1.
West Sussex
–
West Sussex is a county in the south of England, bordering East Sussex to the east, Hampshire to the west and Surrey to the north, and to the south the English Channel. Chichester in the southwest is the county town and only city in West Sussex, with the largest towns being Crawley, Worthing, West Sussex has a range of scenery, including wealden, downland and coastal. The highest point of the county is Blackdown, at 280 metres and it has a number of stately homes including Goodwood, Petworth House and Uppark and also castles such as Arundel Castle and Bramber Castle. Over half the county is protected countryside, offering walking, cycling, although the name Sussex, derived from the Old English Sūþsēaxe, is from the Saxon period between AD477 to 1066, the history of human habitation in Sussex goes back to the Old Stone Age. The oldest hominin remains known in Britain were found at Eartham Pit, Sussex has been occupied since those times and has succumbed to various invasions and migrations throughout its long history. Prehistoric monuments include the Devils Jumps, a group of Bronze Age burial mounds, the Romans used the Weald for iron production on an industrial scale. The foundation story is regarded as somewhat of a myth by most historians, the Kingdom of Sussex was absorbed into Wessex as an earldom and became the county of Sussex. With its origins in the kingdom of Sussex, the county of Sussex was traditionally divided into six units known as rapes. By the 16th century, the three western rapes were grouped together informally, having their own separate Quarter Sessions and these were administered by a separate county council from 1888, the county of Sussex being divided for administrative purposes into the administrative counties of East and West Sussex. In 1974, West Sussex was made a ceremonial county with the coming into force of the Local Government Act 1972. At the same time a part of the eastern rape of Lewes was transferred into West Sussex. Until 1834 provision for the poor and destitute in West Sussex was made at parish level, from 1835 until 1948 eleven Poor Law Unions, each catering for several parishes, took on the job. Most settlements in West Sussex are either along the south coast or in Mid Sussex, the town of Crawley is the largest in the county with an estimated population of 106,600. The coastal settlement of Worthing closely follows with a population of 104,600, the seaside resort of Bognor Regis and market town Horsham are both large towns. Chichester, the county town, has a cathedral and city status, much of the coastal town population is part of the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation. Rustington and Southwater are the next largest settlements in the county, there are several more towns in West Sussex, although they are of similar size to other villages. The smaller towns of the county are Arundel, Midhurst, Petworth, Selsey, the larger villages are Billingshurst, Copthorne, Crawley Down, Cuckfield, Henfield, Hassocks, Hurstpierpoint, Lindfield, Pulborough and Storrington. The current total population of the county makes up 1. 53% of Englands population, West Sussex is bordered by Hampshire to the west, Surrey to the north and East Sussex to the east
West Sussex
–
Chichester Market Cross
West Sussex
–
West Sussex shown within England
West Sussex
–
1813/54 one inch to the mile OS map
West Sussex
–
Wakehurst Place Gardens,
Ardingly
2.
Najafabad
–
Najafabad is a city in and the capital of Najafabad County, Isfahan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 206,114 and it is located west of Isfahan and is increasingly becoming a part of Isfahan Metropolitan area. Najafabad is the birthplace of Grand Ayatollah Hossein-Ali Montazeri, Mostafa Moeen, Moein, the city serves as a trade center for agricultural products in the region, and is noted for its pomegranates and almonds. One of the attractions of Najafabad is the Arg-e Sheykh Bahaie that has recently been repaired, Najafabad is home to Islamic Azad University of Najafabad
Najafabad
–
Sheikhbahaei fort ارگ شیخ بهایی
3.
Estonia
–
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia, across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia consists of a mainland and 2,222 islands and islets in the Baltic Sea, covering 45,339 km2 of land and water, and is influenced by a humid continental climate. The territory of Estonia has been inhabited since at least 6500 BC, in 1988, during the Singing Revolution, the Estonian Supreme Soviet issued the Estonian Sovereignty Declaration in defiance of Soviet rule, and independence was restored on 20 August 1991. Estonia is a parliamentary republic divided into fifteen counties. Its capital and largest city is Tallinn, with a population of 1.3 million, it is one of the least-populous member states of the European Union, Eurozone, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OECD and Schengen Area. Estonia is a country with an advanced, high-income economy that is among the fastest growing in the EU. Its Human Development Index ranks very highly, and it performs favourably in measurements of economic freedom, civil liberties, the 2015 PISA test places Estonian high school students 3rd in the world, behind Singapore and Japan. Citizens of Estonia are provided with health care, free education. Since independence the country has developed its IT sector, becoming one of the worlds most digitally advanced societies. In 2005 Estonia became the first nation to hold elections over the Internet, in the Estonian language, the oldest known endonym of the Estonians was maarahvas, meaning country people or people of the land. The land inhabited by Estonians was called Maavald meaning Country Parish or Land Parish, one hypothesis regarding the modern name of Estonia is that it originated from the Aesti, a people described by the Roman historian Tacitus in his Germania. The historic Aesti were allegedly Baltic people, whereas the modern Estonians are Finno-Ugric, the geographical areas between Aesti and Estonia do not match, with Aesti being further down south. Ancient Scandinavian sagas refer to a land called Eistland, as the country is called in Icelandic. Early Latin and other ancient versions of the name are Estia and Hestia, esthonia was a common alternative English spelling prior to 1921. Human settlement in Estonia became possible 13,000 to 11,000 years ago, the oldest known settlement in Estonia is the Pulli settlement, which was on the banks of the river Pärnu, near the town of Sindi, in south-western Estonia. According to radiocarbon dating it was settled around 11,000 years ago, the earliest human inhabitation during the Mesolithic period is connected to Kunda culture, which is named after the town of Kunda in northern Estonia. At that time the country was covered with forests, and people lived in communities near bodies of water
Estonia
–
Tools made by Kunda culture,
Estonian History Museum
Estonia
Estonia
–
Iron Age artifacts of a hoard from
Kumna
Estonia
–
A stylised
viking ship on the Estonian 1
Kroon from 1934
4.
Mazkeret Batya
–
Mazkeret Batya is a town in central Israel located southeast of Rehovot and 25 kilometres from Tel-Aviv. Mazkeret Batya spans an area of 7,440 dunams, in 2015 it had a population of 12,698. The mayor of Mazkeret Batya is Meir Dahan, Mazkeret Batya was established on November 7,1883 by 11 pioneers from Russia and 7 local Jews. It was originally called Ekron, the first agricultural settlement of the Hovevei Zion movement, the land was purchased by Baron Rothschild in an early attempt to introduce Jewish farming in Palestine. Rabbi Shmuel Mohilever was instrumental in mobilizing funding and organizing the settlers, mohilevers remains were later reinterred in the Mazkeret Batya cemetery. In 1947, Mazkeret Batya was home to 475 people, according to a census conducted in 1922 by the British Mandate authorities, Mazkeret Batya had a population 368 Jews. During the Mandate era, a Jewish police station was established in Mazkeret Batya to safeguard the local roads, in the War of Independence, convoys to besieged Jerusalem left from Mazkeret Batya. A field hospital operated there to care for Haganah fighters wounded at Latrun, according to one source, at the end of the British Mandate for Palestine, the British tried to hand the nearby Aqir airfield and camp to the Palestinian Arabs, apparently without success. Due to its proximity to Tel Aviv, Mazkeret Batya has recently experienced a growth spurt, Mazkeret Batya is a mixed community of religious and secular Jews. Historic landmarks include Beit HaItut, the Great Synagogue, Beit Meshek HaBaron, the saqiya-type water-rising system with its wheels, well and pool. Mazkeret Batya is twinned with, Celle, Germany Calgary, Canada Meudon, France Memphis, United States The Gesher community of Mazkeret Batya Kehila Datit of Mazkeret Batya
Mazkeret Batya
–
Baron Rothschild's farm
Mazkeret Batya
–
Mazkeret Batya in the early days, c.1899
5.
