American continent were accompanied by the work of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. American missionaries and their families became a part of the Hawaiian political body. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, many American warships visited Honolulu, in most cases, the commanding officers carried letters from the U. S. Government giving advice on governmental affairs and of the relations of the island nation with foreign powers. In 1841, the newspaper Polynesian, printed in Honolulu, advocated that the U. S. establish a base in Hawaii for protection of American citizens engaged in the whaling industry. The British Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs Robert Crichton Wyllie, remarked in 1840 that and my opinion is that the tide of events rushes on to annexation to the United States. In 1865, the North Pacific Squadron was formed to embrace the western coast, lackawanna in the following year was assigned to cruise among the islands, a locality of great and increasing interest and importance. This vessel surveyed the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands toward Japan, as a result, the United States claimed Midway Island. The Secretary of the Navy was able to write in his report of 1868. This increased activity caused the permanent assignment of at least one warship to Hawaiian waters and it also praised Midway Island as possessing a harbor surpassing Honolulus. In the following year, Congress approved an appropriation of $50,000 on March 1,1869, after 1868, when the Commander of the Pacific Fleet visited the islands to look after American interests, naval officers played an important role in internal affairs. They served as arbitrators in disputes, negotiators of trade agreements and defenders of law
22.
Japanese Americans
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Southern California has the largest Japanese American population in North America, and the city of Torrance holds the most dense Japanese American population in the 48 contiguous states. People from Japan began migrating to the US in significant numbers following the political, cultural, large numbers went to Hawaii and to the West Coast. The Immigration Act of 1924 banned the immigration of nearly all Japanese, the ban on immigration produced unusually well-defined generational groups within the Japanese American community. Original immigrants belonged to an immigrant generation, the Issei, the Issei comprised exclusively those who had immigrated before 1924. Because no new immigrants were permitted, all Japanese Americans born after 1924 were—by definition—born in the US and this generation, the Nisei, became a distinct cohort from the Issei generation in terms of age, citizenship, and English-language ability, in addition to the usual generational differences. Institutional and interpersonal racism led many of the Nisei to marry other Nisei, resulting in a distinct generation of Japanese Americans. Significant Japanese immigration did not occur again until the Immigration Act of 1965 ended 40 years of bans against immigration from Japan, the Naturalization Act of 1790 restricted naturalized U. S. citizenship to free white persons, which excluded the Issei from citizenship. As a result, the Issei were unable to vote and faced restrictions such as the inability to own land under many state laws. Japanese Americans were parties in several important Supreme Court decisions, including Ozawa v. United States, the Korematsu case originated the strict scrutiny standard, which is applied, with great controversy, in government considerations of race since the 1989 Adarand Constructors v. Peña decision. In recent years, immigration from Japan has been more like that from Western Europe, the numbers involve on average 5 to 10 thousand per year, and is similar to the amount of immigration to the US from Germany. This is in stark contrast to the rest of Asia, where family reunification is the impetus for immigration. Japanese Americans also have the oldest demographic structure of any ethnic group in the US. The internments were based on the race or ancestry rather than activities of the interned, families, including children, were interned together. Decades later, the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 officially acknowledged the violations of the basic civil liberties. Many Japanese-Americans consider the term internment camp a euphemism and prefer to refer to the relocation of Japanese-Americans as imprisonment in concentration camps. Websters New World Fourth College Edition defines a concentration camp as, A prison camp in which political dissidents, members of minority ethnic groups, etc. are confined. The Japanese American communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like Issei, Nisei, and Sansei, which describe the first, second, the fourth generation is called Yonsei, and the fifth is called Gosei. The term Nikkei encompasses Japanese immigrants in all countries and of all generations, the kanreki, a pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of Japanese American Nisei
23.
War Relocation Authority
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The War Relocation Authority was a United States government agency established to handle the internment, i. e. forced relocation and detention, of Japanese Americans during World War II. It also operated the Fort Ontario Emergency Refugee Shelter in Oswego, New York, the WRA was formed on March 18,1942 via Executive Order 9102, with Milton S. Eisenhower as the original director. Eisenhower was a proponent of Roosevelts New Deal and disapproved of the idea of the mass internment. ”Disappointed, Eisenhower was director of the WRA for only ninety days, resigning June 18,1942. Eisenhower was replaced by Dillon S. Myer, who would run the WRA until its dissolution at the end of the war, the WRA considered 300 potential sites before settling on a total of ten camp locations, mostly on tribal lands. Site selection was based upon multiple criteria, including, Ability to provide work in works, agriculture. At Manzanar, for example, internees were recruited to complete construction. Life in a WRA camp was difficult and those fortunate enough to find a job worked long hours, usually in agricultural jobs. Resistance to camp guards and escape attempts were a low priority for most of the Japanese Americans held in the camps, many of those who were employed, particularly those with responsible or absorbing jobs, made these jobs the focus of their lives. Non-skilled labor earned $14/month while doctors and dentists made a paltry $19/month, many found consolation in religion, and both Christian and Buddhist services were held regularly. The young people spent much of their time in recreational pursuits, news of sports, theatrics, families lived in army-style barracks partitioned into apartments with walls that usually didn’t reach the ceiling. These apartments were, at the largest, twenty by twenty-four feet and were expected to house a family of six, in April 1943, the Topaz camp averaged 114 square feet per person. Each inmate ate at one of several mess halls, assigned by block. At the Army-run camps that housed dissidents and other troublemakers, it was estimated that it cost 38.19 cents per day to feed each person. The WRA spent slightly more, capping per-person costs to 50 cents a day, the WRA allowed Japanese Americans to establish a form of self-governance, with elected inmate leaders working under administration supervisors to help run the camps. In February 1943, the WRA established the Community Analysis Section in order to information on the lives of incarcerated Japanese Americans in all ten camps. Morris Opler did, however, provide a prominent exception, writing two legal briefs challenging the exclusion for the Supreme Court cases of Gordon Hirabayashi and Fred Korematsu. Initially, applicants were required to find a sponsor, provide proof of employment or school enrollment. In the new system, inmates had only complete a registration form, at this point, the WRA began to shift its focus from managing the camps to overseeing resettlement
24.
