1.
Bloomsbury
–
Bloomsbury is an area of the London Borough of Camden, between Euston Road and Holborn. It was developed by the Russell family in the 17th and 18th centuries into a residential area. It is notable for its garden squares, literary connections, and numerous cultural, educational, Bloomsbury Square was laid out in 1660 by Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton. Much of the district was planned and built by James Burton and it is also home to the University of Law and New College of the Humanities. London Contemporary Dance School and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and are located in the area. Bloomsbury is in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. The western half of the district comprises Bloomsbury ward, which three councillors to Camden Borough Council. The earliest record of what would become Bloomsbury is in the 1086 Domesday Book, but it is not until 1201 that the name Bloomsbury is first noted, when William de Blemond, a Norman landowner, acquired the land. The name Bloomsbury is a development from Blemondisberi – the bury, or manor, at the end of the 14th century, Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks of the London Charterhouse, who kept the area mostly rural. In the 16th century with the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Henry VIII took the back into the possession of the Crown and granted it to Thomas Wriothesley. In the early 1660s, the Earl of Southampton constructed what eventually became Bloomsbury Square, the Yorkshire Grey public house on the corner of Grays Inn Road and Theobalds Road dates from 1676. The area was laid out mainly in the 18th century, largely by landowners such as Wriothesley Russell, 3rd Duke of Bedford, who built Bloomsbury Market, William de Blemond in the 13th century, a Norman, was the first landowner. Edward III acquired Blemonds manor, and passed it on to the Carthusian monks who governed it until Henry VIII granted it to the Earl of Southampton, the Russell family became landowners in the 18th century. The area lay within the parishes of St Giles in the Fields and St Georges, Bloomsbury and it is now controlled by the London Borough of Camden and part of the district is contained within the Bloomsbury ward. The district is situated in the constituency of Holborn and St Pancras. Bloomsbury merges gradually with Holborn in the south, with St Pancras and Kings Cross in the north-east, the road runs from Euston and Somers Town in the north to Holborn in the south. East of Southampton Row/Woburn Place are the Grade II listed Brunswick Centre, a residential and shopping centre, the area west of Southampton Row/Woburn Place is notable for its concentration of academic establishments, museums, and formal squares. Bloomsbury contains some of Londons finest parks and buildings, and is known for its formal squares
2.
Abingdon-on-Thames
–
Abingdon /ˈæbɪŋdən/, also known as Abingdon on Thames or Abingdon-on-Thames, is a market town and civil parish in England. Historically the county town of Berkshire, since 1974 it has been the seat of the Vale of White Horse district in the county of Oxfordshire. The 2011 Census recorded the population as 33,130. This is 2,504 more than in the 2001 Census total of 30,626 and it is on the A415 between Witney and Dorchester, adjacent to the A34 trunk road, linking it with the M4 and M40 motorways. The B4017 and A4183 also link the town, both being part of the old A34 and often heavily congested, Local bus services to Oxford and the surrounding areas are run by Stagecoach Oxfordshire, Thames Travel, the Oxford Bus Company and smaller independent companies. The small, primarily stopping-service, railway stations at Culham and Radley are both just over 2 miles away, Abingdons eastern ring-road and newest suburbs are under a mile which is connected by footpath and cycleway from Radley railway station. The Radley to Abingdon railway station branch line closed to passengers in 1963, the nearest major stations with taxi ranks are Oxford and Didcot Parkway. All are managed by First Great Western, frequent express buses operate between Oxford station and Abingdon. A Neolithic stone hand axe was found at Abingdon, petrological analysis in 1940 identified the stone as epidotised tuff from Stake Pass in the Lake District,250 miles to the north. Stone axes from the same source have been found at Sutton Courtenay, Alvescot, Kencot, Abingdon has been occupied from the early to middle Iron Age and the remains of a late Iron Age defensive enclosure lies below the town centre. The oppidum was in use throughout the Roman occupation, Abingdon Abbey was founded in Saxon times, possibly around AD676, but its early history is confused by numerous legends, invented to raise its status and explain the place name. The name seems to mean Hill of a man named Æbba, or a woman named Æbbe, however Abingdon stands in a valley and not on a hill. It is thought that the name was first given to a place on Boars Hill above Chilswell, in 1084, William the Conqueror celebrated Easter at the Abbey and then left his son, the future Henry I, to be educated there. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Abingdon was an agricultural centre with an extensive trade in wool. The abbot seems to have held a market very early times and charters for the holding of markets and fairs were granted by various sovereigns. In 1337 there was a riot in protest at the Abbots control of this market in which several of the monks were killed. P. The present Christs Hospital originally belonged to the Guild of the Holy Cross, on the dissolution of which Edward VI founded the almshouses instead, the council was empowered to elect one burgess to parliament and this right continued until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885. A town clerk and other officers were appointed and the boundaries described in great detail
3.
Beckenham
–
Beckenham is a post town and district of London in the London Borough of Bromley, England. It borders Beckenham Place Park and Bellingham in the London Borough of Lewisham and is centred 8.4 miles south east of Charing Cross, housing and population growth has continued at a lesser pace since 1900. In common with much of this largest borough of London, it has a minority of land which is a mixture of sports grounds, fishing ponds. The settlement is referred to as Bacheham in the Domesday Book of 1086, the name is thought to derive from Beohhas homestead. The name of the stream here - the River Beck - is most likely to have been named after the village. Although early written history tells little of the area, archaeological evidence at Holwood Park, a Roman camp was sited here, and a Roman road, the London to Lewes Way passed through the district. With the arrival of the Normans, the Manor of Beckenham took on added importance, St Georges Church was built in the 12th century. In the Middle Ages, the lands were divided, at this time the estates of Kelsey and Langley came into being. Beckenham still remained a village until well into the 19th century. The beginning of its growth began when, in 1773, John Cator built Beckenham Place, wide roads and large gardens epitomised these properties. The Manor of Foxgrove was also broken up at some point, the Municipal Borough of Beckenham came into being in 1935. It took over from what had been, since 1894, Beckenham Urban District Council, the new Borough status reflected the growth of Beckenham in little less than fifty years. In 1965, as part of the creation of the Greater London Council, the Borough council was disbanded, councillors represent various parts of the erstwhile Borough of Beckenham. There is also a Beckenham Town Centre Management, with the aim of coordinating business interests in the town, the original village of Beckenham was a cluster of development in its own fields at what is now the north. Around it were the great estates, Beckenham, Kelsey and Langley Halls. The River Ravensbourne flows northwards at the side of the town. A small stream, the River Beck, passes through the town before joining the Ravensbourne further north, the area is part of an outcrop of London Clay and consists of many small hills. Despite its leafy image, its proximity to Central London and nine railway stations within the post town
4.
Kent
–
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
5.
Novelist
–
A novelist is an author or writer of novels, though often novelists also write in other genres of both fiction and non-fiction. Some novelists are professional novelists, thus make a living writing novels and other fiction, Novelists come from a variety of backgrounds and social classes, and frequently this shapes the content of their works. Similarly, some novelists have creative identities derived from their focus on different genres of fiction, such as crime, while many novelists compose fiction to satisfy personal desires, novelists and commentators often ascribe a particular social responsibility or role to novel writers. Many authors use such moral imperatives to justify different approaches to writing, including activism or different approaches to representing reality truthfully. Novelist is a derivative from the term novel describing the writer of novels. However, the OED attributes the primary meaning of a writer of novels as first appearing in the 1633 book East-India Colation by C. The difference between professional and amateur novelists often is the ability to publish. Many people take up writing as a hobby, but the difficulties of completing large scale fictional works of quality prevent the completion of novels. Once authors have completed a novel, they often try to get it published. The publishing industry requires novels to have accessible profitable markets, thus many novelists will self-publish to circumvent the editorial control of publishers, self-publishing has long been an option for writers, with vanity presses printing bound books for a fee paid by the writer. The rise of the Internet and electronic books has made self publishing far less expensive, Novelists apply a number of different methods to writing their novels, relying on a variety of approaches to inspire creativity. Some communities actively encourage amateurs to practice writing novels to develop these unique practices, for example, the internet-based group, National Novel Writing Month, encourages people to write 50, 000-word novels in the month of November, to give novelists practice completing such works. In the 2010 event, over 200,000 people took part – writing a total of over 2.8 billion words, Novelists dont usually publish their first novels until later in life. However, many novelists begin writing at a young age, for example, Iain Banks began writing at eleven, and at sixteen completed his first novel, The Hungarian Lift-Jet, about international arms dealers, in pencil in a larger-than-foolscap log book. However, he was thirty before he published his first novel, the success of this novel enabled Banks to become a full-time novelist. Occasionally, novelists publish as early as their teens, for example, Patrick OBrian published his first novel, Caesar, The Life Story of a Panda-Leopard, at the age of 15, which brought him considerable critical attention. Occasionally, these works will achieve popular success as well, for example, though Christopher Paolinis Eragon, was not a great critical success, but its popularity among readers placed it on the New York Times Childrens Books Best Seller list for 121 weeks. First-time novelists of any age often find themselves unable to get published, because of a number of reasons reflecting the inexperience of the author
6.