Scots Language
–
Scots is the Germanic language variety spoken in Lowland Scotland and parts of Ulster. It is sometimes called Lowland Scots to distinguish it from Scottish Gaelic, the Celtic language which was restricted to most of the Highlands. The language developed during the Middle English period as a distinct entity, although a number of paradigms for distinguishing between languages and dialects do exist, these often render contradictory results. Broad Scots is at one end of a linguistic continuum. Scots is often regarded as one of the ancient varieties of English, alternatively, Scots is sometimes treated as a distinct Germanic language, in the way Norwegian is closely linked to, yet distinct from, Danish. In the 2011 Scottish census, a question on Scots language ability was featured, native speakers sometimes refer to their vernacular as braid Scots or use a dialect name such as the Doric, or the Buchan Claik. The old-fashioned Scotch, an English loan, occurs occasionally, especially in Northern Ireland, the term Lallans, a variant of the Modern Scots word lawlands, is also used, though this is more often taken to mean the Lallans literary form. Scots in Ireland is known in circles as Ulster-Scots or Ullans. Scots is a contraction of Scottis, the Older Scots and northern version of late Old English Scottisc, before the end of the 15th century, English speech in Scotland was known as English, whereas Scottish referred to Gaelic. From 1495 the term Scottis was increasingly used to refer to the Lowland vernacular and Erse, meaning Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland is now usually called Scottish Gaelic. Northumbrian Old English had been established in what is now southeastern Scotland as far as the River Forth by the seventh century and it remained largely confined to this area until the thirteenth century, continuing in common use while Gaelic was the language of the Scottish court. Scots also includes loan words resulting from contact with Gaelic, Early medieval legal documents include a body of Gaelic legal and administrative loans. Contemporary Gaelic loans are mainly for geographical and cultural features, such as ceilidh, loch, from the thirteenth century Early Scots spread further into Scotland via the burghs, proto-urban institutions which were first established by King David I. The growth in prestige of Early Scots in the century. By the sixteenth century Middle Scots had established orthographic and literary norms largely independent of those developing in England, from 1610 to the 1690s during the Plantation of Ulster large numbers of Scots-speaking Lowlanders, some 200,000, settled there. In the core areas of Scots settlement, Scots outnumbered English settlers by five or six to one, Modern Scots is used to describe the language after 1700 when southern Modern English was generally adopted as the literary language though Scots remained the vernacular. In Scotland, Scots is spoken in the Scottish Lowlands, the Northern Isles, Caithness, Arran, in Ulster it is spoken in the Counties of Down, Antrim, Londonderry and Donegal. Dialects include Insular Scots, Northern Scots, Central Scots, Southern Scots, many speakers are either diglossic and/or able to code-switch along the continuum depending on the situation in which they find themselves
Scots Language
–
Lufe God abufe al and yi nychtbour as yi self ("Love God above all and thy neighbour as thyself"), an example of
Early Scots on
John Knox House,
Edinburgh
Scots Language
–
Areas where the Scots language was spoken in the 20th century
Scots Language
–
Statue of
Robert Burns in
Canberra, Australia
Scots Language
–
William Wye Smith-The
New Testament in Braid Scots.
6.
Pigeon
–
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae, which includes about 310 species. Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills and they primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya, in general, the terms dove and pigeon are used somewhat interchangeably. Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pipio, for a peeping chick, the species most commonly referred to as pigeon is the rock dove, one subspecies of which, the domestic pigeon, is common in many cities as the feral pigeon. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common birds in the world, doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests – often using sticks and other debris – which may be placed in trees, on ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. They lay one or two eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young, which leave the nest after seven to 28 days. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce crop milk to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop, young doves and pigeons are called squabs. The adjective columbine refers to pigeons and doves, recent phylogenomic studies support the grouping of these pigeons and sandgrouse together, along with mesites, forming the sister taxon to Mirandornithes. The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately, for example, the American ground and quail doves, which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies. The order presented here follows Baptista et al. with some updates, osteology and DNA sequence analyses indicate the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are better considered as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae pending availability of further information. The dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are in all part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit-doves and pigeons. Therefore, they are included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships. Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record, no truly primitive forms have been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits of France, apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. For these, and for the number of more recently extinct prehistoric species. Phylogeny based on the work by John H. Boyd III, Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, the wings are large and have low wing loadings, pigeons have strong wing muscles and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight, the plumage of the family is variable
Pigeon
Pigeon
–
Common ground dove is among the smallest species in the family
Pigeon
–
A dove on top of a house in
São Paulo
Pigeon
–
The
spotted dove, which is most commonly found in Southeast Asia
7.
Dove
–
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae, which includes about 310 species. Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills and they primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya, in general, the terms dove and pigeon are used somewhat interchangeably. Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pipio, for a peeping chick, the species most commonly referred to as pigeon is the rock dove, one subspecies of which, the domestic pigeon, is common in many cities as the feral pigeon. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common birds in the world, doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests – often using sticks and other debris – which may be placed in trees, on ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. They lay one or two eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young, which leave the nest after seven to 28 days. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce crop milk to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop, young doves and pigeons are called squabs. The adjective columbine refers to pigeons and doves, recent phylogenomic studies support the grouping of these pigeons and sandgrouse together, along with mesites, forming the sister taxon to Mirandornithes. The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately, for example, the American ground and quail doves, which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies. The order presented here follows Baptista et al. with some updates, osteology and DNA sequence analyses indicate the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are better considered as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae pending availability of further information. The dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are in all part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit-doves and pigeons. Therefore, they are included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships. Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record, no truly primitive forms have been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits of France, apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. For these, and for the number of more recently extinct prehistoric species. Phylogeny based on the work by John H. Boyd III, Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, the wings are large and have low wing loadings, pigeons have strong wing muscles and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight, the plumage of the family is variable
Dove
Dove
–
Common ground dove is among the smallest species in the family
Dove
–
A dove on top of a house in
São Paulo
Dove
–
The
spotted dove, which is most commonly found in Southeast Asia
8.
Medieval
–
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
Medieval
–
The
Cross of Mathilde, a
crux gemmata made for
Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the
enamel plaque. The body of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in
Cologne or
Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques:
cast figurative sculpture,
filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical
cameos and
engraved gems.
Medieval
–
A late Roman statue
depicting the four Tetrarchs, now in
Venice
Medieval
–
Coin of
Theodoric
Medieval
–
Mosaic showing
Justinian with
the bishop of
Ravenna, bodyguards, and courtiers
9.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
10.
Manorialism
–
Manorialism was an essential element of feudal society. It was the principle of rural economy that originated in the Roman villa system of the Late Roman Empire. It was slowly replaced by the advent of a market economy. These obligations could be payable in several ways, in labor, in kind, or, on rare occasions, in examining the origins of the monastic cloister, Walter Horn found that as a manorial entity the Carolingian monastery. Manorialism died slowly and piecemeal, along with its most vivid feature in the landscape and it outlasted serfdom as it outlasted feudalism, primarily an economic organization, it could maintain a warrior, but it could equally well maintain a capitalist landlord. It could be self-sufficient, yield produce for the market, or it could yield a money rent, the last feudal dues in France were abolished at the French Revolution. In parts of eastern Germany, the Rittergut manors of Junkers remained until World War II, in Quebec, the last feudal rents were paid in 1970 under the modified provisions of the Seigniorial Dues Abolition Act of 1935. The term is most often used with reference to medieval Western Europe, antecedents of the system can be traced to the rural economy of the later Roman Empire. With a declining birthrate and population, labor was the key factor of production, the workers of the land were on their way to becoming serfs. The legal status of adscripti, bound to the soil, contrasted with barbarian foederati, the process of rural self-sufficiency was given an abrupt boost in the eighth century, when normal trade in the Mediterranean Sea was disrupted. The lord held a court, governed by public law. Not all territorial seigneurs were secular, bishops and abbots also held lands that entailed similar obligations, by extension, the word manor is sometimes used in England to mean any home area or territory in which authority is held, often in a police or criminal context. In the generic plan of a manor from Shepherds Historical Atlas. As concerns for privacy increased in the 18th century, manor houses were located a farther distance from the village. In an agrarian society, the conditions of land tenure underlie all social or economic factors, there were two legal systems of pre-manorial landholding. One, the most common, was the system of holding land allodially in full outright ownership, the other was a use of precaria or benefices, in which land was held conditionally. To these two systems, the Carolingian monarchs added a third, the aprisio, which linked manorialism with feudalism and he solved this problem by allotting desert tracts of uncultivated land belonging to the royal fisc under direct control of the emperor. These holdings aprisio entailed specific conditions, the earliest specific aprisio grant that has been identified was at Fontjoncouse, near Narbonne
Manorialism
–
Ploughing on a French ducal
manor in March
Les Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, c.1410
Manorialism
–
The great hall at
Penshurst Place,
Kent, built in the mid 14th century. The hall was of central importance to every
manor, being the place where the lord and his family ate, received guests, and conferred with dependents.
Manorialism
–
Generic map of a medieval manor. The mustard-colored areas are part of the
demesne, the
hatched areas part of the
glebe. William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1923
11.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
–
Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
–
Flag
United Kingdom
–
The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
–
The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
12.
Bodysgallen Hall
–
Bodysgallen Hall is a manor house in Conwy county borough, north Wales, near the village of Llanrhos. Since 2008 the house has been owned by The National Trust and it is a Grade I listed building, currently used as a hotel. This listed historical building derives primarily from the 17th century, and has later additions. Bodysgallen was constructed as a house in the Middle Ages to serve as defensive support for nearby Conwy Castle. According to tradition, the site of Bodysgallen was the 5th century AD stronghold of Cadwallon Lawhir, King of Gwynedd, the ruins of Cadwallon Lawhirs residence are on a woodland knoll above the present Bodysgallen Hall. By 1835 it was a ruin totally overgrown by thorns and this possibly might have been one of three gwelyau, originally belonging to Gloddaeth. The site was first occupied, according to tradition, by Cadwallon Lawhir, Cadwallon Lawhir succeeded to the sovereignty of North Wales in AD442 and lived until 517, however there is no evidence for or against him having a court at Bodysgallen. The 1620 block, built by Robert Wynn, finds its main entrance on the northwest exposure and has a 19th-century three storey gabled porch bay addition. On the ground floor the porch bay has a four-central headed doorway by first floor features of a transformed window, behind the porch, this doorway retains its original door and latch. On the southwest exposure the bay windows on both ground and first floor are of 17th century mullioned construct. Robert and Katherine Wynn owned the property in the early 17th century and they developed the present-day building core with severe rectilinear architecture with pink limestone mullions. The initials K. W. and R. W. appear in the 1620 date stone on the southwest gable, the largest rooms of the 17th century addition are the ground floor or terrace level low hall and the great hall immediately above. Both rooms feature an unusual southwest corner construction of a bay with windows on the south and west. Both fireplaces feature overmantels that display heraldic arms, in the great hall, these arms display the shouldered form rendered in Plas Mawr, an Elizabethan townhouse in Conwy founded by a branch of the Wynns. The arms include the motto of the Mostyns, Auxilium Meum a Domino, Richard Mostyn, the High Sheriff of Carnarvonshire, as it was called then, owned Bodysgallen in Elizabethan times. On the marriage of Richard Mostyns daughter Margaret to Hugh Wynn that Bodysgallen, along with Berthdu, when Dr Hugh Wynn died in 1761, his daughter Margaret inherited Bodysgallen to add to her estates of Berthdu and Plas Mar. In 1776 she married Sir Roger Mostyn, 5th Baronet and thus returned Bodysgallen to the Mostyn lineage after 156 years of Wynn ownership, the first recorded history of the site is in the mid 14th century in the Record of Caernarvon. The core element of Bodysgallen Hall is the late 13th century watchtower and this five-storey tower is made of on site quarried pink sandstone with grit dressings and has a slate roof
Bodysgallen Hall
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Bodysgallen Hall
Bodysgallen Hall
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Reflecting pool in lower garden, Bodysgallen Hall.