Internment of Japanese Americans
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62 percent of the internees were United States citizens. These actions were ordered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt shortly after Imperial Japans attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese Americans were incarcerated based on local population concentrations and regional politics. More than 110,000 Japanese Americans in the mainland U. S. who mostly lived on the West Coast, were forced into interior camps. However, in Hawaii, where 150, 000-plus Japanese Americans composed over one-third of the population, the internment is considered to have resulted more from racism than from any security risk posed by Japanese Americans. Those who were as little as 1/16 Japanese and orphaned infants with one drop of Japanese blood were placed in internment camps. The majority of nearly 130,000 Japanese Americans living in the U. S. mainland were relocated from their West Coast homes during the spring of 1942. The United States Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese Americans, the Bureau denied its role for decades, but it became public in 2007. In 1944, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the removal by ruling against Fred Korematsus appeal for violating an exclusion order. The Court limited its decision to the validity of the exclusion orders and he appointed the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians to investigate the camps. The Commissions report, titled Personal Justice Denied, found evidence of Japanese disloyalty at the time. It recommended that the government pay reparations to the survivors, the legislation admitted that government actions were based on race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership. The U. S. government eventually disbursed more than $1.6 billion in reparations to 82,219 Japanese Americans who had been interned and their heirs. Of 127,000 Japanese Americans living in the continental United States at the time of the Pearl Harbor attack,112,000 resided on the West Coast, about 80,000 were nisei and sansei. The rest were issei immigrants born in Japan who were ineligible for U. S. citizenship under U. S. law, from 1869 to 1924 approximately 200,000 immigrated to the islands of Hawaii, mostly laborers expecting to work on the islands sugar plantations. Some 180,000 went to the U. S. mainland, with the majority settling on the West Coast, most arrived before 1908, when the Gentlemens Agreement between Japan and the United States banned the immigration of unskilled laborers. A loophole allowed the wives of men already in the US to join their husbands, the practice of women marrying by proxy and immigrating to the U. S. resulted in a large increase in the number of picture brides. Groups such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, the California Joint Immigration Committee, and they lobbied successfully to restrict the property and citizenship rights of Japanese immigrants, as similar groups had previously organized against Chinese immigrants. Several laws and treaties attempting to slow immigration from Japan were introduced beginning in the late 19th century, the Immigration Act of 1924, following the example of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, effectively banned all immigration from Japan and other undesirable Asian countries
25.
National Archives and Records Administration
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The NARA also transmits votes of the Electoral College to Congress. The chief administrator of NARA is the Archivist of the United States, the Archivist of the United States is the chief official overseeing the operation of the National Archives and Records Administration. The Archivist not only maintains the official documentation of the passage of amendments to the U. S, Constitution by state legislatures, but has the authority to declare when the constitutional threshold for passage has been reached, and therefore when an act has become an amendment. The Office of the Federal Register publishes the Federal Register, Code of Federal Regulations and it also administers the Electoral College. Since 1964, the NHPRC has awarded some 4,500 grants, the Office of Government Information Services is a Freedom of Information Act resource for the public and the government. Congress has charged NARA with reviewing FOIA policies, procedures and compliance of Federal agencies, NARAs mission also includes resolving FOIA disputes between Federal agencies and requesters. Originally, each branch and agency of the U. S. government was responsible for maintaining its own documents, Congress established the National Archives Establishment in 1934 to centralize federal record keeping, with the Archivist of the United States as chief administrator. The National Archives was incorporated with GSA in 1949, in 1985 it became an independent agency as NARA, connor, began serving in 1934, when the National Archives was established by Congress. As a result of a first Hoover Commission recommendation, in 1949 the National Archives was placed within the newly formed General Services Administration. The Archivist served as an official to the GSA Administrator until the National Archives. An audit indicated that more than one third withdrawn since 1999 did not contain sensitive information, the program was originally scheduled to end in 2007. In 2011, a retired employee pleaded guilty to stealing original sound recordings from the archives, Archival Recovery Teams investigate the theft of records. NARAs holdings are classed into record groups reflecting the governmental department or agency from which they originated, Records include paper documents, microfilm, still pictures, motion pictures, and electronic media. Archival descriptions of the permanent holdings of the government in the custody of NARA are stored in the National Archives Catalog. The archival descriptions include information on traditional paper holdings, electronic records, as of December 2012, the catalog consisted of about 10 billion logical data records describing 527,000 artifacts and encompassing 81% of NARAs records. There are also 922,000 digital copies of already digitized materials, most records at NARA are in the public domain, as works of the federal government are excluded from copyright protection. However, records from other sources may still be protected by copyright or donor agreements and its Information Security Oversight Office monitors and sets policy for the U. S. governments security classification system. Many of NARAs most requested records are used for genealogy research
26.