Novel
–
A novel is any relatively long piece of written narrative fiction, normally in prose, and typically published as a book. The genre has also described as possessing, a continuous. This view sees the novels origins in Classical Greece and Rome, medieval, early modern romance, the latter, an Italian word used to describe short stories, supplied the present generic English term in the 18th century. The romance is a closely related long prose narrative, Romance, as defined here, should not be confused with the genre fiction love romance or romance novel. Other European languages do not distinguish between romance and novel, a novel is le roman, der Roman, il romanzo, a novel is a long, fictional narrative which describes intimate human experiences. Most European languages use the word romance for extended narratives, fictionality is most commonly cited as distinguishing novels from historiography. However this can be a problematic criterion, historians would also invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the hand, depict the social, political and personal realities of a place and period with clarity. Even in the 19th century, fictional narratives in verse, such as Lord Byrons Don Juan, Alexander Pushkins Yevgeniy Onegin, vikram Seths The Golden Gate, composed of 590 Onegin stanzas, is a more recent example of the verse novel. Both in 12th-century Japan and 15th-century Europe, prose fiction created intimate reading situations, on the other hand, verse epics, including the Odyssey and Aeneid, had been recited to a select audiences, though this was a more intimate experience than the performance of plays in theaters. A new world of Individualistic fashion, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, conduct and gallantry spread with novels, the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose fiction, followed by the novella, short story, and flash fiction. However, in the 17th century critics saw the romance as of epic length, the length of a novel can still be important because most literary awards use length as a criterion in the ranking system. Urbanization and the spread of printed books in Song Dynasty China led to the evolution of oral storytelling into consciously fictional novels by the Ming dynasty, parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed for similar opportunities. By contrast, Ibn Tufails Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and Ibn al-Nafis Theologus Autodidactus are works of didactic philosophy, in this sense, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan would be considered an early example of a philosophical novel, while Theologus Autodidactus would be considered an early theological novel. Epic poetry exhibits some similarities with the novel, and the Western tradition of the novel back into the field of verse epics. Then at the beginning of the 18th century, French prose translations brought Homers works to a wider public, longus is the author of the famous Greek novel, Daphnis and Chloe. Romance or chivalric romance is a type of narrative in prose or verse popular in the circles of High Medieval. In later romances, particularly those of French origin, there is a tendency to emphasize themes of courtly love
7.
Modernism
–
Among the factors that shaped modernism were the development of modern industrial societies and the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking, and many modernists rejected religious belief, the poet Ezra Pounds 1934 injunction to Make it new. Was the touchstone of the approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the novel, atonal and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. While J. M. W. Art critic Clement Greenberg describes the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood as proto-Modernists, There the proto-Modernists were, of all people, the Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet, with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins. They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, rationalism has also had opponents in the philosophers Søren Kierkegaard and later Friedrich Nietzsche, both of whom had significant influence on existentialism. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palace, the huge cast-iron, Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the construction of major railway terminals in London, such as Paddington Station and Kings Cross Station. These technological advances led to the building of structures like the Brooklyn Bridge. The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be and these engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. Arguments arose that the values of the artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, the philosopher Schopenhauer called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness, in particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as lower animals proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Karl Marx argued that there were fundamental contradictions within the capitalist system, historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Everdell also thinks modernism in painting began in 1885–86 with Seurats Divisionism, the poet Baudelaires Les Fleurs du mal, and Flauberts novel Madame Bovary were both published in 1857. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, the first was Impressionism, a school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors. Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human beings do not see objects, the school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. A significant event of 1863 was the Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. While most were in standard styles, but by artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention
8.
Alan Odle
–
Alan Elsden Odle was an English illustrator, remembered today as the husband of the English novelist Dorothy Richardson, whom he married in 1917. His grotesque and subversive style was a precursor of surrealism and he illustrated an English edition of Voltaires Candide (, Mark Twains 1601, A Tudor Fireside Conversation, a salute to scatology and Elizabethan manners, and The Mimiambs of Herondas. He also designed the dust jacket for James Hanleys Ebb and Flow, other Hanley novels for Lane and he contributed to a number of periodicals such as The Gypsy, The Golden Hind, the US Vanity Fair, The Studio, and the UK Argosy. Alan Odles brother was Edwin Vincent Odle, author of the science fiction classic The Clockwork Man. The film director and Python Terry Gilliam is a connoisseur of his work, there is an article on him by Martin Steenson in the Antiquarian Book Monthly Review, October 1979. The Imaginative Book Illustration Society at has a bibliography of the published drawings compiled by Martin Steenson, Studies in Illustration, Issue 9, Martin Steenson has also published a book on Odle, The Life and Work of Alan Odle,126 pages, ISBN 978-0-9544395-1-4. Grimsditch, Mr. Alan Odle, A Master of the Grotesque, The Studio, London, England,1 January 1928, Volume 95, no.418, p.23
9.
Stream of consciousness (narrative mode)
–
In literary criticism, stream of consciousness is a narrative mode or device that depicts the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind. Pointed Roofs, the first work in Richardsons series of 13 semi-autobiographical novels titled Pilgrimage, is the first complete stream of consciousness novel published in English. Stream-of-consciousness writing is usually regarded as a form of interior monologue and is characterized by associative leaps in thought. In stream of consciousness the speakers thought processes are often depicted as overheard in the mind. The term Stream of Consciousness was coined by philosopher and psychologist William James in The Principles of Psychology, consciousness, then and it is nothing joined, it flows. A river or a stream are the metaphors by which it is most naturally described, in talking of it hereafter, lets call it the stream of thought, consciousness, or subjective life. In a psychological sense, stream of consciousness is the subject‐matter and it has been suggested that Edgar Allan Poes short story The Tell-Tale Heart foreshadows this literary technique in the nineteenth-century. The short story An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge by another American author, Ambrose Bierce, because of his renunciation of chronology in favor of free association, Édouard Dujardins Les Lauriers sont coupés is also an important precursor. Indeed, the possibility of an influence is evoqued by James Joyce and Virginia Woolf. Henry James has also suggested as a significant precursor, in a work as early as Portrait of a Lady. However, it has suggested that Arthur Schnitzler, in his short story Leutnant Gustl, was in fact the first to make full use of the stream of consciousness technique. But it is only in the twentieth-century that this technique is developed by modernists. The term was first applied in a context in The Egoist, April 1918, by May Sinclair. Possibly the most famous use of the came in 1922 with the publication of James Joyces Ulysses. Prominent uses in the years that followed include Italo Svevo, La coscienza di Zeno, Virginia Woolf, Mrs Dalloway, To the Lighthouse, and William Faulkner in The Sound and the Fury. Samuel Beckett, a friend of James Joyce, uses interior monologue in novels like Molloy, Malone meurt and Linnommable. the technique continued to be used into the 1970s in a novel such as Robert Anton Wilson/Robert Shea collaborative Illuminatus. With regard to which The Fortean Times warns readers, to e prepared for streams of consciousness in which not only identity but time and space no longer confine the narrative. With regard to Salman Rushdie one critic comments, that ll Rushdies novels follow an Indian/Islamic storytelling style, other writers who use this narrative device include Sylvia Plath in The Bell Jar and Irvine Welsh in Trainspotting
10.
Worthing
–
Worthing is a large seaside town in England, with borough status in West Sussex. It is situated at the foot of the South Downs,10 miles west of Brighton, the area around Worthing has been populated for at least 6,000 years and contains Britains greatest concentration of Stone Age flint mines, which are some of the earliest mines in Europe. Lying within the borough, the Iron Age hill fort of Cissbury Ring is one of Britains largest, Worthing means Worth/Worōs people, from the Old English personal name Worth/Worō, and -ingas people of. In the 19th and 20th centuries the area was one of Britains chief market gardening centres, modern Worthing has a large service industry, particularly in financial services. It has three theatres and one of Britains oldest cinemas, writers Oscar Wilde and Harold Pinter lived and worked in the town. From around 4000BC, the South Downs above Worthing was Britains earliest and largest flint-mining area, with four of the UKs 14 known flint mines lying within 7 miles of the centre of Worthing. An excavation at Little High Street dates the earliest remains from Worthing town centre to the Bronze Age, there is also an important Bronze Age hill fort on the western fringes of the modern borough at Highdown Hill. During the Iron Age, one of Britains largest hill forts was built at Cissbury Ring, the area was part of the civitas of the Regni during the Romano-British period. Several of the roads date from this era and lie in a grid layout known as centuriation. A Romano-British farmstead once stood in the centre of the town, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the area became part of the kingdom of Sussex. The place names of the area, including the name Worthing itself, Worthing remained an agricultural and fishing hamlet for centuries until the arrival of wealthy visitors in the 1750s. Princess Amelia stayed in the town in 1798 and the fashionable and wealthy continued to stay in Worthing, the town expanded and elegant developments such as Park Crescent and Liverpool Terrace were begun. The area was a stronghold of smugglers in the 19th century and was the site of rioting by the Skeleton Army in the 1880s, Oscar Wilde holidayed in the town in 1893 and 1894, writing the Importance of Being Earnest during his second visit. The town was home to literary figures in the 20th century. During the Second World War, Worthing was home to several allied military divisions in preparation for the D-Day landings, Worthing became the worlds 229th Transition Town in October 2009. Transition Town Worthing, the exploring the towns transition to life after oil, was established by local residents as a way of planning the towns Energy Descent Action Plan. Worthing means Worth/Weorð/Worōs people, from the Old English personal name Worth, Weorð or Worō, worthen was used as late as 1720. The modern name was first documented in 1297, another village with a similar name near Emmen in Drenthe in the Northeastern part of the Netherlands is Weerdinge
11.