Bodysgallen Hall
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View from the tower of Bodysgallen Hall.
Bodysgallen Hall
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Bodysgallen Hall,
Parterre garden.
13.
Wales
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Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain. It is bordered by England to the east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, and it had a population in 2011 of 3,063,456 and has a total area of 20,779 km2. Wales has over 1,680 miles of coastline and is mountainous, with its higher peaks in the north and central areas, including Snowdon. The country lies within the temperate zone and has a changeable. Welsh national identity emerged among the Celtic Britons after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, Llywelyn ap Gruffudds death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of Englands conquest of Wales, though Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to Wales in the early 15th century. The whole of Wales was annexed by England and incorporated within the English legal system under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542, distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism, Welsh national feeling grew over the century, Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and the Welsh Language Society in 1962. Established under the Government of Wales Act 1998, the National Assembly for Wales holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters, two-thirds of the population live in south Wales, mainly in and around Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and in the nearby valleys. Now that the countrys traditional extractive and heavy industries have gone or are in decline, Wales economy depends on the sector, light and service industries. Wales 2010 gross value added was £45.5 billion, over 560,000 Welsh language speakers live in Wales, and the language is spoken by a majority of the population in parts of the north and west. From the late 19th century onwards, Wales acquired its popular image as the land of song, Rugby union is seen as a symbol of Welsh identity and an expression of national consciousness. The Old English-speaking Anglo-Saxons came to use the term Wælisc when referring to the Celtic Britons in particular, the modern names for some Continental European lands and peoples have a similar etymology. The modern Welsh name for themselves is Cymry, and Cymru is the Welsh name for Wales and these words are descended from the Brythonic word combrogi, meaning fellow-countrymen. The use of the word Cymry as a self-designation derives from the location in the post-Roman Era of the Welsh people in modern Wales as well as in northern England and southern Scotland. It emphasised that the Welsh in modern Wales and in the Hen Ogledd were one people, in particular, the term was not applied to the Cornish or the Breton peoples, who are of similar heritage, culture, and language to the Welsh. The word came into use as a self-description probably before the 7th century and it is attested in a praise poem to Cadwallon ap Cadfan c. 633. Thereafter Cymry prevailed as a reference to the Welsh, until c.1560 the word was spelt Kymry or Cymry, regardless of whether it referred to the people or their homeland. The Latinised forms of names, Cambrian, Cambric and Cambria, survive as lesser-used alternative names for Wales, Welsh
Wales
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Bryn Celli Ddu, a late Neolithic chambered tomb on Anglesey
Wales
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Flag
Wales
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This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Wales (disambiguation).
Wales
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Coin of
Magnus Maximus
14.
Muchalls Castle
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Muchalls Castle stands overlooking the North Sea in the countryside of Kincardine and Mearns, Aberdeenshire, Scotland. The lower course is a well preserved Romanesque, double-groined 13th century towerhouse structure, upon this structure, the 17th-century castle was begun by Alexander Burnett of Leys and completed by his son, Sir Thomas Burnett, 1st Baronet, in 1627. The Burnetts of Leys built the four storey present day castle. Muchalls Castle entered national history in 1638 when a seminal Covenanter gathering took place here precedent to the English Civil War, the plasterwork ceilings of the principal drawing rooms are generally regarded as among the three finest examples of plasterwork ceilings in Scotland. These adornments date to 1624 and are in perfect condition. They consist of heraldry of the Burnett of Leys family, along with heraldry of relations, the overmantel of the Great Hall fireplace features the arms of King James VI flanked by impressive egyptianesque figures. The lower course of this L Plan Castle is the original 14th-century ground level of the Clan Fraser towerhouse, on this level are a dungeon, guard room, storerooms, a chamber for merchants and visitors waiting to see the Laird, and a medieval kitchen. In the medieval kitchen the interior wall is over five metres thick, accommodating a hidden staircase, a long hall passageway was constructed as a barrel vaulted design. The dungeon is noted for its window and still has the large steel hinges to which the dungeon door would have attached. Ownership of the castle and lands passed to the Hays in the 15th century probably associated with the real estate transaction of the lands of Ury in 1413 AD. The second floor level is erected over the intact Middle Ages ground level structure, the bartizans render interesting interior features in numerous of the bedrooms, providing interesting circular nooks with small lookout windows strategically placed at upper building corners. There are numerous original arrow slits that indicate the original nature of the structure. There are a number of crow-stepped gables associated with large chimneys at building endpoints, the castle itself is an A listed historical building, however, there are three further listed structures on the castle grounds, including a fine stone stables and a 17th-century dovecote. The next level includes most of the reception rooms, including the Great Hall, the Ladies Drawing Room. The great hall fireplace has an original plasterwork overmantel featuring egyptianesque caryatid figures, one can walk erect inside the fireplace and conduct a small meeting inside with bench seating built in. The firebox also hosts the Lairds Lug, a secret listening system allowing the Laird to overhear conversations in the Great Hall from his suite above. The third level consists of a number of bedrooms, The Lairds Bedroom, The Priests Bedroom, The Queens Bedroom, the Queen naturally had a very elegant room in case she were to visit, in fact, she had a Winter Bedroom for inclement weather. Each of the bedrooms has a fireplace, as do some of the bathrooms, the bathrooms are a Victorian modification of what would have been dressing rooms in the 17th century
Muchalls Castle
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Muchalls Castle
Muchalls Castle
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King James VI Arms in the Great Hall
Muchalls Castle
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17th century drystone wall at Muchalls Castle, Scotland
15.
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
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For centuries this location was used to offload seagoing ships, and led to the growth of Port Glasgow close to the castle on either side and to the south. When dredging techniques made the Clyde navigable as far as Glasgow the port became a centre. The castle was built in 1478 by George Maxwell when he inherited the Barony of Finlanstone in the parish of Kilmacolm, the original castle had a tower house within a walled enclosure or barmkin entered through a large gatehouse. All that remains of the defensive wall is from one of the original corner towers. It is thought there would have been a hall and ancillary buildings such as a bakehouse. In 1597 Sir Patrick expanded the building, constructing a new north range replacing the earlier hall in the form of a three storey Renaissance mansion, at this time the barmkin wall was demolished except for the north east tower, which was converted into a doocot. The central part of the mansion has cellars with tiny windows under a main hall with large windows, and other accommodation above that. An east wing with the entrance door close to the main block links it to the original tower house which was suitably modified. The mansion has features of the Scottish baronial style including crow-stepped gables, at the centre of its north wall a stairwell supported out on corbelling gives access to the upper floor. In 1668 the Glasgow authorities purchased 18 acres of land around Newark Castle from Sir George Maxwell who was then the laird, the last Maxwell died in 1694 and the castle had a series of non-resident owners. An early tenant was a ropemaker called John Orr who also dealt in wild animals such as big cats and bears which he obtained from ships visiting the Clyde and often housed in the castle cellars. The cellars and gardens were later rented by Charles Williamson who blocked access from the hall to stop the joiner John Gardner who rented the hall from stealing fruit stored in the cellars. John Smith in 1895 records that the stump of the tree were carefully preserved in the castle grounds. Newark Castle came into state care in 1909 and is now a property of Historic Scotland with excellent visitor facilities
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
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Newark Castle stands close to the last shipyard on the Lower
Clyde
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
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The bypass road gives views over parkland formerly crowded with shipyards
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
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Original gatehouse, tower house and corner tower
Newark Castle, Port Glasgow
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The barrel vaulted gatehouse entrance leads by a path to the main entrance
16.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
Scotland
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Edinburgh Castle. Human habitation of the site is dated back as far as the 9th century BC, although the nature of this early settlement is unclear.
Scotland
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Flag
Scotland
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The class I
Pictish stone at
Aberlemno known as Aberlemno 1 or the Serpent Stone.
Scotland
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The
Wallace Monument commemorates
William Wallace, the 13th-century Scottish hero.
17.