Ansel Adams
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Ansel Easton Adams was an American photographer and environmentalist. His black and white photographs of the American West, especially Yosemite National Park, have been widely reproduced on calendars, posters, books. Adams and Fred Archer developed the Zone System as a way to determine proper exposure, the resulting clarity and depth characterized his photographs. He primarily used large-format cameras because their high resolution helped ensure sharpness in his images, Adams founded the photography group known as Group f/64, along with fellow photographers Willard Van Dyke and Edward Weston. Adams was born in the Western Addition of San Francisco, California and he was named after his uncle, Ansel Easton. His mothers family came from Baltimore, where his grandfather had a successful freight-hauling business but lost his wealth investing in failed mining. The Adams family came from New England, having migrated from Northern Ireland in the early 18th century and his paternal grandfather founded and built a prosperous lumber business which his father later ran, though his fathers natural talents lay more with sciences than with business. Later in life, Adams condemned that very same industry for cutting many of the great redwood forests. In 1907, his family moved 2 miles west to a new home near the Seacliff neighbourhood, the home had a splendid view of the Golden Gate and the Marin Headlands. San Francisco was devastated by the April 18,1906 San Francisco earthquake, the four year-old Ansel Adams was uninjured in the initial shaking but was tossed face-first into a garden wall during an aftershock three hours later, breaking and scarring his nose. Among his earliest memories was watching the smoke from the fire that destroyed much of the city a few miles to the east. A doctor recommended that his nose be reset once he reached maturity, Adams was a hyperactive child and prone to frequent sickness and hypochondria. He had few friends, but his home and surroundings on the heights facing the Golden Gate provided ample childhood activities. His father bought a telescope, and they enthusiastically shared the hobby of amateur astronomy. His father went on to serve as the paid secretary-treasurer of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific from 1925 to 1950, Ansels fathers business suffered great financial losses after the death of Ansels grandfather and the aftermath of the Panic of 1907. By 1912, the standard of living had dropped sharply. Ansel was dismissed from several schools for being restless and inattentive. Adams was then educated by tutors, his aunt Mary
27.
San Francisco Art Institute
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San Francisco Art Institute is a private, non-profit college of contemporary art with the main campus in the Russian Hill district of San Francisco, California. Its graduate center is in the Dogpatch neighborhood, approximately 400 undergraduates and 200 graduate students are enrolled. Founded in 1871, SFAI is one of the oldest art schools in the United States, avery, Edward Bosque, Thomas Hill, and S. W. By 1874 the SFAA had 700 regular members and 100 life members, and had raised sufficient funds and the momentum to launch an art school. During Williams tenure, the CSD developed a reputation and amassed a significant collection of early California. Named the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art, it became San Franciscos first fine art and cultural center, through this new affiliation, students of the University of California, Berkeley were able to enroll in classes at the CSD. In 1906 the devastating fire following the San Francisco earthquake destroyed the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art building, at the time, the replacement value of the building and its contents was estimated at $2,573,000. However, the amount of numerous insurance policies yielded less than $100,000 for rebuilding. Nevertheless, within a year, the SFAA built a new but comparatively modest campus in the same location, in addition, the school was renamed the California School of Fine Arts to better reflect its mission to promote, develop and preserve regional art and culture. In 1926 the school moved to 800 Chestnut Street, which remains the main campus as of 2015. In 1930 Mexican muralist Diego Rivera was hired to paint The Making of a Fresco Showing the Building of a City, which is located in the student-directed art gallery. S. After World War II ended the school became a nucleus for Abstract Expressionism, with faculty including Clyfford Still, Ad Reinhardt, Mark Rothko, David Park, Elmer Bischoff, and Clay Spohn. Although painting and sculpture remained the dominant mediums for many years, in 1946 Ansel Adams and Minor White established the first fine-art photography department, with Imogen Cunningham, Edward Weston, and Dorothea Lange among its instructors. In 1947 distinguished filmmaker Sydney Peterson began the first film courses at CSFA, the roundtable aimed to expose “hidden assumptions” and to frame new questions about art. By the early 1950s San Franciscos North Beach had become the West Coast center of the Beat Movement, and music, poetry, collage artist Jess Collins renounced a career as a plutonium developer and enrolled at SFAI as a painting student. In 1953 he and his partner, poet Robert Duncan, along with painter Harry Jacobus, started the King Ubu Gallery, an important alternative space for art, poetry, a distinctly Californian modern art soon emerged that fused abstraction, figuration, narrative, and jazz. Students at the school, including David Simpson, William T, renamed San Francisco Art Institute in 1961, SFAI rejected the distinction between fine and applied arts. Alumni Ruth-Marion Baruch and Pirkle Jones documented the early days of the Black Panther Party in northern California
28.