Putney
–
Putney is a district in south-west London, England in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is centred 5.1 miles south-west of Charing Cross, the area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. And thus we take leave of Putney, one of the pleasantest of the London suburbs, Putney is an ancient parish which covered 9.11 square kilometres and was until 1889 in the Hundred of Brixton in the county of Surrey. Its area has reduced by the loss of Roehampton to the south-west. In 1855 the parish was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works and was grouped into the Wandsworth District, in 1889 the area was removed from Surrey and became part of the County of London. The Wandsworth District became the Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth in 1900, since 1965 Putney has formed part of the London Borough of Wandsworth in Greater London. The benefice of the remains a perpetual curacy whose patron is the Dean. It has a small chantry chapel removed from the east end of the south aisle, a charitable almshouse for 12 men and women, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, was erected by Sir Abraham Dawes, who provided it with an endowment. Putney was also birthplace of Thomas Cromwell, made Earl of Essex by Henry VIII and of Edward Gibbon, author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, died at a house on Putney Heath. At that time Putney took on Londons premier role in civil engineering, Putney had a second place of worship, for Independents and Roehampton was in the process of achieving separate parish status. The proprietors of the bridge distributed £31 per annum to watermen, and watermens widows and children, Putney in 1887 covered 9 square kilometres. Putney appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Putelei and it was noted that it did not fall into the category of local jurisdictions known as a manor, but obtained 20 shillings from the ferry or market toll at Putney belonging to the manor of Mortlake. One famous crossing at Putney was that of Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 upon his disgrace in falling out of favour with Henry VIII and on ceasing to be the holder of the Great Seal of England. As he was riding up Putney Hill he was overtaken by one of the royal chamberlains who presented him with a ring as a token of the continuance of his majestys favour. The first permanent bridge between Fulham and Putney was completed in 1729, and was the bridge to be built across the Thames in London. The ferry boat was on the side, however and the waterman. Walpole vowed that a bridge would replace the ferry, the Prince of Wales apparently was often inconvenienced by the ferry when returning from hunting in Richmond park and asked Walpole to use his influence by supporting the bridge. The bridge was a structure and lasted for 150 years
12.
John Ruskin
–
John Ruskin was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, as well as an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects as varied as geology, architecture, myth, ornithology, literature, education, botany and his writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin also penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters, the elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society and he also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation. He was hugely influential in the half of the 19th century. After a period of decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability, from the 1850s he championed the Pre-Raphaelites who were influenced by his ideas. His work increasingly focused on social and political issues, Unto This Last marked the shift in emphasis. In 1869, Ruskin became the first Slade Professor of Fine Art at the University of Oxford, in 1871, he began his monthly letters to the workmen and labourers of Great Britain, published under the title Fors Clavigera. In the course of this complex and deeply personal work, he developed the principles underlying his ideal society, as a result, he founded the Guild of St George, an organisation that endures today. Ruskin was the child of first cousins. His father, John James Ruskin, was a sherry and wine importer founding partner and de facto manager of Ruskin, Telford. John James was born and brought up in Edinburgh, Scotland, to a mother from Glenluce and his wife, Margaret Cox, née Cock, was the daughter of an aunt on the English side of the family and a publican in Croydon. She had joined the Ruskin household when she became companion to John Jamess mother, John James had hoped to practice law, but was instead articled as a clerk in London. His father, John Thomas Ruskin, described as a grocer, was an inadequate businessman, to save the family from bankruptcy, John James, whose prudence and success were in stark contrast to his father, took on all debts, settling the last of them in 1832. John James and Margaret were engaged in 1809, but opposition to the union from John Thomas, Ruskin was born at 54 Hunter Street, Brunswick Square, London, south of St Pancras railway station. His childhood was characterised by the influences of his father and mother. John James Ruskin helped to develop his sons Romanticism and they shared a passion for the works of Byron, Shakespeare and especially Walter Scott
13.
Governess
–
A governess is a woman employed to teach and train children in a private household. In contrast to a nanny, she concentrates on teaching instead of meeting their physical needs. Her charges are of age rather than babies. The position of governess used to be common in well-off European families before World War I, parents preference to educate their children at home—rather than send them away to boarding school for months at a time—varied across time and countries. Governesses were usually in charge of girls and younger boys, when a boy was old enough, he left his governess for a tutor or a school. Governesses are rarer now, except within large and wealthy households or royal families such as the Saudi royal family, There has been a recent resurgence amongst families worldwide to employ governesses or full-time tutors. The reasons for this include personal security, the benefits of an education. Traditionally, governesses taught the three Rs to young children and it was also possible for other teachers with specialist knowledge and skills to be brought in, such as, a drawing master or dancing master. The governess occupied an awkward position in the Victorian household. She worked in the home of the landed gentry or aristocracy. She herself had a background and education, yet was paid for her services. As a sign of this social limbo she frequently ate on her own, away from the rest of the family, by definition, a governess was an unmarried woman who lived in someone elses home, which meant that she was subject to their rules. In any case, she had to maintain a reputation by avoiding anything which could embarrass or offend her employers. If a particular governess was young and attractive, the lady of the house might well perceive a threat to her marriage. As a result of various restrictions, the lifestyle of the typical Victorian governess was often one of social isolation and solitude. The fact that her presence in the household was underpinned by an employment contract emphasized that she could never truly be part of the host family. However, being a governess was one of the few legitimate ways by which a middle class woman could support herself in Victorian society. Not surprisingly, her position was often depicted as one to be pitied, once a governesss charges grew up, she had to seek a new position, or, exceptionally, might be retained by the grown-up daughter as a paid companion
14.
Hanover
–
At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Electorate was enlarged to become a Kingdom with Hanover as its capital. From 1868 to 1946 Hanover was the capital of the Prussian Province of Hanover and it is now the capital of the Land of Lower Saxony. Since 2001 it has been part of the Hanover district, which is a body made up from the former district. With a population of 518,000, Hanover is a centre of Northern Germany. Hanover also hosts annual commercial trade fairs such as the Hanover Fair, every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the worlds largest marksmens festival, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, the second largest such festival in Germany. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000, the Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions, especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover is of importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport. The city is also a crossing point of railway lines and highways. Hanover is the traditional English spelling, the German spelling is becoming more popular in English, recent editions of encyclopaedias prefer the German spelling, and the local government uses the German spelling on English websites. The traditional English spelling is used in historical contexts, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. Hanover was founded in times on the east bank of the River Leine. Its original name Honovere may mean high bank, though this is debated, Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century due to its position at a natural crossroads. As overland travel was difficult, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river helped it to grow by increasing trade. In the 14th century the churches of Hanover were built. The beginning of industrialization in Germany led to trade in iron and silver from the northern Harz Mountains, in 1636 George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ruler of the Brunswick-Lüneburg principality of Calenberg, moved his residence to Hanover. The Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg were elevated by the Holy Roman Emperor to the rank of Prince-Elector in 1692, thus the principality was upgraded to the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg, colloquially known as the Electorate of Hanover after Calenbergs capital. Its electors would later become monarchs of Great Britain, the first of these was George I Louis, who acceded to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch who ruled in Hanover was William IV, semi-Salic law, which required succession by the male line if possible, forbade the accession of Queen Victoria in Hanover
15.
Harley Street
–
Harley Street is a street in Marylebone, central London, which has been noted since the 19th century for its large number of private specialists in medicine and surgery. It was named after Thomas Harley who was Lord Mayor of London in 1767, since the 19th century, the number of doctors, hospitals, and medical organizations in and around Harley Street has greatly increased. Records show that there were around 20 doctors in 1860,80 by 1900, when the National Health Service was established in 1948, there were around 1,500. The nearest Tube stations are Regents Park and Oxford Circus, Harley Street is part of the Howard de Walden Estate. Many famous people have lived or practised in Harley Street, including the Victorian Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, the artist J. M. W. Turner, queens College, founded in 1848 and one of the oldest girls schools in England, is situated on Harley Street. Masud Khan, notable Pakistani psychoanalyst, lived and worked from No.8, sir William Beechey lived at No.13. Sir Grantly Dick-Read lived and had his practice at No.23, Turner lived at No.64 from 1799 to 1805. Sir Stewart Duke-Elder lived & worked at No.63, Lionel Logue, from Australia, had his practice at No.146. He helped King George VI overcome his stammer with lessons here, stafford Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh lived at No.86. George Frederick Bodley lived at No.109 from 1862 to 1873, harriet Harman MP QC, Labour politician, born at 108 Harley Steet. William Henry Giles Kingston, Victorian author of adventure novels, was born on Harley Street,28 February 1814. Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran, Winston Churchills personal physician, had a practice at No.29 during the 1920s and 1930s. Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future Duke of Wellington, had his first London residence in Harley Street, John St. John Long, a famous quack, practiced in Harley Street from 1827–1834. Sir James Galloway, dermatologist, practised at No
16.