Mazor
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Mazor is a moshav in central Israel. Located in the Sharon plain around three kilometres south-east of Petah Tikva and covering 2,300 dunams, it falls under the jurisdiction of Hevel Modiin Regional Council, in 2015 it had a population of 1,300. The moshav was established in 1949 by immigrants from Czechoslovakia and Hungary and it was initially named Mizra Har, but was later renamed Mazor, a name derived from the name of the depopulated Arab village of al-Muzayria. Mazors early days form the subject of a work of fiction, Kfar BaSfar by Gershon Erich Steiner. Mazor was founded on land belonging both to the depopulated Arab village of Rantiya, and the land belonging to al-Muzayria. To the east of the moshav is a site, which includes a 3rd Century Roman mausoleum. The mausoleum is the only Roman era building in Israel to still stand from its foundations to its roof, a Byzantine-era mozaic floor was found not far from the mausoleum
Mazor
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Columbarium in Mazor mausoleum
18.
Columella
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Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella was the most important writer on agriculture of the Roman empire. Little is known of his life and he was probably born in Gades, Hispania Baetica, possibly of Roman parents. After a career in the army, he took up farming, a smaller book on trees, De arboribus, is usually attributed to him. Columella used many sources no longer extant, to which he is one of the few references, these include Aulus Cornelius Celsus, the Carthaginian writer Mago, Tremellius Scrofa, and many Greek sources. Columella owned farms in Italy, he refers specifically to estates at Ardea, Carseoli, and Alba, in 1794 the Spanish botanists Jose Antonio Pavón y Jimenez and Hipólito Ruiz López named a genus of Peruvian asterid Columellia in his honour. The book is presented as advice to a certain Publius Silvinus and it may initially have been intended to be the concluding volume, books 11 and 12 being perhaps an addition to the original scheme. A complete but anonymous translation into English was published by Millar in 1745, excerpts had previously been translated by Bradley. The short work De arboribus, On Trees, is in manuscripts, however it is clear from the opening sentences that it is part of a separate work. As the anonymous translator of the Millar edition notes, there is in De arboribus no mention of the Publius Silvinus to whom the Res rustica is addressed. A recent critical edition of the Latin text of the Res Rustica of Columella includes it, cassiodorus mentions sixteen books of Columella, which has led to the suggestion that De arboribus formed part of a work in four volumes. The earliest editions of Columella group his works with those on agriculture of Marcus Priscus Cato, Marcus Terentius Varro, some modern library catalogues follow Brunet in listing these under Rei rusticae scriptores or Scriptores rei rusticae. Iunii Moderati Columellae hortulus Georgius Merula, Franciscus Colucia De re rustica Opera et impensa Nicolai Ienson, lucii Iunii Moderati Columellae de Cultu hortorum Liber. xi. D S, Opera Agricolationum, Columellæ, Varronis, Catonisque, nec non Palladii, Philippi Beroaldi, & commentariis quæ in aliis impressionibus non extāt. Parisiis, Venundantur parisiis in aedibus Radulphi Laliseau, Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus Columella De cultu ortorum, impressum Bononiae, a Hieronymo de Benedictis bibliopola et calcographo,1520 mense Augusto Libri De Re Rustica. Additis Nuper Commentariis Iunii Pompo. Fortunati in Librum De Cultu Hortorum, Cum Adnotationibus Philippi Beroaldi, florence, Filippo Giunta,1521 De re rustica libri XII. Euisdem de Arboris liber, separatus ab aliis, lyon, Sébastien Gryphe,1541 Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus De lagricoltura libri XII. / Lutio Giunio Moderato Columella. Trattato de gli alberi, tradotto nuouamente di latino in lingua italiana per Pietro Lauro Modonese In Venetia,1544 Les Douze livres des choses rustiques, traduicts de Latin en François, par feu maistre Claude Cotereau Chanoine de Paris. Des choses rustiques, tr. par C, la tr. corrigée & illustrée de doctes annotations par J. Thiery de Beauoisis Paris,1555 Columella, Lucius Iunius Moderatus Lutio Giunio Moderato Columella De lagricoltura libri XII
Columella
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Portrait of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella from
Jean de Tournes, Insignium aliquot virorum icones,
Lyon, 1559
Columella
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Statue of Columella, holding a
sickle and an
ox-yoke, in the Plaza de las Flores,
Cádiz
19.
Pliny the Elder
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In the latter number will be my uncle, by virtue of his own and of your compositions. Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncles now missing work on the History of the German Wars. The wind caused by the sixth and largest pyroclastic surge of the eruption would not allow his ship to leave the shore, and Pliny probably died during this event. Plinys dates are pinned to the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD79 and a statement of his nephew that he died in his 56th year, Pliny was the son of an equestrian, Gaius Plinius Celer, and his wife, Marcella. Neither the younger nor the elder Pliny mention the names and their ultimate source is a fragmentary inscription found in a field in Verona and recorded by the 16th century Augustinian monk Onofrio Panvinio at Verona. The reading of the inscription depends on the reconstruction, but in all cases the names come through, whether he was an augur and whether she was named Grania Marcella are less certain. Jean Hardouin presents a statement from a source that he claims was ancient, that Pliny was from Verona. Hardouin also cites the conterraneity of Catullus, additional efforts to connect Celer and Marcella with other gentes are highly speculative. Hardouin is the scholar to use his unknown source. He kept statues of his ancestors there, a statue of Pliny on the facade of the Duomo of Como celebrates him as a native son. He had a sister, Plinia, who married into the Caecilii and was the mother of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, whose letters describe his work and study regimen in detail. In one of his letters to Tacitus, Pliny the Younger details how his uncles breakfasts would be light and simple following the customs of our forefathers. This shows that Pliny the Younger wanted it to be conveyed that Pliny the Elder was a good Roman and this statement would have pleased Tacitus. Two inscriptions identifying the hometown of Pliny the Younger as Como take precedence over the Verona theory, one commemorates the youngers career as imperial magistrate and details his considerable charitable and municipal expenses on behalf of the people of Como. Another identifies his father Lucius village as Fecchio near Como and it is likely therefore that Plinia was a local girl and Pliny the Elder, her brother, was from Como. Gaius was a member of the Plinii gens and he did not take his fathers cognomen, Celer, but assumed his own, Secundus. As his adopted son took the same cognomen, Pliny founded a branch, no earlier instances of the Plinii are known. In 59 BC, only about 82 years before Plinys birth, Julius Caesar founded Novum Comum as a colonia to secure the region against the Alpine tribes, whom he had been unable to defeat
Pliny the Elder
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One of the
Xanten Horse-Phalerae located in the
British Museum, measuring 10.5 cm (4.1 in). It bears an inscription formed from punched dots: PLINIO PRAEF EQ; i.e., Plinio praefecto equitum, "Pliny prefect of cavalry". It was perhaps issued to every man in Pliny's unit. The figure is the bust of the emperor.
Pliny the Elder
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Pliny the Elder, as imagined by a 19th-century artist. No contemporary depiction of Pliny is known to survive.
Pliny the Elder
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City and Lake of
Como, painted by
Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, 1834.
Pliny the Elder
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The temple of
Castor and Pollux in Rome
20.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
21.
Columbarium
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A columbarium is a place for the respectful and usually public storage of cinerary urns. The term comes from the Latin columba and originally referred to compartmentalized housing for doves, Roman columbaria were often built partly or completely underground. The Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas is an ancient Roman example, rich in frescoes, decorations, todays columbaria can be either free standing units, or part of a mausoleum or another building. Some manufacturers produce columbaria that are built entirely off-site and brought to the cemetery by a large truck, examples of these are the columbaria in Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris and Golders Green Crematorium in London. In other cases, columbaria are built into church structures, one example is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels, which houses a number of columbarium niches in the mausoleum built into the lower levels of the Cathedral. The construction of columbaria within churches is particularly widespread in the Czechoslovak Hussite Church, an example can be seen at the Church of St Nicolas in Old Town Square. In the Roman Catholic Church, although traditional burial is still preferred, as a result, columbaria can be found within some Catholic cemeteries. Columbaria are often similar in form to traditional Buddhist temples. In Buddhism, ashes of the deceased may be placed in a columbarium (in Chinese, a naguta, in Japanese, a nokotsudo and this practice allows for the family of the deceased to visit the temple for the conduct of traditional memorials and ancestor rites. In the Bet Guvrin area several series of caves dug into soft rock were found. There were several theories about their use, for ritual burial, for growing pigeons to be used for ritual sacrifice. One such cave had been covered by a close to the time of its original usage. This cave had no ashes found in it, but also no pigeon droppings, among the archaeologic finds on Masada, a columbarium tower foundation remains. Catacomb Cemetery Charnel house Crypt Grave Ossuary Reliquary Tomb Photographs and commentary on ancient Roman columbaria Columbarium
Columbarium
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The architecturally renowned
Columbarium of San Francisco
Columbarium
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Interior of a columbarium in Oakland, California (
Julia Morgan 's
Chapel of the Chimes). Some of the cinerary urns are book-shaped.
Columbarium
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Each niche is covered with a marble plaque at this columbarium at
Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia
Columbarium
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Detail of the columbarium at
Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris.
22.