Imogen Cunningham
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Imogen Cunningham was an American photographer known for her botanical photography, nudes, and industrial landscapes. Cunningham was a member of the California-based Group f/64, known for its dedication to the rendition of simple subjects. Cunningham was born in Portland, Oregon to father Isaac Burns Cunningham and her parents were from Missouri, though both of their families originally came from Virginia. Cunningham was the fifth of 10 children and she grew up in Seattle, Washington and attended the Denny School at 5th and Battery Streets in Seattle. In 1901, at the age of eighteen, Cunningham bought her first camera and she entered the University of Washington where she became a charter member of the Washington Alpha Chapter of Pi Beta Phi Fraternity for Women. It was not until 1906, while studying at the University of Washington in Seattle, with the help of her chemistry professor, Horace Byers, she began to study the chemistry behind photography and she subsidized her tuition by photographing plants for the botany department. In 1907, Cunningham graduated from University of Washington with a degree in chemistry. Her thesis was titled “Modern Processes of Photography. ”After graduating from college in 1907, Cunningham went to work for Edward S. Curtis in his Seattle studio, gaining knowledge about the portrait business and practical photography. Cunningham worked for Edward S. Curtis on his project of documenting American Indian tribes for the book The North American Indian, Cunningham learned the technique of platinum printing under Curtis’ supervision and became fascinated by the process. In 1909, Cunningham was awarded the Pi Beta Phi Graduate Fellowship, using this fellowship, Cunningham traveled to Germany to study with Professor Robert Luther at the Technische Hochschule in Dresden, Germany. In Dresden she concentrated on her studies and didnt take many photographs, on her way back to Seattle she met Alvin Langdon Coburn in London, and Alfred Stieglitz and Gertrude Käsebier in New York. In Seattle, Cunningham opened a studio and won acclaim for portraiture, most of her studio work of this time consisted of sitters in their own homes, in her living room, or in the woods surrounding Cunninghams cottage. She became a sought after photographer and exhibited at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts, in 1914, Cunninghams portraits were shown at An International Exhibition of Pictorial Photography in New York. Wilsons Photographic Magazine published a portfolio of her work, the next year, she married Roi Partridge, a teacher and artist. He posed for a series of photographs, which were shown by the Seattle Fine Arts Society. Although critically praised, Cunningham didnt revisit those photographs for another fifty-five years, between 1915 and 1920, Cunningham continued her work and had three children with Partridge. In 1920, the moved to San Francisco where Partridge taught at Mills College. Cunningham refined her style, taking a greater interest in pattern and detail and becoming interested in botanical photography
29.
Minor White
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Minor Martin White was an American photographer, theoretician, critic and educator. He combined an intense interest in how people viewed and understood photographs with a vision that was guided by a variety of spiritual and intellectual philosophies. He helped start and for years was editor of the photography magazine Aperture. After his death in 1976, White was hailed as one of Americas greatest photographers, White was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, the only child of Charles Henry White, a bookkeeper, and Florence May White, a dressmaker. His first name came from his great, great grandfather from the White family side, during his early years he spent much of his time with his grandparents. His grandfather, George Martin, was a photographer and gave White his first camera in 1915. As a child White enjoyed playing in the garden at his grandparents home. Whites parents went through a series of separations starting in 1916 and his parents reconciled for a while in 1922 and remained together until they divorced in 1929. By the time White graduated from school he was already aware of his latent homosexuality. In 1927 he wrote about his feelings for men in his diary, after what he called a brief crisis period, during which he left home for the summer, he returned to live with his family while he started college. His parents never spoke of his homosexuality again, White entered the University of Minnesota in 1927 and majored in botany. By the time he should have graduated in 1931 he had not met the requirements for a science degree, during this period he became very interested in writing, and he started a personal journal that he called Memorable Fancies. He continued to fill the pages of his journal until he directed most of his energy into teaching around 1970, in 1932 White re-entered the university and studied both writing and botany. With his previous credits, he was able to graduate in 1934, the next year he took some graduate classes in botany, but after six months he decided that he lacked real interest in becoming a scientist. He spent the two years doing odd jobs and exploring his writing skills. During this period he began creating a set of 100 sonnets on the theme of sexual love, in late 1937 White decided to move to Seattle. He purchased a 35mm Argus camera and took a bus trip across country toward his destination and he stopped in Portland, Oregon, on his way and decided to stay there. For the next 2-1/2 years he lived at the YMCA in Portland while he explored photography in depth for the first time and it was at the YMCA that he taught his first class in photography, to a small group of young adults
30.
Aperture (magazine)
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Aperture magazine, based in New York City, is an international quarterly journal specializing in photography. Founded in 1952, Aperture magazine is the publication of Aperture Foundation. The headquarters of Aperture magazine and the Aperture Foundation and Gallery are at 547 West 27th Street, 4th floor, New York, Aperture is published four times a year, in Spring, Summer, Fall, and Winter. It features photographs by established and emerging photographers, as well as experimenting with photo-related media. Each issue is themed and includes writings by critics, scholars, photography practitioners. It was the first journal since Alfred Stieglitz’s Camera Work to explore photography as a fine art and we, who have founded this journal, invite others to use Aperture as a common ground for the advancement of photography. Minor White was appointed by the founders to be the editor of the magazine, the magazines dimensions were initially modest, and in its first two decades the photographs discussed and published in its pages were exclusively black and white. Many early issues were organized around thematic concepts, or were monographic publications. In 1953 the editorial moved to Rochester, New York. White was assisted with the editorial and production tasks by Peter C. From the outset, the magazine was appreciated by its readers as “a much needed forum for serious photographers. ”4, Aperture, Inc. became a nonprofit foundation in 1963. In 1965 Aperture launched a full-fledged book-publishing program that evolved in tandem with the magazine over the following decades, beginning in the mid-1960s, the magazine’s production was overseen by Stevan A. Baron. In 1966 Aperture’s production department was moved to New York City, before the end of the decade, the foundation itself established headquarters in Millerton, New York. ”In 1975 Helen Levitt’s photographs of New York City were published as the first full-color portfolio in the magazine. This era also included monographic issues on the work of Edward S. Curtis, Clarence John Laughlin, on June 24,1976, Minor White died of a heart attack after a prolonged illness. In the same year, with issue 77, the moved to a new numbering system. In 1979, with issue 82, a new design by Malcolm Grear was unveiled, from this point, Aperture’s format, hoffmans life partner of 20 years, Diane Lyon, AKA Diane Hoffman, provided assistance. Chief among a group of designers for the magazine in this period was Wendy Byrne, the 23rd Street building was Aperture’s home until 2005. Issues of Aperture during this period were still organized around thematic concepts, such as “Swimmers”, “New Southern Photography”, “Beyond Wilderness”, or monographs of individual photographers
31.