Bloomsbury Group
–
This loose collective of friends and relatives lived, worked or studied together near Bloomsbury, London, during the first half of the 20th century. According to Ian Ousby, although its members denied being a group in any formal sense and their works and outlook deeply influenced literature, aesthetics, criticism, and economics as well as modern attitudes towards feminism, pacifism, and sexuality. The male members of the Bloomsbury Group, except Duncan Grant, were educated at Cambridge at either Trinity or King’s College, most of them, except Clive Bell and the Stephen brothers, were members of the exclusive Cambridge society, the Apostles. In 1905 Vanessa began the Friday Club and Thoby ran Thursday Evenings, which became the basis for the Bloomsbury Group, thobys premature death in 1906 brought them more firmly together and they became what is now known as the Old Bloomsbury group who met in earnest beginning in 1912. In the 1920s and 1930s the group shifted when the members died. The Bloomsbury Group, mostly from upper middle-class professional families, formed part of an aristocracy which could trace itself back to the Clapham Sect. It was a network of an influential group of artists, art critics, writers. A historical feature of these friends and relations is that their close relationships all pre-dated their fame as writers, artists, except for Forster, who published three novels before the highly successful Howards End in 1910, the group were late developers. There were stable marriages and varied and complicated affairs among the individual members, Lytton Strachey and his cousin and lover Duncan Grant became close friends of the Stephen sisters, Vanessa Bell and Virginia Woolf. Duncan Grant had affairs with siblings Vanessa Bell and Adrian Stephen, as well as David Garnett, Maynard Keynes, Clive Bell married Vanessa in 1907, and Leonard Woolf returned from the Ceylon Civil Service to marry Virginia in 1912. Cambridge Apostle friendships brought into the group Desmond MacCarthy, his wife Molly, the group met not only in their homes in Bloomsbury, central London, but also at countryside retreats. The Ascension Parish Burial Ground in Cambridge is the resting place of two of the Bloomsbury Group, Sir Desmond and Lady Molly McCarthy. It also houses nine other Apostles, including the philosopher G. E, Moore, who was a great influence on the Bloomsberries. S. Eliot, Katherine Mansfield, Hugh Walpole, another is Vita Sackville-West, who became Hogarth Presss best-selling author. Members cited in other lists might include Ottoline Morrell, or Dora Carrington, or James, through the Apostles they also encountered the analytic philosophers G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell who were revolutionizing British philosophy at the start of the 20th century. For Moore, intrinsic value depended on an intuition of good. For both Moore and Bloomsbury, the greatest ethic goods were the importance of relationships and the private life, as well as aesthetic appreciation. Bloomsbury reacted against current social rituals, the bourgeois habits, the conventions of Victorian life with their emphasis on public achievement, in favour of a more informal and private focus on personal relationships and individual pleasure
17.
Bernese Highlands
–
The Berner Oberland, is the higher part of the canton of Bern, Switzerland, in the southern end of the canton, and one of the cantons five administrative regions. The mountain range in the Berner Oberland south of the Aare, the flag of the Berner Oberland consists of a black eagle in a gold field over two fields in the cantonal colours of red and black. The Swiss German dialects spoken in the Berner Oberland are Highest Alemannic German, contrasting with the High Alemannic Bernese German spoken in Bern, in the short-lived Helvetic Republic, the Berner Oberland had been a separate canton. Prehistorically the Berner Oberland was crossed by hunters or traders, the Romans settled along the river and the lakes. They used a number of alpine passes including, the Brünig, Susten, Grimsel, Lötschen, Gemmi, Rawil, Sanetsch, during the High Middle Ages, a number of Berner Oberland villages grew around valley parish churches which were religious and cultural centers within each surrounding valley. During Middle Ages, the Berner Oberland first belonged to the Kingdom of Burgundy followed by the Dukes of Zähringen, after the extinction of the Zähringen line, the Berner Oberland was ruled by a number of local Barons. For a time, some of the Walser barons ruled portions of the Berner Oberland, the Saanen valley was ruled by the Counts of Gruyères. Portions of the passes were held, until the 19th century. The expansionist policy of the city of Bern led them into the Berner Oberland, through conquest, purchase, mortgage or marriage politics Bern was able to acquire the majority of the Berner Oberland from the indebted local barons between 1323 and 1400. Under Bernese control, the five valleys enjoyed extensive rights and far-reaching autonomy in the Bäuerten and Talverbänden, throughout the Late Middle Ages, the Berner Oberland, as a whole or in part, revolted several times against Bernese authority. During the Middle Ages, the settlement pattern in the Berner Oberland was somewhat consistent, a main settlement grew on the valley floor below an elevation near 1,100 m. This main settlement had a market and often a castle or other fortifications and this market town was surrounded by scattered villages, hamlets and individual farm houses to an elevation of 1,600 m. During the 14th-16th centuries, the Berner Oberland villages began extensive trading with the Bernese grain producing towns in the lowlands. This allowed the villages to renounce self-sufficiency in grain and focus on raising cattle in the high alpine pastures. They then exported cattle over the passes into Italy and into the Bernese lowlands, around 1500, in addition to the seven medieval markets, eleven new cattle markets opened to allow the Berner Oberland villagers to sell their cattle. After the Napoleonic invasion of Switzerland in 1798, the old Bernese order was fractured, within this new canton, historic borders and traditional rights were not considered. As there had no previous separatist feeling amongst the conservative population. In 1729, Albrecht von Haller published the poem Die Alpen about his travels through the alpine regions and this combined with other reports and alpine paintings started the tourism industry in the Berner Oberland
18.
H. G. Wells
–
Herbert George H. G. Wells was an English writer. He was prolific in many genres, including the novel, history, politics, social commentary, Wells is now best remembered for his science fiction novels and is called a father of science fiction, along with Jules Verne and Hugo Gernsback. His most notable science fiction works include The Time Machine, The Island of Doctor Moreau, The Invisible Man and he was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature four times. Wellss earliest specialised training was in biology, and his thinking on ethical matters took place in a specifically and fundamentally Darwinian context and he was also from an early date an outspoken socialist, often sympathising with pacifist views. His later works became increasingly political and didactic, and he wrote science fiction. A diabetic, in 1934, Wells co-founded the charity The Diabetic Association, Herbert George Wells was born at Atlas House,46 High Street in Bromley, Kent, on 21 September 1866. Called Bertie in the family, he was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells and his wife, Sarah Neal. An inheritance had allowed the family to acquire a shop in which they sold china and sporting goods, although it failed to prosper, the stock was old and worn out, and the location was poor. Joseph Wells managed to earn an income, but little of it came from the shop. Payment for skilled bowlers and batsmen came from voluntary donations afterwards, a defining incident of young Wellss life was an accident in 1874 that left him bedridden with a broken leg. To pass the time he started reading books from the local library and he soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access, they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morleys Commercial Academy, a school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morleys earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells later said, Wells continued at Morleys Academy until 1880. In 1877, his father, Joseph Wells, fractured his thigh, the accident effectively put an end to Josephs career as a cricketer, and his subsequent earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss of the primary source of family income. No longer able to support financially, the family instead sought to place their sons as apprentices in various occupations. From 1880 to 1883, Wells had an apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium. Wellss parents had a turbulent marriage, owing primarily to his mother being a Protestant, when his mother returned to work as a ladys maid, one of the conditions of work was that she would not be permitted to have living space for her husband and children. Thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and remained faithful to each other, as a consequence, Herberts personal troubles increased as he subsequently failed as a draper and also, later, as a chemists assistant
19.
Pevensey
–
Pevensey is a village and civil parish in the Wealden district of East Sussex, England. The main village is located 5 miles north-east of Eastbourne, one mile inland from Pevensey Bay, the settlement of Pevensey Bay forms part of the parish. It was here that William the Conqueror made the landing in his invasion of England in 1066 after crossing the English Channel from Normandy, Pevensey is situated on a spur of sand and clay, about 10 metres above sea level. In Roman times this spur was a peninsula that projected into a tidal lagoon, a small river, Pevensey Haven, runs along the north side of the peninsula and would originally have discharged into the lagoon, but is now largely silted up. The lagoon extended inland as far north as Hailsham and eastwards to Hooe, with the effect of longshore drift this large bay was gradually cut off from the sea by shingle, so that todays marshes are all that remain behind the shingle beach. The marshes, known as the Pevensey Levels, cover an area of around 47 miles² and they are a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a large nature reserve, jointly owned by Natural England and the Sussex Wildlife Trust. There are many rare plants and invertebrates, including the fen raft spider. The site is very fragile and general access is not permitted, the settlement of Pevensey Bay lies behind and on the shingle beach. Although small, it is nevertheless a seaside resort in miniature, the name Pevensey was first recorded in 947 as Pefenesea, meaning River of Pefen. It derives from the Anglo-Saxon personal name Pefen plus eã, river, by the 4th century the south and east of the province of Britannia was under frequent attack from marauding barbarian tribes, including the Jutes and Saxons. To counter these attacks the Romans built a total of eleven forts between Essex and the Isle of Wight, now known as the Saxon Shore Forts, the fort at Pevensey, built between AD300 and 340, was named Anderitum. The earliest stone remains on the date from the Roman period. The sea washed over what is now Pevensey Marshes, surrounding the fort on three sides. When the Roman army left Britain, the province was vulnerable to attack, first by the Jutes in east Kent. Following the Jutish example the Saxons began invading Britain in earnest, around 491, Saxons, possibly led by Ælle of Sussex began to colonise the south coast and besieged Anderitum over a number of years. After a long struggle the British defences were overrun, some remaining Britons on the south coast fled north, others emigrated by boat to what is now called Brittany and the area became the Kingdom of the South Saxons, later called Sussex. The old Roman fort of Anderida was burned and left derelict, the English army remained at the fort during the summer of 1066 before abandoning it to meet the invading Norwegians further north. When William the Conqueror invaded Sussex in September 1066 there were no defenders at Pevensey and the bay provided a safe haven for the invading fleet
20.