Normandy
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Normandy is one of the regions of France, roughly corresponding to the historical Duchy of Normandy. Administratively, Normandy is divided into five departments, Calvados, Eure, Manche, Orne and it covers 30,627 km², forming roughly 5% of the territory of France. Its population of 3.37 million accounts for around 5% of the population of France, Normans is the name given to the inhabitants of Normandy, and the region is the homeland of the Norman language. The historical region of Normandy comprised the region of Normandy, as well as small areas now part of the départements, or departments of Mayenne. For a century and a following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Normandy and England were linked by Norman. Archaeological finds, such as paintings, prove that humans were present in the region in prehistoric times. Celts invaded Normandy in successive waves from the 4th to the 3rd century BC, when Julius Caesar invaded Gaul, there were nine different Celtic tribes living in Normandy. The Romanisation of Normandy was achieved by the methods, Roman roads. Classicists have knowledge of many Gallo-Roman villas in Normandy, in the late 3rd century, barbarian raids devastated Normandy. Coastal settlements were raided by Saxon pirates, Christianity also began to enter the area during this period. In 406, Germanic tribes began invading from the east, while the Saxons subjugated the Norman coast, the Roman Emperor withdrew from most of Normandy. As early as 487, the area between the River Somme and the River Loire came under the control of the Frankish lord Clovis, the Vikings started to raid the Seine Valley during the middle of the 9th century. As early as 841, a Viking fleet appeared at the mouth of the Seine, after attacking and destroying monasteries, including one at Jumièges, they took advantage of the power vacuum created by the disintegration of Charlemagnes empire to take northern France. The fiefdom of Normandy was created for the Norwegian Viking leader Hrólfr Ragnvaldsson, Rollo had besieged Paris but in 911 entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks, Charles the Simple, through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he, the name Normandy reflects Rollos Viking origins. The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance language and they became the Normans – a Norman-speaking mixture of Saxons and indigenous Franks and Celts. Besides the Norman conquest of England and the subsequent conquests of Wales and Ireland, Norman families, such as that of Tancred of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot and Guimond de Moulins played important parts in the Norman conquest of southern Italy and Crusades. They also carved out a place for themselves and their descendants in the Crusader states of Asia Minor, the 14th century Norman explorer Jean de Béthencourt established a kingdom in the Canary Islands
Normandy
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Roman theatre in
Lillebonne
Normandy
Normandy
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Allied invasion of Normandy,
D-Day, 1944
Normandy
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A typical northeastern Norman village
23.
Brittany
–
Brittany is a cultural region in the north-west of France. Brittany has also referred to as Less, Lesser or Little Britain. It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and its land area is 34,023 km². Since reorganisation in 1956, the administrative region of Brittany comprises only four of the five Breton departments. The remaining area of old Brittany, the Loire-Atlantique department around Nantes, at the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. Of these, 71% lived in the region of Brittany, while 29% lived in the Loire-Atlantique department, in 2012, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes, Rennes, and Brest. Brittany is the homeland of the Breton people and is recognised by the Celtic League as one of the six Celtic nations. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, the word Brittany, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents Bretagne, Breizh and Bertaèyn, derive from the Latin Britannia, which means Britons land. This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain and this word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη or Βρεττανίαι, used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Islands around 320 BC. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, aremorica, which close to the sea. Another name, Letauia, was used until the 12th century and it possibly means wide and flat or to expand and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany, Llydaw. Later, authors like Geoffrey of Monmouth used the terms Britannia minor, breton-speaking people may pronounce the word Breizh in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two dialects, the KLT and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it and would write it Breiz, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it, the official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a z and an h together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called Breton zh, on its side, Gallo language has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written Bertaèyn in ELG script, or Bertègn in MOGA, Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Paleolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe and their only original feature was a distinct culture, called Colombanian. One of the oldest hearths in the world has found in Plouhinec
Brittany
–
The
Carnac stones.
Brittany
Brittany
–
The five Gallic tribes of Brittany.
Brittany
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The temple of Mars in
Corseul.
24.
Manor-house
–
A manor house was historically the main residence of the lord of the manor. The term is loosely applied to various country houses, frequently dating from the late medieval era. They were sometimes fortified, but this was intended more for show than for defence. Manor houses existed in most European countries where feudalism existed, where they were known as castles, palaces. Many buildings, such as schools, are named Manor, the reason behind this is because the building was or is close to a manor house. The lord of the manor may have several properties within a county or, for example in the case of a feudal baron, spread across a kingdom. A large and suitable building was required within the manor for such purpose, generally in the form of a hall. This also gave the opportunity for the manor house to be cleaned, especially important in the days of the cess-pit. Thus such non-resident lords needed to appoint a steward or seneschal to act as their deputy in such matters, the day-to-day administration was carried out by a resident official in authority at each manor, who in England was called a bailiff, or reeve. Although not typically built with strong fortifications as were castles, many manor-houses were fortified and they were often enclosed within walls or ditches which often also included agricultural buildings. The primary feature of the house was its great hall. A late 16th-century transformation produced many of the smaller Renaissance châteaux of France, the Tudor period of stability in England saw the building of the first of the unfortified great houses, for example Sutton Place in Surrey, circa 1521. During the second half of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and under her successor King James I the first mansions designed by architects not by mere masons or builders, began to make their appearance. Such houses as Burghley House, Longleat House, and Hatfield House are among the best known of this period, nearly every large mediaeval manor house had its own deer-park adjoining, emparked by royal licence, which served primarily as a store of food in the form of venison. Within these licensed parks deer could not be hunted by royalty and this gave them more privacy and space. Court was a suffix which came into use in the 16th century, the obvious origin of the suffix would appear to be that the building was the location where the manorial courts were held. True castles, when not royal castles, were generally the residences of feudal barons, the manor on which the castle was situated was termed the caput of the barony, thus every true ancient defensive castle was also the manor house of its own manor. The suffix -Park came into use in the 18th and 19th centuries, the usage is often a modern catch-all suffix for an old house on an estate, true manor or not
Manor-house
–
Ulrichshusen Manor, a 16th-century fortified manor house in
Mecklenburg,
Germany
Manor-house
–
Ightham Mote, a 14th-century moated manor house in Kent,
England
Manor-house
–
Branicki Palace, an 18th-century palatial manor house in
Poland
Manor-house
–
Markenfield Hall,
Ripon,
North Yorkshire, a 14th-century manor house defended by a moat, wall and gatehouse
25.
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
–
Dieppe is a coastal community in the Arrondissement of Dieppe in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northern France. The population stood at 34,670 in 2006, the mouth of the Scie river lies in the Canton of Dieppe-Ouest at Hautot-sur-Mer. The inhabitants of the town of Dieppe are called Dieppois and Dieppoise in French, Dieppe belongs to the Pays de Caux, lying along the Alabaster Coast in the region of Normandy. It is located on the Channel coast, north of Rouen at the mouth of the Arques river, mentioned as Deppae in 1015–1029, Dieppa in 1030, then in the 12th century, Deppa, Deupa and Diopa. From Dutch diep > deep, or Old English deop or Old Norse djupr, the same adjective can be recognized in other place-names like Dieppedalle and Dipdal in Normandy, which is the same as Deepdale in Great Britain. The stream running through Dieppe was called Tella in Merovingian and Carolingian documents, the name has stuck to the town, although the name of the stream changed again, to Béthune. First recorded as a fishing settlement in 1030, Dieppe was an important prize fought over during the Hundred Years War. Dieppe housed the most advanced French school of cartography in the 16th century, the expedition resulted in the construction of Fort Caroline, the first French colony in the New World. Another expedition two years before where Goulaine de Laudonnière was under command of Jean Ribault, a local Huguenot captain, had resulted in the foundation of Charlesfort, Dieppe was the premier port of the kingdom in the 17th century. On July 23,1632,300 colonists heading to New France departed from Dieppe, at the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Dieppe lost 3,000 of its Huguenot citizens, who fled abroad. Dieppe was an important target in wartime, the town was destroyed by an Anglo-Dutch naval bombardment in 1694. It was rebuilt after 1696 in a typical French classical style by Ventabren, an architect and it was popularised as a seaside resort following the 1824 visit of the widowed Duchess of Berry, daughter-in-law of Charles X. She encouraged the building of the recently renovated municipal theatre, the Petit-Théâtre, during the later 19th century, Dieppe became popular with English artists as a beach resort. Prominent literary figures such as Arthur Symons loved to keep up with the latest fads of avant-garde France here, Dieppe was occupied by German naval and army forces after the fall of France in 1940. In order to allow a better defence of the coast against a possible Allied landing, the destruction of the casino had only begun at the time of the Dieppe Raid. The Dieppe Raid in the Second World War was a battle for the Allies. The Allies suffered more than 1,400 deaths,1,946 Canadian soldiers were captured—more prisoners than the army lost in the 11 months of the 1944–45 NW Europe campaign. However, no major objectives on the ground were achieved, in the air, the port remained garrisoned by German forces until the conclusion of the Battle of Normandy
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
–
Dieppe
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
–
Panoramic view of Dieppe (taken from a hill close to the castle
Château de Dieppe)
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
–
Dieppe Dawn 19 August 1942 memorial stained glass
Royal Military College of Canada
Dieppe, Seine-Maritime
–
Abraham Duquesne
26.