Life (magazine)
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Life was an American magazine that ran weekly from 1883 to 1936 as a humor magazine with limited circulation. Time owner Henry Luce bought the magazine in 1936, solely so that he could acquire the rights to its name, Life was published weekly until 1972, as an intermittent special until 1978, and as a monthly from 1978 to 2000. After 2000 Time Inc. continued to use the Life brand for special, Life returned to regularly scheduled issues when it became a weekly newspaper supplement from 2004 to 2007. The website life. com, originally one of the channels on Time Inc. s Pathfinder service, was for a time in the late 2000s managed as a joint venture with Getty Images under the name See Your World, LLC. On January 30,2012 the LIFE. com URL became a channel on Time. com. When Life was founded in 1883, it was developed as similar to the British magazine and it was published for 53 years as a general-interest light entertainment magazine, heavy on illustrations, jokes and social commentary. The Luce Life was the first all-photographic American news magazine, the magazines role in the history of photojournalism is considered its most important contribution to publishing. Life was wildly successful for two generations before its prestige was diminished by economics and changing tastes, Life was founded January 4,1883, in a New York City artists studio at 1155 Broadway, as a partnership between John Ames Mitchell and Andrew Miller. Mitchell held a 75 per cent interest in the magazine with the remainder by Miller, both men retained their holdings until their deaths. Miller served as secretary-treasurer of the magazine and was very successful managing the side of the operation. Mitchell, a 37-year-old illustrator who used a $10,000 inheritance to invest in the weekly magazine, Mitchell created the first Life name-plate with cupids as mascots, he later drew its masthead of a knight leveling his lance at the posterior of a fleeing devil. Mitchell took advantage of a new printing process using zinc-coated plates. This edge helped because Life faced stiff competition from the humor magazines Judge and Puck. Edward Sandford Martin was brought on as Lifes first literary editor, the motto of the first issue of Life was, While theres Life, theres hope. The new magazine set forth its principles and policies to its readers and we shall try to domesticate as much as possible of the casual cheerfulness that is drifting about in an unfriendly world. The magazine was a success and soon attracted the leading contributors. Among the most important was Charles Dana Gibson, three years after the magazine was founded, the Massachusetts native first sold Life a drawing for $4, a dog outside his kennel howling at the moon. Encouraged by a publisher who was also an artist, Gibson was joined in Life early days by such illustrators as Palmer Cox
32.
Putah Creek
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Putah Creek is a major stream in Northern California, a tributary of the Yolo Bypass. The 85-mile-long creek has its headwaters in the Mayacamas Mountains, a part of the Coast Range, the true meaning of Putah in Putah Creek has been the subject of discussion and speculation. The true meaning of Putah in Putah Creek has been the subject of discussion and speculation, according to Erwin Gudde, the resemblance is purely accidental, the revised fourth edition of Guddes California Place Names has the following entry, Putah Creek. From Lake Miwok puṭa wuwwe grassy creek, the similarity to Spanish puta prostitute is purely accidental. In the records of Mission San Francisco Solano of 1824, the natives of the place are mentioned with various spellings from Putto to Puttato, in the baptismal records of Mission Dolores an adulto de Putü is mentioned in 1817, and the wife of Pedro Putay in 1821. In 1842 the stream was known by its name, I know that the Rio was called Putos. It is well-known by the name which has been given it. The name was fixed by William Wolfskill, who named his grant Rio de los Putos on May 24,1842. In 1843 the name was used in the titles of three land grants, in one of which the spelling Putas occurs. In the Statutes of the early 1850s, in the Indian Reports, R. R. Reports, the spelling of the name is in complete confusion. The present version was applied to a town in 1853, was used in the Statutes of 1854, was popular by the Bancroft maps. The creek originates from springs on the east side of Cobb Mountain south of the town of Cobb in southwestern Lake County and it descends eastward to the town of Whispering Pines, where it turns southeast, parallelling State Route 175. It passes the town of Anderson Springs, where it joins Bear Canyon Creek, north of Middletown, it curves counterclockwise around Harbin Mountain, merging in close succession with Dry Creek, Helena Creek, Crazy Creek, Harbin Creek, and Big Canyon Creek. From Harbin Mountain, it flows east again, joining Bucksnort Creek, in Napa County, the creek flows southeast, merging with Butts Creek just before it empties into Lake Berryessa. Downstream of Monticello Dam, on the corner of the lake, Putah Creek leaves Napa County. In this section it offers excellent fishing opportunities year round, California Department of Fish and Wildlife regulations require catch and release in this section of the stream, as well as the use of artificial lures with barbless hooks. Below Lake Solano, Putah Creek receives McCune Creek, then its last tributary, Dry Creek, after the Dry Creek confluence it passes through the town of Winters to reach Interstate 505. From there Putah Creek channel continues eastward, parallelling Putah Creek Road to Stevenson Bridge Road, Monticello Dam, a concrete arch dam, is the only major storage dam on the creek. It forms Lake Berryessa, which has a capacity of 1,602,000 acre feet, the dam and lake are part of the United States Bureau of Reclamations Solano Project and was completed in 1957
33.