Sussex
–
Sussex, from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. Brighton and Hove was created as an authority in 1997. Until then, Chichester was Sussexs only city, Sussex has three main geographic sub-regions, each oriented approximately east to west. In the south-west is the fertile and densely populated coastal plain, North of this are the rolling chalk hills of the South Downs, beyond which is the well-wooded Sussex Weald. The name derives from the Kingdom of Sussex, which was founded, according to legend, in 825, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Wessex and subsequently into the kingdom of England. It was the home of some of Europes earliest hominids, whose remains have been found at Boxgrove, in 1974, the Lord-Lieutenant of Sussex was replaced with one each for East and West Sussex, which became separate ceremonial counties. Sussex continues to be recognised as a territory and cultural region. It has had a police force since 1968 and its name is in common use in the media. In 2007, Sussex Day was created to celebrate the rich culture. Based on the emblem of Sussex, a blue shield with six gold martlets. In 2013, Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government Eric Pickles formally recognised and acknowledged the existence of Englands 39 historic counties. The name Sussex is derived from the Middle English Suth-sæxe, which is in turn derived from the Old English Suth-Seaxe which means of the South Saxons, the South Saxons were a Germanic tribe that settled in the region from the North German Plain during the 5th and 6th centuries. The earliest known usage of the term South Saxons is in a charter of 689 which names them and their king, Noðhelm. The monastic chronicler who wrote up the entry classifying the invasion seems to have got his dates wrong, the New Latin word Suthsexia was used for Sussex by Dutch cartographer Joan Blaeu in his 1645 map. Three United States counties, and a former division of Western Australia, are named after Sussex. The flag of Sussex consists of six gold martlets, or heraldic swallows, on a background, blazoned as Azure. Officially recognised by the Flag Institute on 20 May 2011, its design is based on the shield of Sussex. The first known recording of this emblem being used to represent the county was in 1611 when cartographer John Speed deployed it to represent the Kingdom of the South Saxons
21.
Quakers
–
Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
22.
Cornwall
–
Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
23.
St John's Wood
–
Saint Johns Wood is a district of northwest London, in the City of Westminster, and on the northwest side of Regents Park. It is about 2.5 miles northwest of Charing Cross, once part of the Great Middlesex Forest, it was later owned by the Knights of St John of Jerusalem. The boundaries of St. Johns Wood are the Regents Canal to the south, Maida Vale to the west, Boundary Road to the north and Avenue Rd/Primrose Hill Park to the east. It is an affluent neighbourhood, with the area postcode ranked by Forbes magazine as the fifth most expensive postcode in London based on the average home price in 2007. According to a 2014 property agent survey, St. Johns Wood residents pay the highest average rent in all of London, St Johns Wood was developed from the early 19th century onwards. One of the first developers in the area was James Burton, parts of St Johns Wood have been rebuilt at a higher density, but it remains a highly desirable residential district, and one of the most expensive areas of London. St Johns Wood is the location of Lords Cricket Ground, home of Middlesex County Cricket Club and of the Marylebone Cricket Club, and the original headquarters of cricket. It is also famous for Abbey Road Studios and the street Abbey Road, where The Beatles recorded, notably the Abbey Road album, the Kings Troop, Royal Horse Artillery was formerly based at St Johns Wood Barracks. The regiment moved to Woolwich on 6 February 2012, the barracks is to be demolished and developed as housing, the area is also home to St. Johns Wood Church Grounds, which contains the only nature reserve in the City of Westminster. The nearest London Overground station is South Hampstead. C,5 Forest Road, St. Johns Wood in Wilkie Collinss 1859 sensation novel The Woman in White. Irene Adler lives there in Arthur Conan Doyles 1891 Sherlock Holmes story A Scandal in Bohemia, in the first instalment of John Galsworthys The Forsyte Saga, The Man of Property, Young Jolyon lives on fictional Wistaria Avenue with his second wife and family. St Johns Wood is the home of fictional characters Bingo and Rosie Little in P. G. Wodehouses Jeeves and Wooster short stories and novels, referenced in the Rolling Stones song, Play with Fire, released in 1965. Ballards novel Millennium People, is a psychologist who lives in St. Johns Wood, Violet Hill, a street and area off Abbey Road with Violet Hill Gardens and Violet Hill Hospital, is the source of the name in Coldplays 2008 song Violet Hill. Media related to St. Johns Wood at Wikimedia Commons History of St Johns Wood Map of St Johns Wood and the surrounding districts stjohnswoodhighstreet. co. uk & stjohnswoodhighstreet. com
24.
Sandgate, Kent
–
Sandgate is a village in the Folkestone and Hythe Urban Area in the Shepway district of Kent, England. In 2004, the village re-acquired civil parish status, the civil parish shares the boundaries of Folkestone Sandgate ward, at 2.17 km2. It had a population of 4,225 at the 2001 census and it is the site of Sandgate Castle, a Device Fort. H. G. Wells lived at Spade House, and it was also the birthplace of comedian Hattie Jacques, the Morcheeba song The Sea is written about the beachside bar Bar Vasa. Sandgate Hotel appeared on the Channel 4 programme Ramsays Kitchen Nightmares on 27 February 2006, other pubs include The Ship Inn, The Providence Inne, The Clarendon Inn and The Royal Norfolk Hotel. Sandgate was a district from 1894 to 1934. It was added to Folkestone in 1934, the Sandgate branch railway line was opened in 1874 and closed to passengers in 1951. Little of the infrastructure now remains, but it is possible to see the remains of a tall overbridge at the bottom of Hospital Hill. Sandgate has become known for Dave the Dolphin, seen out in the bay between Folkestone and Hythe, Sandgate is the location of the Shorncliffe Redoubt, a Napoleonic era earthwork fort associated with Sir John Moore and the 95th Regiment of Foot, known as the 95th Rifles. St Pauls Church lies next to the Saga building, which is built on the site of Embrook House, Sandgate Primary School lies on Coolinge Lane between the Folkestone School for Girls and Eversley College. The old school building is located in the village on Sandgate Road close to Spade House, Folkestone Rowing Club is in Sandgate. There are a number of pubs in Sandgate, including The Ship, The Providence Inne, Inn Doors opened on Aug 28th 2015. This is a micropub offering local beers and ciders, the Hub bicycle shop closed in 2014. Its premises have now split between the Loaf coffee shop and the Ship Inn. As of Sept 2015, the half now managed by the Ship was undergoing refurbishment, the Brisbane suburb with the same name is named after the town. There is also a Brisbane suburb called Shorncliffe, which is adjacent to Sandgate, Sandgate Website Sandgate Parish Council _
25.
Walt Whitman
–
Walter Walt Whitman was an American poet, essayist, and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works, Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass. Born in Huntington on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans. Whitmans major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money, the work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892, after a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. When he died at age 72, his became an public spectacle. Walter Whitman was born on May 31,1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter, the second of nine children, he was immediately nicknamed Walt to distinguish him from his father. Walter Whitman, Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders, Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson, the oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couples sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward, at age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, one happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4,1825. At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling, there, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting. He may have written sentimental bits of material for occasional issues. Clements aroused controversy when he and two attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward, possibly as a result of the controversy, the following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn. His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, at age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn. He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though, in later years, in May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, after his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander
26.
Friedrich Nietzsche
–
He began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. He became the youngest ever to hold the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel in 1869, Nietzsche resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life, and he completed much of his core writing in the following decade. In 1889, at age 44, he suffered a collapse and he lived his remaining years in the care of his mother, and then with his sister Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, and died in 1900. Nietzsches body of work touched widely on art, philology, history, religion, tragedy, culture, and science, and drew inspiration from figures such as Schopenhauer, Wagner. His writing spans philosophical polemics, poetry, cultural criticism, and fiction while displaying a fondness for aphorism, born on 15 October 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Röcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned forty-nine on the day of Nietzsches birth, Nietzsches parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche, a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler, married in 1843, the year before their sons birth. They had two children, a daughter, Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph. Nietzsches father died from an ailment in 1849, Ludwig Joseph died six months later. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsches maternal grandmother, after the death of Nietzsches grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house, now Nietzsche-Haus, a museum and Nietzsche study centre. Nietzsche attended a school and then, later, a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug, Rudolf Wagner. In 1854, he began to attend Domgymnasium in Naumburg, because his father had worked for the state the now-fatherless Nietzsche was offered a scholarship to study at the internationally recognized Schulpforta. He transferred and studied there from 1858 to 1864, becoming friends with Paul Deussen and he also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. Nietzsche led Germania, a music and literature club, during his summers in Naumburg. His end-of-semester exams in March 1864 showed a 1 in Religion and German, a 2a in Greek and Latin, a 2b in French, History, and Physics, while at Pforta, Nietzsche had a penchant for pursuing subjects that were considered unbecoming. The teacher who corrected the essay gave it a mark but commented that Nietzsche should concern himself in the future with healthier, more lucid. After graduation in September 1864, Nietzsche commenced studies in theology, for a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester, he stopped his studies and lost his faith. In June 1865, at the age of 20, Nietzsche wrote to his sister Elisabeth, who was deeply religious, a letter regarding his loss of faith
27.