Andrea Palladio
–
Andrea Palladio was an Italian architect active in the Republic of Venice. Palladio, influenced by Roman and Greek architecture, primarily by Vitruvius, is considered to be the most influential individual in the history of architecture. All of his buildings are located in what was the Venetian Republic, the city of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Palladio was born on 30 November 1508 in Padua and was given the name and his father, Pietro, called Della Gondola, was a miller. From early on, Andrea Palladio was introduced into the work of building, in Padua he gained his first experiences as a stonecutter in the sculpture workshop of Bartolomeo Cavazza da Sossano, who is said to have imposed particularly hard working conditions. At the age of sixteen he moved to Vicenza where he would reside for most of his life, here he became an assistant in the Pedemuro studio, a leading workshop of stonecutters and masons. He joined a guild of stonemasons and bricklayers and he was employed as a stonemason to make monuments and decorative sculptures. These sculptures reflected the Mannerist style of the architect Michele Sanmicheli, perhaps the key moment that sparked Palladios career was being employed by the Humanist poet and scholar, Gian Giorgio Trissino, from 1538 to 1539. While Trissino was reconstructing the Villa Cricoli, he took interest in Palladios work, Trissino was heavily influenced by the studies of Vitruvius, who later influenced Palladios own ideals and attitudes toward classical architecture. It was also Trissino who gave him the name by which he became known, Palladio, indeed, the word Palladio means Wise one. The powerful Barbaros introduced Palladio to Venice, where he finally became Proto della Serenissima after Jacopo Sansovino, in addition to the Barbaros, the Corner, Foscari, and Pisani families supported Palladios career. Andrea Palladio began to develop his own architectural style around 1541, the Palladian style, named after him, adhered to classical Roman principles he rediscovered, applied, and explained in his works. Andrea Palladio is known to be one of the most influential architects in Western architecture and his architectural works have been valued for centuries as the quintessence of High Renaissance calm and harmony. He designed many palaces, villas, and churches, but Palladios reputation, initially, the palladian villas are located mainly in the province of Vicenza, while the palazzi are concentrated in the city of Vicenza and the churches in Venice. A number of his works are now protected as part of the World Heritage Site City of Vicenza, other buildings by Palladio are to be found within the Venice and its Lagoon World Heritage Site. Palladios first major public project began when his designs for building the loggias for the town hall and he proposed an addition of two-storey stone buttresses reflecting the Gothic style of the existing hall while using classical proportions. The construction was completed in 1617 after Palladios death, aside from Palladios designs, his publications contributed to Palladianism. During the second half of his life, Palladio published many books, above all, Palladio is most known for his designs of villas and palaces as well as his books
Andrea Palladio
–
Portrait of Palladio from 1576
Andrea Palladio
–
Façade of
Palazzo Chiericati in Vicenza
Andrea Palladio
–
Villa Foscari "La Malcontenta", 1550–60
Andrea Palladio
–
Statue of Palladio in Vicenza
27.
World Heritage Site
–
A World Heritage Site is a landmark which has been officially recognized by the United Nations, specifically by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Sites are selected on the basis of having cultural, historical, scientific or some form of significance. UNESCO regards these sites as being important to the interests of humanity. The programme catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to the common culture, under certain conditions, listed sites can obtain funds from the World Heritage Fund. The program was founded with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the Worlds Cultural and Natural Heritage, since then,192 state parties have ratified the convention, making it one of the most adhered to international instruments. As of July 2016,1052 sites are listed,814 cultural,203 natural, in 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested UNESCO to assist their countries to protect and rescue the endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched an appeal to the Member States for an International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia, the campaign, which ended in 1980, was considered a success. The project cost $80 million, about $40 million of which was collected from 50 countries, the projects success led to other safeguarding campaigns, saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. UNESCO then initiated, with the International Council on Monuments and Sites, the United States initiated the idea of cultural conservation with nature conservation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, the Convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of June 2016, it has been ratified by 192 states, including 188 UN member states plus the Cook Islands, the Holy See, Niue, a country must first list its significant cultural and natural sites, the result is called the Tentative List. A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on the Tentative List, next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File. The Nomination File is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and these bodies then make their recommendations to the World Heritage Committee. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one of them to be included on the list, up to 2004, there were six criteria for cultural heritage and four criteria for natural heritage. In 2005, this was modified so there is now only one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of outstanding value and meet at least one of the ten criteria. Thus, the Geneva Convention treaty promulgates, Article 53, PROTECTION OF CULTURAL OBJECTS AND OF PLACES OF WORSHIP. There are 1,052 World Heritage Sites located in 165 States Party, of these,814 are cultural,203 are natural and 35 are mixed properties
World Heritage Site
–
Site #252:
Taj Mahal, an example of cultural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Logo of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Heritage Committee
World Heritage Site
–
Site #156:
Serengeti National Park, an example of natural heritage site
World Heritage Site
–
Site #274:
Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu, an example of mixed heritage site
28.
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
–
Most villas are protected by UNESCO as part of a World Heritage Site named City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto. The term villa was used to describe a country house, often rich families in the Veneto also had a house in town called palazzo. Somewhat confusingly there are multiple Villas Pisani, including two by Palladio, UNESCO inscribed the site on the World Heritage List in 1994. At first the site was called Vicenza, City of Palladio, various types of buildings were represented in the original site, which included the Teatro Olimpico, some palazzi and a few villas. However, most of Palladios surviving villas laid outside the site and that is why in 1996 the site was expanded, hence City of Vicenza and the Palladian Villas of the Veneto. Its present name reflects the fact that it includes villas designed by Palladio throughout the Veneto, Palladios reputation initially, and after his death, has been founded on his skill as a designer of villas. Considerable damage had been done to houses, barns, and rural infrastructures during the War of the League of Cambrai, investment in irrigation and land reclamation through drainage further increased the income of wealthy landowners. Palladios villas - that is the houses of estate owners - met a need for a new type of country residence. His designs implicitly recognise that it was not necessary to have a palace in the countryside, modelled directly on city palaces. Their loggie offered a pleasant place to eat, or talk, or perform music in the shade, activities which one can see celebrated in villa decoration, in their interior Palladio distributed functions both vertically and horizontally. The owners house was not the only structure for which Palladio was responsible. The enclosure contained barns, dovecote towers, bread ovens, chicken sheds, stables, accommodation for factors and domestic servants, places to make cheese, press grapes, etc. Already in the 15th century it was usual to create a court in front of the house, with a well, separated from the farmyard with its barns, animals, and threshing-floor. Gardens, vegetable and herbal gardens, fish ponds, and almost invariably a large orchard all were clustered around, or located inside the main enclosure. Orientation was also important, Palladio states in the Quattro Libri that barns should face south so as to keep the hay dry, thus preventing it from fermenting and burning. It is clear, for instance, that the curving barns which flank the majestic façade of the villa Badoer were suggested by what was visible of the Forum of Augustus. An example is the villa Poiana, where the large barn and it faces south, and is not balanced by a similar element on the other side of the house. Among them Villa Mocenigo a Marocco and Villa Mocenigo alla Brenta, Palladio Museum Architectural Reference drawings of The Villas of Palladio
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
–
Villa Capra "La Rotonda" in
Vicenza. One of Palladio's most influential designs
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
–
Villa Godi in
Lugo Vicentino. An early work notable for lack of external decoration
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
–
The frescoes in the
Villa Caldogno main hall depict the different moments of the life in villa at Palladio's age
Palladian Villas of the Veneto
–
Villa Pisani in Bagnolo in the
I quattro libri dell'architettura by Palladio (book II)
29.
Villa Barbaro
–
Villa Barbaro, also known as the Villa di Maser, is a large villa at Maser in the Veneto region of northern Italy. The villa was added to the list of World Heritage Sites by UNESCO in 1996, the land originally belonged to the Arbil and then the Gustiani families, before becoming property of the Barbaro family. Authorities vary as to the dates given for the building of the villa, by this date Palladio had provided the illustrations for one of Danieles publications, a commentary on the writings of the Roman architect Vitruvius. Hobson credits Daniele with the idea of not only building the villa but also the choice of architect, while Daniele was better-known as a connoisseur of the arts, it was for the use of Marcantonios family and descendents that the villa was intended in the long term. After the Barbaro family died out, the villa passed through the line into the ownership of the Trevisan and then the Basadonna families. Ludovico Manin, Venice’s last doge, sold it to Gian Battista Colferai who had rented for some years, during the Great War, the villa was used as a headquarters by General Squillaci of the Italian Third Army. In 1934, Count Giuseppe Volpi di Misurata, founder of the Venice Film Festival and father of Giovanni Volpi, acquired the villa for his daughter Marina, marina’s descendants still live there today. In 1996 UNESCO declared the villa to be part of a World Heritage Site, City of Vicenza and it is open to the public. The complex is home to a farm that produces wine named after the villa. Palladio planned the villa on low lines extending into a large park, the ground floor plan is complex - rectangular with perpendicular rooms on a long axis, the central block projects and contains the principal reception room. The central block, which is designed to resemble the portico of a Roman temple, is decorated by four Ionic columns, the central block is surmounted by a large pediment with heraldic symbols of the Barbaro family in relief. The central block is flanked by two symmetrical wings, the wings have two floors but are fronted by an open arcade. Usually Palladio designed the wings to provide accommodation for agricultural use. The Villa Barbaro is unusual in having private living quarters on the level of the barchesse. The Maser estate was a small one and would not have needed as much storage space as was built at Villa Emo. The wings are terminated by pavilions which feature large sundials set beneath their pediments, the pavilions were intended to house dovecotes on the uppermost floor, while the rooms below were for wine-making, stables and domestic use. In many of Palladios villas similar pavilions were more than mundane farm buildings behind a concealing facade. A typical feature of Palladios villa architecture, they were to be copied and changed in the Palladian architecture inspired by Palladios original designs
Villa Barbaro
–
Villa Barbaro
Villa Barbaro
–
Floor plan by (Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi, 1781)
Villa Barbaro
–
Section and details by (Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi, 1781)
Villa Barbaro
30.