Lake Berryessa
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Lake Berryessa is the largest lake in Napa County, California. This reservoir in the Vaca Mountains is formed by the Monticello Dam, the reservoir was named for the first European settlers in the Berryessa Valley, José Jesús and Sexto Sisto Berrelleza, who were granted Rancho Las Putas in 1843. The lake is over 20,000 acres when full and it is approximately 15.5 miles long but only 3 miles wide. It has approximately 165 miles of shoreline, near the dam on the southeast side of the reservoir is an open bell-mouth spillway,72 feet in diameter, which is known as the Glory Hole. The pipe has a drop of 200 feet, and the diameter shrinks down to about 28 feet. The spillway has a capacity of 48,000 cfs. The spillway operates when there is water in the reservoir, in 2017 after heavy rains it started flowing. In 1997 a woman was killed after being pulled inside the spillway, the active Green Valley Fault runs parallel to the Lake in the hills to the west. Prior to its inundation, the valley was an agricultural region, the main town in the valley, Monticello, was abandoned in order to construct the reservoir. This abandonment was chronicled by the photographers Dorothea Lange and Pirkle Jones in their book Death of a Valley. Construction of Monticello Dam began in 1953, completed in 1958, Monticello residents opposed the government and the Solano Project but were unsuccessful. Residents abandoned their homes, the Monticello cemetery had to be relocated, Monticello ranchers were evicted as equipment was auctioned away and the fertile land destroyed and flooded. The discovery of gold in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada caused an influx of people to the central valley, communities in Solano County grew quickly in the gold rush. Monticello Dam and Lake Berryessa were the result, interest in damming Putah Creek started around the early 1900s. In 1907, a few cities in the Bay Area were interested enough to hire three engineers, including Arthur Powell Davis and George Washington Goethals and their interest quickly evaporated in favor of larger projects, but the place continued to attract interest. Small irrigation projects had developed in the areas but had little success. In the end the Solano Water Council agreed to focus on Monticello Dam, some predicted the dam would be unsuccessful and the valley would never fill. Monticello, a farming town was founded by Ezra Peacock in 1867
34.
Art Institute of Chicago
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The Art Institute of Chicago, founded in 1879 and located in Chicagos Grant Park, is one of the oldest and largest art museums in the United States. Recognized for its efforts and popularity among visitors, the museum hosts approximately 1.5 million guests annually. The growth of the collection has warranted several additions to the museums original 1893 building, the Art Institute is connected to the School of the Art Institute of Chicago, a leading art school, making it one of the few remaining unified arts institutions in the United States. In 1866, a group of 35 artists founded the Chicago Academy of Design in a studio on Dearborn Street, the organization was modeled after European art academies, such as the Royal Academy, with Academicians and Associate Academicians. The Academys charter was granted in March 1867, classes started in 1868, meeting every day at a cost of $10 per month. The Academys success enabled it to build a new home for the school, a stone building on 66 West Adams Street. When the Great Chicago Fire destroyed the building in 1871 the Academy was thrown into debt, attempts to continue despite the loss by using rented facilities failed. By 1878 the Academy was $10,000 in debt, members tried to rescue the ailing institution by making deals with local businessmen, before some finally abandoned it in 1879 to found a new organization, named the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. When the Chicago Academy of Design went bankrupt the same year, in 1882, the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts changed its name to the current Art Institute of Chicago and elected as its first president the banker and philanthropist Charles L. Also in 1882, the purchased a lot on the southwest corner of Michigan Avenue. By January 1885 the trustees recognized the need to provide space for the organizations growing collection. The city agreed, and the building was completed in time for the year of the fair. Construction costs were met by selling the Michigan/Van Buren property, on October 31,1893 the Institute moved into the new building. For the opening reception on December 8,1893, Theodore Thomas, from the 1900s to the 1960s the school offered with the Logan Family the Logan Medal of the Arts, an award which became one of the most distinguished awards presented to artists in the US. Between 1959 and 1970 the Institute was a key site in the battle to gain art and documentary photography a place in galleries, under curator Hugh Edwards and his assistants. As Director of the museum starting in the early 1980s, James N. Wood conducted an expansion of its collection. He retired from the museum in 2004, in 2006, the Art Institute began construction of The Modern Wing, an addition situated on the southwest corner of Columbus and Monroe. The project, designed by Pritzker Prize winning architect Renzo Piano, was completed, the 264, 000-square-foot building makes the Art Institute the second-largest art museum in the United States
35.