J. D. Beresford
–
John Davys Beresford was an English writer, now remembered for his early science fiction and some short stories in the horror story and ghost story genres. Beresford was an admirer of H. G. Wells. His Wellsian novel The Hampdenshire Wonder was an influence on Olaf Stapledon. His other science-fiction novels include The Riddle of the Tower, about a dystopian and his father was a clergyman in Castor, now in Cambridgeshire near Peterborough. J. D. Beresford was affected by paralysis, which left him partially disabled. After training to become an architect, he became a writer, first as a dramatist. In early adulthood he broke away from his fathers views and became a determined and he combined a prominent place in Edwardian literary London with time spent in the provinces, in particular Cornwall where D. H. Lawrence had an extended stay in his Porthcothan cottage. Later in life Beresford abandoned his earlier agnosticism and described himself as a Theosophist, Beresford was also interested in psychology, and attended several meetings organised by A. R. Other attendees at these meetings included Havelock Ellis, Clifford Sharp, David Eder, at one point, Beresford was offered the editorship of the pacifist magazine Peace News but declined because he felt he would be a bad editor. This he did in The Camberwell Miracle and Peckover, and in this novel, he returns to the theme. Dorothy L. Sayers quotes from Beresfords essay Writing Aloud in her book on theology and she also mentions him in passing in Whose Body. George Orwell in 1945 described him as a natural novelist, whose strength, elisabeth Beresford, childrens writer and creator of The Wombles, was his daughter. Through his son, writer Marc Brandel, he is the great-grandfather of American actor James Newman. G, frank Swinnerton, Oliver Onions and J. D. Beresford, in The Georgian literary scene, 1910-1935. Richard Bleiler, John Davys Beresford in Darren Harris-Fain, ed, British Fantasy and Science Fiction Writers Before World War I. George M. Johnson, J. D. Beresford New York, late-Victorian and Edwardian British Novelists, Second Series. George M. Johnson, Dynamic Psychology in Modernist British Fiction, george M. Johnson, “The Other Side of Edwardian Fiction, Two Forgotten Fantasy Novels of 1911. ”Wormwood, Literature of the fantastic, supernatural and decadent. George M. Johnson, “Evil is in the Eye of the Beholder, Threatening Children in Two Edwardian Speculative Satires. ”
28.
Augustus John
–
Augustus Edwin John OM RA was a Welsh painter, draughtsman, and etcher. For a short time around 1910, he was an important exponent of Post-Impressionism in the United Kingdom and he was the brother of the painter Gwen John. Augustus was celebrated first for his brilliant figure drawings, and then for a new technique of oil sketching and his work was favourably compared in London with that of Gauguin and Matisse. He then developed a style of portraiture that was imaginative and often extravagant, John was born at Tenby in Pembrokeshire, the younger son and third of four children in his family. In 1898, he won the Slade Prize with Moses and the Brazen Serpent, John afterward studied independently in Paris where he seems to have been influenced by Puvis de Chavannes. The need to support Ida Nettleship, whom he married in 1901, Augustus John and his student James Dickson Innes spent two years painting in the Arenig valley around 1910, especially the mountain Arenig Fawr. In 2011 this period was made the subject of a BBC documentary titled The Mountain That Had to Be Painted. Some time in 1910, John fell in love with the town of Martigues, in Provence, John wrote that Provence had been for years the goal of my dreams and Martigues was the town for which he felt the greatest affection. With a feeling that I was going to find what I was seeking, an anchorage at last, I returned from Marseilles, on arriving my premonition proved correct, there was no need to seek further. The connection with Provence continued until 1928, by which time John felt the town had lost its simple charm and he was, throughout his life, particularly interested in the Romani people, and sought them out on his frequent travels around the United Kingdom and Europe. For a time, shortly after his marriage, he and his family, which included his wife Ida, mistress Dorothy McNeill, later on he became the President of the Gypsy Lore Society, a position he held from 1937 until his death in 1961. During World War I, he was attached to the Canadian forces as a war artist, the end result was to have been a huge mural for Lord Beaverbrook and the sketches and cartoon for this suggest that it might have become his greatest large-scale work. However, like so many of his monumental conceptions, it was never completed, as a war artist, he was allowed to keep his facial hair and therefore, he and King George V were the only Army officers in the Allied forces to have a beard. After two months in France he was sent home in disgrace after taking part in a brawl, in 2011, the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge finally unveiled this mural at the Canadian War Museum in OttawaThe Canadians Opposite Lens. This unfinished painting is 12 feet high by 40 feet long, although well-known early in the century for his drawings and etchings, the bulk of Johns later work consisted of portraits, some of the best of which were of his two wives and his children. He was known for the insight of his portraits, many of which were considered cruel for the truth of the depiction. Lord Leverhulme was so upset with his portrait that he cut out the head, by the 1920s John was Britains leading portrait painter. John painted many distinguished contemporaries, including T. E. Lawrence, Thomas Hardy, yeats, Aleister Crowley, Lady Gregory, Tallulah Bankhead, George Bernard Shaw, the cellist Guilhermina Suggia, the Marchesa Casati and Elizabeth Bibesco
29.
Jacob Epstein
–
Sir Jacob Epstein KBE was a British sculptor who helped pioneer modern sculpture. He was born in the United States, and moved to Europe in 1902 and he often produced controversial works which challenged taboos on what was appropriate subject matter for public artworks. He also made paintings and drawings, and often exhibited his work, Epsteins parents were Polish Jewish refugees, living on New Yorks Lower East Side. His family was middle-class, and he was the third of five children and his interest in drawing came from long periods of illness, as a child he suffered from pleurisy. He studied art in his native New York as a teenager, sketching the city, for his livelihood, he worked in a bronze foundry by day, studying drawing and sculptural modelling at night. Epsteins first major commission was to illustrate Hutchins Hapgoods Spirit of the Ghetto, the money from the commission was used by Epstein to move to Paris. Moving to Europe in 1902, he studied in Paris at the Académie Julian and he settled in London in 1905 and married Margaret Dunlop in 1906. In 1911 he became a British subject, many of Epsteins works were sculpted at his two cottages in Loughton, Essex, where he lived first at number 49 then 50, Baldwins Hill. He served briefly in the 38th Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers, in London, Epstein involved himself with a bohemian and artistic crowd. Revolting against ornate, pretty art, he made bold, often harsh and his sculpture is distinguished by its vigorous rough-hewn realism. Avant-garde in concept and style, his works often shocked his audience, people in Liverpool, however, nicknamed his nude male sculpture over the door of Lewiss department store Dickie Lewis. The female figures in particular may be seen deliberately to incorporate the posture and hand gestures of Buddhist, Jain, between 1913 and 1915, Epstein was associated with the short-lived Vorticism movement and produced one of his best known sculptures The Rock Drill. In 1915, John Quinn, wealthy American collector and patron to the modernists, in 1916, Epstein was commissioned by Viscount Tredegar to produce a bronze head of Newport poet W. H. Davies. A commission from Holden for the new building of the London Electric Railway generated another controversy in 1929. Eventually a compromise was reached to modify the smaller of the two represented on Day. But the controversy affected his commissions for work which dried up until World War II. Between the late 1930s and the mid-1950s, numerous works by Epstein were exhibited in Blackpool, adam, Consummatum Est, Jacob and the Angel and Genesis, and other works, were initially displayed in an old drapery shop surrounded by red velvet curtains. The crowds were ushered in at the cost of a shilling by a barker on the street, after a small tour of American fun fairs, the works were returned to Blackpool and were exhibited in the anatomical curiosities section of Louis Tussauds waxworks
30.
Wyndham Lewis
–
Percy Wyndham Lewis was an English writer, painter and critic. He was a co-founder of the Vorticist movement in art, and edited the magazine of the Vorticists. His novels include his pre-World War I-era novel Tarr, and The Human Age, a fourth volume of The Human Age, The Trial of Man, was begun by Lewis but left in a fragmentary state at the time of his death. He also wrote two volumes, Blasting and Bombardiering and Rude Assignment, A Narrative of my Career Up-to-Date. Lewis was reputedly born on his fathers yacht off the Canadian province of Nova Scotia and his British mother and American father separated about 1893. Mainly residing in London from 1908, Lewis published his first work in Ford Madox Fords The English Review in 1909 and he was a founder-member of the Camden Town Group in 1911. In 1912 he exhibited his Cubo-Futurist illustrations to Timon of Athens and this brought him into close contact with the Bloomsbury Group, particularly Roger Fry and Clive Bell, with whom he soon fell out. In 1912 he was commissioned to produce a mural, a drop curtain, and more designs for The Cave of the Golden Calf. It was in the years 1913–15 that he developed the style of abstraction for which he is best known today. Lewis found the structure of Cubist painting appealing, but said it did not seem alive compared to Futurist art. Vorticism combined the two movements in a strikingly dramatic critique of modernity, though he was later savagely critical of Bergson, he admitted in a letter to Theodore Weiss that he began by embracing his evolutionary system. Nietzsche was an important influence. He walked out with several Omega artists to start a workshop called the Rebel Art Centre. The Centre operated for four months, but it gave birth to the Vorticist group. In BLAST Lewis wrote the manifesto, several essays expounding his Vorticist aesthetic. The magazine also included reproductions of now lost Vorticist works by Lewis, Lewis was posted to the western front, and served as a second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. It was dangerous work and he made vivid accounts of narrow misses, after the Third Battle of Ypres in 1917, he was appointed as an official war artist for both the Canadian and British governments, beginning work in December 1917. For the Canadians he painted A Canadian Gun-Pit from sketches made on Vimy Ridge, for the British he painted one of his best known works, A Battery Shelled, drawing on his own experience in charge of a 6-inch howitzer at Ypres
31.