Doorn
–
Doorn is a town in the municipality of Utrechtse Heuvelrug in the central Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht. On 1 January 2008 the town had 10,052 inhabitants, in a document from 885 to 896, the settlement is called Thorhem, dwelling of Thor, the God of Thunder. Vikings quartered at Dorestad, called the place Thorhem because reputedly, indeed, archeological diggings in a moor on the estate of Hoog Moersbergen, north of Doorn, prove that there was a pagan sacrificial site. At the time, the settlement of Thorhem belonged to the homestead of Villa Thorhem, around 1200 this homestead was in the possession of a provost of the Bishopric of Utrecht. He or one of his successors had a built in the 14th Century, now Huis Doorn. The church was extended in the 15th century and it fell into Protestant hands around 1585 and is still in use as a Protestant church. Another castle, Kasteel Moersbergen, was first mentioned in 1435 and has altered several times since the 17th Century. The estate around Huis Doorn was so large there was little room for extension of the town. Only after 1874, when the estate was parcelled out, was there room for growth, after World War II, the town has grown considerably. Doorn is also a base for the Royal Dutch Marines. Von Gimborn Arboretum, one of the sites of the gardens of Utrecht University, is near the town. Doorn was an independent municipality until 1 January 2006, since then, it has been the principal town in the municipality of Utrechtse Heuvelrug. There is also a club, Dev Doorn. The last German Emperor, Wilhelm II, lived at castle Doorn, in the center of the village and he died in Doorn in 1941. The Dutch novelist Simon Vestdijk lived in Doorn for a part of his life. The environs of Doorn are clearly recognisable in the descriptions in many of his novels. Maarten Maartens, a Dutch writer who wrote in English, had a castle built in Doorn. At present the castle is called Maarten Maartenshuis and is a part of the hotel, official Website of the municipality of Utrechtse Heuvelrug Map About the Maartenskerk Soccer club DEV Doorn
Doorn
–
Gatehouse of castle Doorn
Doorn
–
The former Kaiser lived here for more than twenty years.
Doorn
–
The tomb of
Wilhelm II at Huis Doorn
31.
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague, Amsterdam is the countrys capital, while The Hague holds the Dutch seat of parliament and government. The port of Rotterdam is the worlds largest port outside East-Asia, the name Holland is used informally to refer to the whole of the country of the Netherlands. Netherlands literally means lower countries, influenced by its low land and flat geography, most of the areas below sea level are artificial. Since the late 16th century, large areas have been reclaimed from the sea and lakes, with a population density of 412 people per km2 –507 if water is excluded – the Netherlands is classified as a very densely populated country. Only Bangladesh, South Korea, and Taiwan have both a population and higher population density. Nevertheless, the Netherlands is the worlds second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products and this is partly due to the fertility of the soil and the mild climate. In 2001, it became the worlds first country to legalise same-sex marriage, the Netherlands is a founding member of the EU, Eurozone, G-10, NATO, OECD and WTO, as well as being a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EUs criminal intelligence agency Europol and this has led to the city being dubbed the worlds legal capital. The country also ranks second highest in the worlds 2016 Press Freedom Index, the Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund, in 2013, the United Nations World Happiness Report ranked the Netherlands as the seventh-happiest country in the world, reflecting its high quality of life. The Netherlands also ranks joint second highest in the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, the region called Low Countries and the country of the Netherlands have the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nether and Nedre and Bas or Inferior are in use in all over Europe. They are sometimes used in a relation to a higher ground that consecutively is indicated as Upper, Boven, Oben. In the case of the Low Countries / the Netherlands the geographical location of the region has been more or less downstream. The geographical location of the region, however, changed over time tremendously
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 5500 BC
Netherlands
–
Flag
Netherlands
–
The Netherlands in 500 BC
Netherlands
–
An oak figurine found in
Willemstad, North Brabant (4500 BC).
32.
Belgium
–
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
Belgium
–
Charlemagne and
Charles V
Belgium
–
Flaga
Belgium
Belgium
–
Episode of the
Belgian Revolution of 1830 (1834), by
Egide Charles Gustave Wappers
33.
Pigeon racing
–
Pigeon racing is the sport of releasing specially trained racing pigeons, which then return to their homes over a carefully measured distance. Pigeon racing requires a breed of pigeon bred for the sport. Competing pigeons are trained and conditioned for races that vary in distance for approximately 100 kilometres to 1,000 kilometres. Despite these lengths, races can be won and lost by seconds, the traditional timing method involves rubber rings being placed into a specially designed clock, whereas a newer development uses RFID tags to record arrival time. While there is no proof, there are compelling reasons to think the sport of racing pigeons may go back at least as far as 220 AD or possibly earlier. The sport achieved a deal of popularity in Belgium in the mid 19th century. The pigeon fanciers of Belgium were so taken with the hobby that began to develop pigeons specially cultivated for fast flight. From Belgium the modern version of the sport and the Voyageurs which the Flemish fanciers developed spread to most parts of the world, hypersensitivity pneumonitis is also a reason why some people leave the sport, which may cause irreversible lung disease in those with hypersensitivity to certain pigeon proteins. This will determine which bird is then the most successful, pigeons are the oldest domesticated bird. The predecessors of modern-day racing pigeons were bred for their homing ability. Pigeon posts have been established all over the world and while used in the military. Modern pigeon racing originated in Belgium in the mid 19th century, the sport was aided by several new technologies of the era. The advent of the railroad permitted pigeons to be sent to distant release points quickly, in addition the creation of mass-produced, sophisticated timing clocks brought accurate and secure timing to the sport. These clocks were designed with special compartments where an entry band, when struck, the clock recorded the time and also placed the band in a compartment that could only be opened by race officials. The importance of homing pigeons in the centuries before electronic communications, such as the telegraph and it is the sport with a single starting gate and a thousand finish lines. In short, competing birds are taken from their lofts and must race home, the time taken and distance are recorded and the fastest bird is declared the winner. Races are generally between 100 kilometres and 1,000 kilometres in distance, in the United States flights of up to 1,800 kilometres kilometres have been recorded. Provided it survives the many associated with racing, a single pigeon could compete from about six months of age
Pigeon racing
–
For the bicycle company, see
Flying Pigeon.
Pigeon racing
–
Racing pigeons are often transported in specially modified trucks.
Pigeon racing
–
A fancier with racing pigeons.
Pigeon racing
–
Inside an older pigeon clock
34.
Flemish
–
The term Flemish is used in at least five ways. These are, in order of increasing order, as an informal term meaning Dutch language in Belgium. Linguists tend to avoid the use of the term Flemish in this context, as a synonym for the so-called intermediate speech known as tussentaal. to denote any of the local Dutch dialects anywhere in the Flanders region. There are four principal Dutch dialects in the Flemish region, Brabantian, East Flemish, the latter two are sometimes considered separate languages. Despite its name, Brabantian is the dominant contributor to the Flemish Dutch tussentaal, the combined region, culture, and people of Dutch-speaking Belgium has come to be known as Flemish. Flemish is also used to refer to one of the languages spoken in the former County of Flanders. Linguistically and formally, Flemish refers to the region, culture, Flemish people speak Dutch in Flanders, the Flemish part of Belgium. Belgian Dutch is slightly different from Dutch spoken in The Netherlands, mainly in pronunciation, lexicon, similar differences exist within other languages, such as English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The differences are not significant enough to constitute an individual language, Dutch is the majority language in northern Belgium, being spoken natively by three-fifths of the population. It is one of the three languages of Belgium, together with French and German, and is the only official language of the Flemish Region. The various Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium contain a number of lexical, as in the Netherlands, the pronunciation of Standard Dutch is affected by the native dialect of the speaker. All Dutch dialect groups spoken in Belgium are spoken in adjacent areas of the Netherlands as well, East Flemish forms a continuum with both Brabantic and West Flemish. Standard Dutch is primarily based on the Hollandic dialect and to an extent on Brabantian. Among vowels is the diphthong ou / au, ou as in bout and au as in fauna is realized as in formal situations. In informal situations, the sound tends to be pronounced as or as a monophthong, depending on the dialect, in contrast, these are generally pronounced as in the north and middle parts of the Netherlands. Among consonants, the northern Dutch pronunciation of w is, in some southern Dutch dialects it is or, probably the most obvious difference between northern and southern Dutch is in the sounds spelled ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨g⟩. The sound spelled ⟨ch⟩ is a velar fricative in northern Dutch. ⟨w⟩ realised as ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨g⟩ pronounced as front-velars, not as palatals, Belgian Dutch includes different French loanwords in its vocabulary compared to Netherlands Dutch
Flemish
–
Bachten de Kupe (nl) scenic road sign.
Flemish
–
Official languages of Belgium: Dutch (yellow), French (red) and German (blue).