Museum of Modern Art
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The Museum of Modern Art is an art museum located in Midtown Manhattan in New York City, on 53rd Street between Fifth and Sixth Avenues. MoMA has been important in developing and collecting modernist art, and is identified as one of the largest and most influential museums of modern art in the world. The MoMA Library includes approximately 300,000 books and exhibition catalogs, over 1,000 periodical titles, the archives holds primary source material related to the history of modern and contemporary art. The idea for The Museum of Modern Art was developed in 1929 primarily by Abby Aldrich Rockefeller and they became known variously as the Ladies, the daring ladies and the adamantine ladies. They rented modest quarters for the new museum in the Heckscher Building at 730 Fifth Avenue in Manhattan, and it opened to the public on November 7,1929, nine days after the Wall Street Crash. Abby had invited A. Conger Goodyear, the president of the board of trustees of the Albright Art Gallery in Buffalo, New York. At the time, it was Americas premier museum devoted exclusively to art. One of Abbys early recruits for the staff was the noted Japanese-American photographer Soichi Sunami. Goodyear enlisted Paul J. Sachs and Frank Crowninshield to join him as founding trustees, Sachs, the associate director and curator of prints and drawings at the Fogg Museum at Harvard University, was referred to in those days as a collector of curators. Goodyear asked him to recommend a director and Sachs suggested Alfred H. Barr, under Barrs guidance, the museums holdings quickly expanded from an initial gift of eight prints and one drawing. Its first successful exhibition was in November 1929, displaying paintings by Van Gogh, Gauguin, Cézanne. Abbys husband was opposed to the museum and refused to release funds for the venture. Nevertheless, he donated the land for the current site of the museum, plus other gifts over time. During that time it initiated many more exhibitions of noted artists, the museum also gained international prominence with the hugely successful and now famous Picasso retrospective of 1939–40, held in conjunction with the Art Institute of Chicago. In its range of presented works, it represented a significant reinterpretation of Picasso for future art scholars, Boy Leading a Horse was briefly contested over ownership with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum. In 1941, MoMA hosted the exhibition, Indian Art of the United States. His brother, David Rockefeller, also joined the board of trustees in 1948. David subsequently employed the noted architect Philip Johnson to redesign the garden and name it in honor of his mother
36.
Nipomo, California
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Nipomo is a census-designated place in San Luis Obispo County, California, United States. The population was 12,626 at the 2000 census, Nipomo is located at 35°1′48″N 120°29′24″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 14.9 square miles. This region experiences warm and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Nipomo has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated Csb on climate maps. The 2010 United States Census reported that Nipomo had a population of 16,714, the population density was 1,125.4 people per square mile. The racial makeup of Nipomo was 12,281 White,177 African American,200 Native American,421 Asian,33 Pacific Islander,2,821 from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6,645 persons. The Census reported that 16,703 people lived in households,11 lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, there were 338 unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 49 same-sex married couples or partnerships. 807 households were made up of individuals and 346 had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 3.05. There were 4,365 families, the family size was 3.35. The median age was 37.0 years, for every 100 females there were 97.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.9 males, there were 5,759 housing units at an average density of 387.8 per square mile, of which 3,898 were owner-occupied, and 1,576 were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1. 7%, the vacancy rate was 3. 1%. 11,583 people lived in owner-occupied housing units and 5,120 people lived in housing units. As of the census of 2000, there were 12,626 people,4,035 households, the population density was 1,106.1 people per square mile. There were 4,146 housing units at a density of 363.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 75. 9% White,0. 60% African American,1. 3% Native American,1. 4% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,16. 0% from other races, and 4. 7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 34. 6% of the population,13. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 6. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.13 and the family size was 3.42
37.
The California Museum
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The building has more than 20,000 square feet of exhibit space, and facilities for lectures, performances, receptions and events. Originally called the Golden State Museum, The California Museum opened in June 1998 as a unique public/private partnership and it was developed under the Secretary of State’s office with ste bond funding for the facility and the opening exhibits. However, the Museum’s long-term management and financial support are the responsibility of a nonprofit Public Benefit Corporation, private contributions, augmented by proceeds from admissions and the Museum Store, fund the Museum’s programs and operations. In May 2004, former First Lady Maria Shriver, working with the Secretary of State and California State Parks, presented an exhibit titled “California’s Remarkable Women. ”This trailblazing exhibit honors the legacy and celebrates the accomplishments of California’s remarkable women of yesterday and today. A revitalized Board of Trustees oversees the operations and has launched a multi-million dollar capital campaign to design and develop the new Museum. The 3, 000-square foot gallery showcases the unique contributions of the state’s Native peoples through artifacts, art,13 oral histories at 6 video stations and an interactive Native language kiosk. Over 400 artifacts are displayed, including, Buckskin jacket and revolver of Captain Jack and this permanent exhibition will feature new artifacts during its second installation phase scheduled for display in March 2012. This exhibit, inspired by former California First Lady Maria Shriver, honors the achievements of the women who strengthen, shape. Focusing on the opportunities awaiting present and future generations of women leaders. This permanent exhibition will be remodeled to commemorate the 100th anniversary of suffrage in California. Each January, the California Museum presents a joint exhibit and school program that centers on the internment of Californians of Japanese descent during World War II. Artifacts and photographs follow the history of Japanese Californians from immigration to the internment and this year, an expanded version of the exhibit will include original art, furniture and crafts made in the internment camps. The exhibit highlights fundamental concepts of rights and responsibilities, while providing a message of personal strength. Curated by original Z-Boy Nathan Pratt, co-star of the 2002 documentary Dogtown and Z- Boys, from the earliest 1950s wood plank and metal roller skate wheel prototypes to the modern engineered marvels of today, rare boards and ephemera document the evolution of sidewalk surfing. Highlights include many of the firsts, including the first pro model skateboard, the first board with urethane wheels. Open July 2,2011 through March 25,2012, California Innovates, The Computer Chip is the first in a new a series of exhibits focused on the Golden State as a hub of innovation. Dedicated to the California-created computer chip, this first display explores one of the states most prosperous industries, through a hands-on, interactive display, the exhibit introduces what chips are, where they are used and how they are made. Open August 26,2011 through August 25,2012, the artists - Irma Barbosa, Carmel Castillo, Mareia de Socorro, Laura Llano and Helen Villa - have been leaders in the Chicana art movement for the past twenty years
38.