May Sinclair
–
May Sinclair was the pseudonym of Mary Amelia St. Clair, a popular British writer who wrote about two dozen novels, short stories and poetry. She was an active suffragist, and member of the Woman Writers Suffrage League and she was born in Rock Ferry, Cheshire. Her father was a Liverpool shipowner, who went bankrupt, became an alcoholic and her mother was strict and religious, the family moved to Ilford on the edge of London. After one year of education at Cheltenham Ladies College, she acted as caretaker for her brothers, as four of the five, from 1896 she wrote professionally, to support herself and her mother, who died in 1901. An active feminist, Sinclair treated a number of themes relating to the position of women and she also wrote non-fiction based on studies of philosophy, particularly German idealism. Her works sold well in the United States, around 1913, at the Medico-Psychological Clinic in London, she became interested in psychoanalytic thought, and introduced matter related to Sigmund Freuds teaching in her novels. In 1914, she volunteered to join the Munro Ambulance Corps and she was sent home after only a few weeks at the front, she wrote about the experience in both prose and poetry. She wrote early criticism on Imagism and the poet H. D. she was on terms with H. D. Richard Aldington. She also reviewed in a light the poetry of T. S. Eliot. It was in connection with Richardson that she introduced stream of consciousness as a literary term, some aspects of Sinclairs subsequent novels have been traced as influenced by modernist techniques, particularly in the autobiographical Mary Olivier, A Life. She was included in the 1925 Contact Collection of Contemporary Writers, Sinclair was a believer in Spiritualism, and was also a member of the Society for Psychical Research from 1914. Sinclair wrote two volumes of fiction, Uncanny Stories and The Intercessor and Other Stories. E. F. Bleiler called Sinclair an underrated writer and described Uncanny Stories as excellent, gary Crawford has stated Sinclairs contribution to the supernatural fiction genre, small as it is, is notable. Jacques Barzun included Sinclair among a list of fiction writers that one should make a point of seeking out. Brian Stableford has stated that Sinclairs supernatural tales are written with uncommon delicacy and precision, andrew Smith has described Uncanny Stories as an important contribution to the ghost story. From the late 1920s she was suffering from the signs of Parkinsons disease. She settled with a companion in Buckinghamshire in 1932, johnson May Sinclair, The Evolution of a Psychological Novelist in Dynamic Psychology in Modern British Fiction
32.
William James
–
William James was an American philosopher and psychologist who was also trained as a physician. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked James as the 14th most cited psychologist of the 20th century and he also developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James work has influenced intellectuals such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B, du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty, and has even influenced Presidents, such as Jimmy Carter. Born into a family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr. James wrote widely on topics, including epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, religion. William James was born at the Astor House in New York City and he was the son of Henry James Sr. a noted and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologian well acquainted with the literary and intellectual elites of his day. William James received an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, developing fluency in both German and French, education in the James household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The family made two trips to Europe while William James was still a child, setting a pattern that resulted in thirteen more European journeys during his life. In his early adulthood, James suffered from a variety of ailments, including those of the eyes, back, stomach. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson and Robertson, fought in the Civil War, the other three siblings all suffered from periods of invalidism. He took up studies at Harvard Medical School in 1864. His studies were interrupted once again due to illness in April 1867 and he traveled to Germany in search of a cure and remained there until November 1868, at that time he was 26 years old. During this period, he began to publish, reviews of his works appeared in periodicals such as the North American Review. James finally earned his M. D. degree in June 1869, what he called his soul-sickness would only be resolved in 1872, after an extended period of philosophical searching. He married Alice Gibbens in 1878, in 1882 he joined the Theosophical Society. Jamess time in Germany proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his interests lay not in medicine but in philosophy. Later, in 1902 he would write, I originally studied medicine in order to be a physiologist, I never had any philosophic instruction, the first lecture on psychology I ever heard being the first I ever gave. In 1875–1876, James, Henry Pickering Bowditch, Charles Pickering Putnam, G. Stanley Hall, Henri Bergson and Sigmund Freud
33.
Sylvia Beach
–
Beach was born in her fathers parsonage in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, on March 14,1887, the second of three daughters of Sylvester Beach and Eleanor Thomazine Orbison. Although named Nancy after her grandmother Orbison, she decided to change her name to Sylvia. Her maternal grandparents were missionaries to India, and her father, when the girls were young the family lived in Baltimore and in Bridgeton, New Jersey. Then in 1901, the moved to France upon Sylvester Beachs appointment as assistant minister of the American Church in Paris. Beach spent the years 1902-1905 in Paris, returning to New Jersey in 1906 when her father became minister of the First Presbyterian Church of Princeton. Beach made several trips to Europe, lived for two years in Spain, and worked for the Balkan Commission of the Red Cross. During the last years of the Great War, she was back to Paris to study contemporary French literature. There she was welcomed by the owner who, to her surprise, was a plump fair-haired young woman. Monnier was wearing a garment that looked like a cross between a peasant’s dress and a habit, with a long full skirt … and a sort of tight-fitting velvet waistcoat over a white silk blouse. She was in gray and white like her bookshop, although Beach was dressed in a Spanish cloak and hat, Monnier knew immediately that she was American. At that first meeting Monnier declared, I like America very much, Beach replied that she liked France very much. They later became lovers and lived together for 36 years until Monnier’s suicide in 1955, Beach immediately became a member of Monnier’s lending library, and when in Paris she regularly attended the readings by authors such as André Gide, Paul Valéry and Jules Romains. Since her only capital was US$3,000 which her mother gave her from her savings, however, Paris rents were much cheaper and the exchange rates favorable, so with Monnier’s help, Beach opened an English language bookstore and lending library that she named Shakespeare and Company. Four years beforehand, Monnier had been among the first women in France to found her own bookstore, Beachs bookstore was located at 8 rue Dupuytren, Paris VI. Shakespeare and Company quickly attracted both French and American readers - including a number of aspiring writers to whom Beach offered hospitality, as the franc dropped in value and the favorable exchange rate attracted a huge influx of Americans, Beach’s shop flourished and soon needed more space. In May 1921, Shakespeare and Company moved to 12 rue de lOdéon, Shakespeare and Company gained considerable fame after it published James Joyces Ulysses in 1922, as a result of Joyces inability to get an edition out in English-speaking countries. Beach would later be financially stranded when Joyce signed on with another publisher, leaving Beach in debt after bankrolling, and suffering losses from. Shakespeare and Company experienced difficulty throughout the Great Depression of the 1930s, in 1936 when Beach thought that she would be forced to close her shop, André Gide organized a group of writers into a club called Friends of Shakespeare and Company
34.
Proust
–
He is considered by critics and writers to be one of the most influential authors of the 20th century. Proust was born in Auteuil at the home of his great-uncle on 10 July 1871 and he was born during the violence that surrounded the suppression of the Paris Commune, and his childhood corresponded with the consolidation of the French Third Republic. Prousts father, Adrien Proust, was a prominent pathologist and epidemiologist, studying cholera in Europe and he wrote numerous articles and books on medicine and hygiene. Prousts mother, Jeanne Clémence Weil, was the daughter of a wealthy Jewish family from Alsace, literate and well-read, she demonstrated a well-developed sense of humour in her letters, and her command of English was sufficient to help with her sons translations of John Ruskin. Proust was raised in his fathers Catholic faith and he was baptized and later confirmed as a Catholic, but he never formally practiced that faith. He later became an atheist and was somewhat of a mystic, by the age of nine, Proust had had his first serious asthma attack, and thereafter he was considered a sickly child. Proust spent long holidays in the village of Illiers, in 1882, at the age of eleven, Proust became a pupil at the Lycée Condorcet, but his education was disrupted by his illness. Despite this he excelled in literature, receiving an award in his final year, thanks to his classmates, he was able to gain access to some of the salons of the upper bourgeoisie, providing him with copious material for In Search of Lost Time. As a young man, Proust was a dilettante and a social climber whose aspirations as a writer were hampered by his lack of self-discipline. His reputation from this period, as a snob and an amateur, contributed to his troubles with getting Swanns Way. It is through Mme Arman de Caillavet that he made the acquaintance of Anatole France, Proust had a close relationship with his mother. To appease his father, who insisted that he pursue a career, after exerting considerable effort, he obtained a sick leave that extended for several years until he was considered to have resigned. He never worked at his job, and he did not move from his parents apartment until after both were dead and his life and family circle changed markedly between 1900 and 1905. In February 1903, Prousts brother, Robert Proust, married and his father died in November of the same year. Finally, and most crushingly, Prousts beloved mother died in September 1905 and she left him a considerable inheritance. His health throughout this period continued to deteriorate, Proust spent the last three years of his life mostly confined to his bedroom, sleeping during the day and working at night to complete his novel. He died of pneumonia and an abscess in 1922. He was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, Proust was involved in writing and publishing from an early age
35.