Marion Post Wolcott
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Marion Post, later Marion Post Wolcott, was a noted American photographer who worked for the Farm Security Administration during the Great Depression documenting poverty and deprivation. Marion Post was born in New Jersey on June 7,1910 and her parents split up and she was sent to boarding school, spending time at home with her mother in Greenwich Village when not at school. Here she met artists and musicians and became interested in dance. She studied at The New School, Post trained as a teacher, and went to work in a small town in Massachusetts. Here she saw the reality of the Depression and the problems of the poor, when the school closed she went to Europe to study with her sister Helen. Helen was studying with Trude Fleischmann, a Viennese photographer, Marion Post showed Fleischmann some of her photographs and was told to stick to photography. While in Vienna she saw some of the Nazi attacks on the Jewish population and was horrified, soon she and her sister had to return to America for safety. She went back to teaching but also continued her photography and became involved in the anti-fascist movement, at the New York Photo League she met Ralph Steiner and Paul Strand who encouraged her. Stryker was impressed by her work and hired her immediately, posts photographs for the FSA often explore the political aspects of poverty and deprivation. They also often find humour in the situations she encountered, in 1941 she met Leon Oliver Wolcott, deputy director of war relations for the U. S. Department of Agriculture under Franklin Roosevelt. They married, and she continued her assignments for the FSA and she found it difficult to fit in her photography around raising a family and a great deal of traveling and living overseas. In the 1970s, a renewed interest in Wolcotts images among scholars rekindled her own interest in photography, in 1978, Wolcott mounted her first solo exhibition in California, and by the 1980s the Smithsonian and the Metropolitan Museum of Art began to collect her photographs. The first monograph on her work was published in 1983 and she was an advocate for womens rights, in 1986, Wolcott said, Women have come a long way, but not far enough. Speak with your images from your heart and soul, looking for the Light, The Hidden Life and Art of Marion Post Wolcott. Marion Post Wolcott, A Photographic Journey, albuquerque, University of New Mexico Press,1989. The Photography of Marion Post Wolcott Website created by Wolcotts daughter, hosted on J. David Sapirs site Fixing Shadows, available online, http, carmel, CA, Friends of Photography,1983. Prose, Francine, The Photographs of Marion Post Wolcott, an extensive anthology of Marion Post Wolcotts photography edited by her daughter, Linda Wolcott-Moore. FSA Photos, including many by Wolcott, posted by Library of Congress on Flickr Commons Website, oral history interview with Marion Post Wolcott,1965 Jan
39.
Martha Gellhorn
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Martha Ellis Gellhorn was an American novelist, travel writer, and journalist, who is now considered one of the greatest war correspondents of the 20th century. She reported on every major world conflict that took place during her 60-year career. Gellhorn was also the wife of American novelist Ernest Hemingway. At the age of 89, ill and almost completely blind, the Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism is named after her. Gellhorn was born in St. Louis, Missouri, the daughter of Edna Fischel Gellhorn, a suffragist, and George Gellhorn and her father and maternal grandfather were of Jewish origin, and her maternal grandmother came from a Protestant family. Her brother, Walter Gellhorn, became a law professor at Columbia University. Her younger brother, Alfred Gellhorn, was an oncologist, and former dean of the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Gellhorn graduated in 1926 from John Burroughs School in St. Louis, and enrolled in Bryn Mawr College in Philadelphia. In 1927, she left before graduating to pursue a career as a journalist and her first published articles appeared in The New Republic. In 1930, determined to become a correspondent, she went to France for two years, where she worked at the United Press bureau in Paris. While in Europe, she became active in the pacifist movement, roosevelt to aid in the war on the Great Depression. Gellhorn traveled around the United States for FERA to report on the impact of the Depression on the country and she first went to Gastonia, North Carolina, where she used her observation and communication skills to report on how the people of that town were affected by the Depression. Later, she worked with Dorothea Lange, a photographer, to document the lives of the hungry. Their reports later became part of the government files for the Great Depression. They were able to investigate topics that were not usually open to women of the 1930s and her findings were the basis of a collection of short stories, The Trouble Ive Seen. Gellhorn first met Hemingway during a 1936 Christmas family trip to Key West and they agreed to travel to Spain together to cover the Spanish Civil War, where Gellhorn had been hired to report for Colliers Weekly. The pair celebrated Christmas of 1937 together in Barcelona, later, from Germany, she reported on the rise of Adolf Hitler, and in 1938 was in Czechoslovakia. After the outbreak of World War II, she described these events in the novel A Stricken Field and she later reported the war from Finland, Hong Kong, Burma, Singapore, and England. She was the woman to land at Normandy on D-Day on June 6,1944