James Joyce
–
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was an Irish novelist, short story writer, and poet. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde and is regarded as one of the most influential, other well-known works are the short-story collection Dubliners, and the novels A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man and Finnegans Wake. His other writings include three books of poetry, a play, occasional journalism and his published letters, Joyce was born in 41 Brighton Square, Rathgar, Dublin—about half a mile from his mothers birthplace in Terenure—into a middle-class family on the way down. He went on to attend University College Dublin, in 1904, in his early twenties, Joyce emigrated permanently to continental Europe with his partner Nora Barnacle. They lived in Trieste, Paris and Zurich, Ulysses in particular is set with precision in the streets and alleyways of the city. In the particular is contained the universal, James Augustine Aloysius Joyce was born on 2 February 1882 to John Stanislaus Joyce and Mary Jane May Murray, in the Dublin suburb of Rathgar. He was baptised according to the Rites of the Catholic Church in the nearby St Josephs Church in Terenure on 5 February by Rev. John OMulloy and his godparents were Philip and Ellen McCann. He was the eldest of ten surviving children, two of his siblings died of typhoid and his fathers family, originally from Fermoy in County Cork, had once owned a small salt and lime works. Joyces father and paternal grandfather both married into families, though the familys purported ancestor, Seán Mór Seoighe was a stonemason from Connemara. In 1887, his father was appointed rate collector by Dublin Corporation, around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which engendered in him a lifelong cynophobia. He also suffered from astraphobia, as an aunt had described thunderstorms to him as a sign of Gods wrath. In 1891 Joyce wrote a poem on the death of Charles Stewart Parnell, the Irish Party had dropped Parnell from leadership. But the Vaticans role in allying with the British Conservative Party to prevent Home Rule left an impression on the young Joyce. The elder Joyce had the printed and even sent a part to the Vatican Library. In November of that year, John Joyce was entered in Stubbs Gazette. In 1893, John Joyce was dismissed with a pension, beginning the familys slide into poverty caused mainly by his drinking and general financial mismanagement. Joyce had begun his education at Clongowes Wood College, a Jesuit boarding school near Clane, County Kildare and this came about because of a chance meeting his father had with a Jesuit priest who knew the family and Joyce was given a reduction in fees to attend Belvedere. In 1895, Joyce, now aged 13, was elected to join the Sodality of Our Lady by his peers at Belvedere, the philosophy of Thomas Aquinas continued to have a strong influence on him for most of his life
36.
Virginia Woolf
–
Adeline Virginia Woolf was an English writer and one of the foremost modernists of the twentieth century. During the interwar period, Woolf was a significant figure in London literary society, Woolf suffered from severe bouts of mental illness throughout her life and took her own life by drowning in 1941 at the age of 59. Virginia Woolf was born Adeline Virginia Stephen at 22 Hyde Park Gate in Kensington, London and her parents were Sir Leslie Stephen and Julia Prinsep Duckworth Stephen. Julia Stephen was born in British India to Dr. John and she was the niece of the photographer Julia Margaret Cameron and first cousin of the temperance leader Lady Henry Somerset. Julia moved to England with her mother, where she served as a model for Pre-Raphaelite painters such as Edward Burne-Jones, Woolf was educated by her parents in their literate and well-connected household. Her parents had each been married previously and been widowed, and, consequently, Julia had three children by her first husband, Herbert Duckworth, George, Stella, and Gerald Duckworth. Leslie and Julia had four children together, Vanessa Stephen, Thoby Stephen, Virginia, Henry James, George Henry Lewes, and Virginias honorary godfather, James Russell Lowell, were among the visitors to the house. Julia Stephen was equally well connected, supplementing these influences was the immense library at the Stephens house, from which Virginia and Vanessa were taught the classics and English literature. Unlike the girls, their brothers Adrian and Julian were formally educated and sent to Cambridge, the sisters did, however, benefit indirectly from their brothers Cambridge contacts, as the boys brought their new intellectual friends home to the Stephens drawing room. According to Woolfs memoirs, her most vivid memories were not of London but of St Ives, Cornwall. The Stephens summer home, Talland House, looked out over Porthminster Bay, memories of these family holidays and impressions of the landscape, especially the Godrevy Lighthouse, informed the fiction Woolf wrote in later years, most notably To the Lighthouse. She describes why she felt so connected to Talland House in an entry dated March 22nd,1921. Why am I so incredibly and incurably romantic about Cornwall. One’s past, I suppose, I see children running in the garden … The sound of the sea at night … almost forty years of life, all built on that, permeated by that, so much I could never explain. The sudden death of her mother in 1895, when Virginia was thirteen, after her mother and half-sister, she quickly lost her surrogate mother, Stella Duckworth, as well as her cherished brother Thoby, when he was in his mid-20s. She was, however, able to take courses of study in Ancient Greek, Latin, German and this brought her into contact with some of the early reformers of womens higher education such as the principal of the Ladies Department, Lilian Faithfull, Clara Pater and George Warr. Her sister Vanessa also studied Latin, Italian, art and architecture at Kings Ladies Department, in 2013 Woolf was honoured by her alma mater with the opening of a building named after her on Kingsway. The death of her father in 1904 provoked her most alarming collapse and she spent time recovering at her friend Violet Dickinsons house, and at her aunt Carolines house in Cambridge
37.
John Cowper Powys
–
John Cowper Powys was a English novelist, lecturer, philosopher, literary critic, and poet. Although Powys published a collection of poems in 1896 and his first novel in 1915, as with Hardys novels, the landscape plays a major role in Powyss works, and an elemental philosophy is important in the lives of his characters. In 1934 he published his important Autobiography, Powys was also a highly successful itinerant lecturer, first in England and then from 1905 until the early 1930s in the USA. Powys moved to Dorset, England, from America, in 1934 with his American partner Phyllis Playter and this moved led to the publication of two historical novels set in Wales Owen Glendower and Porius. Then in 1955 they moved to Blaenau Ffestiniog where Powys died in 1963 and he came from a family of eleven children, many of whom were also talented. His two younger brothers Llewelyn Powys and Theodore Francis Powys were well-known writers, while his sister Philippa published a novel, another sister Marian Powys was an authority on lace and lace-making and published a book on this subject. His brother A. R. Powys was Secretary of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, Powys studied at Sherborne School and graduated from Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, June 1894. On 6 April 1896 he married Margaret Lyon and they had a son, Littleton Alfred, in 1902. Powyss first employment was teaching in schools in Brighton. His first published works were two highly derivative collections of poetry published in the 1890s and he worked from 1898 as an Extension lecturer throughout England, for both Oxford and Cambridge Universities. Then from 1905 to the early 1930s, he lectured in the USA for the American Society for the Extension of University Teaching, gaining a reputation as a charismatic speaker and he spent his summers in England. During this time he travelled the length and breadth of the US, Powyss marriage was unsatisfactory, and Powys eventually lived a large part of each year in the USA, and had relationships with various women. An important woman in his life was the American poet Frances Gregg and he was also a friend of the famous dancer Isadora Duncan. Another friend and an important supporter in America was the novelist Theodore Dreiser, in 1921 he met Phyllis Playter, the twenty-six-year-old daughter of industrialist and business man Franklin Playter. Eventually they established a permanent relationship, though he was unable to divorce his wife Margaret, however, he diligently supported Margaret and the education of their son. In the US he engaged in a debate with the philosopher Bertrand Russell on marriage. Powys was also a witness in the obscenity trial of James Joyces novel Ulysses, Powys would later share Goldmans support for the Spanish Revolution. His first novel Wood and Stone, which Powys dedicated to Thomas Hardy, was published in 1915 and this was followed by two collections of literary essays Visions and Revisions and Suspended Judgment
38.
George Eliot
–
Mary Anne Evans, known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. She used a pen name, she said, to ensure that her works would be taken seriously. Female authors were published under their own names during Eliots life and she also wished to have her fiction judged separately from her already extensive and widely known work as an editor and critic. Eliots Middlemarch has been described by Martin Amis and Julian Barnes as the greatest novel in the English language, Mary Ann Evans was born in Nuneaton, Warwickshire, England. She was the child of Robert Evans and Christiana Evans. Mary Anns name was shortened to Marian. Her full siblings were Christiana, known as Chrissey, Isaac and she also had a half-brother, Robert, and half-sister, Fanny, from her fathers previous marriage to Harriet Poynton. Robert Evans, of Welsh ancestry, was the manager of the Arbury Hall Estate for the Newdigate family in Warwickshire, in early 1820 the family moved to a house named Griff House, between Nuneaton and Bedworth. The young Evans was obviously intelligent, a voracious reader, at Mrs. Wallingtons school, she was taught by the evangelical Maria Lewis — to whom her earliest surviving letters are addressed. In the religious atmosphere of the Miss Franklins school, Evans was exposed to a quiet, after age sixteen, Evans had little formal education. Thanks to her fathers important role on the estate, she was allowed access to the library of Arbury Hall and her classical education left its mark, Christopher Stray has observed that George Eliots novels draw heavily on Greek literature, and her themes are often influenced by Greek tragedy. The other important early influence in her life was religion and she was brought up within a low church Anglican family, but at that time the Midlands was an area with a growing number of religious dissenters. In 1836 her mother died and Evans returned home to act as housekeeper, when she was 21, her brother Isaac married and took over the family home, so Evans and her father moved to Foleshill near Coventry. The closeness to Coventry society brought new influences, most notably those of Charles, Charles Bray had become rich as a ribbon manufacturer and had used his wealth in the building of schools and in other philanthropic causes. The people whom the woman met at the Brays house included Robert Owen, Herbert Spencer, Harriet Martineau. Through this society Evans was introduced to more liberal theologies and to such as David Strauss and Ludwig Feuerbach. As a product of their friendship, Bray published some of Evanss earliest writing, such as reviews, in his newspaper the Coventry Herald and Observer. When Evans began to question her religious faith, her father threatened to throw her out of the house, instead, she respectfully attended church and continued to keep house for him until his death in 1849, when she was 30
39.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