Brussels is a bilingual area where both Dutch and French have official status.
35.
Transylvania
–
Transylvania is a historical region located in what is today the central part of Romania. Bound on the east and south by its borders, the Carpathian mountain range. The term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the regions of Crișana, Maramureș. The region of Transylvania is known for the beauty of its Carpathian landscape. It also contains major cities such as Cluj-Napoca, Brașov, Sibiu, in the English-speaking world it has been commonly associated with vampires, due to the influence of Bram Stokers famous novel Dracula and its many film adaptations. Transylvania was first referred to in a Medieval Latin document in 1075 as ultra silvam, Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means on the other side of the woods. Hungarian historians claim that the Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania, later Transylvania, was a translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve. That also was used as an name in German überwald. The German name Siebenbürgen means seven fortresses, after the seven Transylvanian Saxons cities in the region and this is also the origin of the regions name in many other languages, such as the Bulgarian Седмиградско, Polish Siedmiogród and the Ukrainian Семигород. The Hungarian form Erdély was first mentioned in the 12th-century Gesta Hungarorum as Erdeuleu or Erdő-elve, the word Erdő means forest in Hungarian, and the word Elve denotes a region in connection with this, similarly to the Hungarian name for Muntenia. Erdel, Erdil, Erdehstan, the Turkish equivalents, or the Romanian Ardeal were borrowed from this form as well, the first known written occurrence of the Romanian name Ardeal appeared in a document in 1432 as Ardeliu. Transylvania has been dominated by different peoples and countries throughout its history. It was once the nucleus of the Kingdom of Dacia, in 106 AD the Roman Empire conquered the territory, systematically exploiting its resources. After the Roman legions withdrew in 271 AD, it was overrun by a succession of tribes, bringing it under the control of the Carpi, Visigoths, Huns, Gepids, Avars. From 9th to 11th century Bulgarians ruled Transylvania, there is an ongoing scholarly debate over the ethnicity of Transylvanias population before the Hungarian conquest. The Magyars conquered much of Central Europe at the end of the 9th century, according to Gesta Hungarorum, Transylvania was ruled by the Vlach voivode Gelou before the Hungarians arrived. The Kingdom of Hungary established a control over Transylvania in 1003. Between 1003 and 1526, Transylvania was a voivodeship in the Kingdom of Hungary, after the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of János Szapolyai
Transylvania
–
Apuseni Mountains near
Arieșeni,
Alba County
Transylvania
–
Romanian Orthodox wooden church in Geogel, Alba County
Transylvania
–
Sirnea in
Brașov County
Transylvania
–
Saxon fortified church of
Biertan, part of
a UNESCO World Heritage Site
36.
Caerwent
–
Caerwent is a village and community in Monmouthshire, Wales. It is located five miles west of Chepstow and eleven miles east of Newport. It was founded by the Romans as the town of Venta Silurum. The modern village is built around the Roman ruins, which are some of the best-preserved in Europe and it remained prominent through the Roman era and Early Middle Ages as the site of a road crossing between several important civic centres. It was founded by the Romans in AD75 as Venta Silurum and this is confirmed by inscriptions on the Civitas Silurum stone, now on display in the parish church. Large sections of the Roman town walls are still in place, in 1881, a portion of a highly intricate coloured floor mosaic or tessellated pavement, depicting different types of fish, was unearthed during excavations in the garden of a cottage. Excavations in 1971 dated the north-west polygonal angle-tower to the mid-300s, further excavations were carried out in 2008 by Wessex Archaeology and was featured in the Channel 4 TV programme Time Team. Modern houses are built on top of part of the old Roman market place, the ruins of several Roman buildings are still visible, including the foundations of a 4th-century Roman temple. The fact that most of the houses lacked mosaic or hypocaust-heated floors, however, suggests that despite its size, Caerwent was a centre for the Kingdom of Gwent after the Roman occupation. The name Caerwent translates from Welsh as fort of Gwent, the English town name of Winchester has a parallel derivation, ultimately from the combination of the Latin words Venta, in that case, Venta Belgarum, and castra. Caerwent remained an important centre, where the road between Gloucester and Caerleon met the road from Shrewsbury, via Monmouth and Trellech, to the sea at Portskewett. Excavations at Caerwent have revealed remains and everyday objects from the post-Roman period, metalwork, including elaborate penannular brooches and fastening pins, have been dated to the 5th-7th centuries. A large number of Christian burials, some stone-lined, dating from between the 4th and 9th centuries have also discovered, both around the towns East Gate and close to the parish church. It has been suggested that it may have been the birthplace of St. Patrick, a monastery was established at Caerwent some time before the 10th century, and a pre-Norman cross head was discovered at the site in 1992. The current church is dedicated to Saints Stephen and Tathan, the name possibly having arisen through confusion with Saint Tathyw. The oldest existing part of the dates to the 13th century. The village appears as Venta Siluru and Caer went on the Cambriae Typus map of 1573, during World War II a Royal Navy Propellant Factory was established at Caerwent, immediately north of the A48 road. Caerwent is now a village, largely bypassed by the busy A48 road running between the city of Newport to the west and Chepstow to the east
Caerwent
–
Roman building foundations and the tower of the parish church at Caerwent
Caerwent
–
Near infra-red kite aerial photo of the north wall of Caerwent
Caerwent
–
Northgate Inn pub sign
37.
Lectern
–
To facilitate eye-contact and improve posture when facing an audience, lecterns may have adjustable height and slant. People generally use lecterns while standing, in pre-modern usage, the word lectern was used to refer specifically to the reading desk or stand. One 1905 dictionary states that the term is applied only to the class mentioned as independent of the pulpit. Lecterns used in academia—generally in seminar rooms and lecture theatres—may have certain features that common lecterns lack and these features usually include a microphone stand, audio-visual controls, sometimes even an integrated computer and recording system. Lecterns of this sort are generally attached or integrated into a large desk, in the Christian Church, the lectern is usually the stand on which the Bible rests and from which the lessons are read during the service. The lessons may be read or chanted by a priest, deacon, minister, or layperson, the lectern is normally set in front of the pews, so that the reader or speaker faces the congregation. Lecterns are often made of wood and they may be either fixed in place or portable. A lectern differs from a pulpit, the latter being used for sermons, churches that have both a lectern and a pulpit will often place them on opposite sides. The lectern will generally be smaller than the pulpit, and both may be adorned with antipendia in the color of the liturgical season, in monastic churches and cathedrals, a separate lectern is commonly set in the centre of the choir. Originally this would have carried the book, for use by the cantor or precentor leading the singing of the divine office. Lecterns are often eagle-shaped to symbolise John the Apostle, especially in North America and Great Britain lecterns are sometimes made as angel lecterns. Because the Torah scrolls are generally large, the feature of the bimah in a synagogue is a table large enough to hold an open Torah along with a tikkun or Chumash. In some synagogues, this table may resemble a large lectern, in traditional yeshivas and some synagogues, students and members of the congregation may use small desks called shtenders. These closely resemble conventional lecterns, and indeed, one shtender may be used as a lectern by the Hazzan leading the service. Note however that each group in a yeshivah may have its own shtender and in some older synagogues. Some older synagogues have large collections of shtenders, pulpit Podium Lector Lection Analogion Media related to Lecterns at Wikimedia Commons Herbermann, Charles, ed. Lectern
Lectern
–
Eagle lectern in the choir hall of
Aachen cathedral with a
bat poured in 1874 in
Stolberg. The bat on the back of the eagle serves to stabilize the broken and destroyed lectern
Lectern
–
Ban Ki-moon giving a lecture from a lectern
Lectern
–
A lectern in a US District Courthouse, similar to those found in academic lecture theatres
Lectern
–
An early-twenty-first century lectern at the
University of Canberra (2008)
38.
Mono-pitched roof
–
A mono-pitched roof is a single-sloping roof surface, often not attached to another roof surface. Mono-pitched roofs are called a pent roof, shed roof, lean-to roof. This is in contrast to a roof, also known as a gabled roof. A mono-pitched roof can also be an addition to an existing roof. In this case though the main roof has a flat ceiling. The name lean-to roof comes from this form of addition
Mono-pitched roof
–
Modern mono-pitched roofs in northern Australia
Mono-pitched roof
–
Mono-pitched addition to a house with a dual-pitched roof
39.
Phantassie Doocot
–
Phantassie is an agricultural hamlet near East Linton, East Lothian, Scotland. It is close to the River Tyne, Preston Mill, the 704 acres Phantassie Farm and Workshop, presently owned by Hamilton Farmers, is the birthplace and childhood home of the civil engineer John Rennie the Elder, and his brother George Rennie. John Rennie is commemorated at Phantassie by balusters taken from Waterloo Bridge in London, the estate was formerly the property of the Countess of Aberdeen, until purchased by the Rennie family in the 18th century. The 18th century main house is a category A listed building, Phantassie Doocot is a beehive doocot, or dovecote, and is a National Trust for Scotland property, along with the nearby Preston Mill. It was built in the 16th century, and has a parapet in the shape of a horseshoe. Behind the 4 feet thick walls, there are 544 nestboxes which, in years gone by, the building was given to the National Trust for Scotland in 1961 by William Hamilton of Phantassie Farm, and is a category A listed building. Phantassie walled garden has been used for over 150 years and is dedicated to the rearing of Gloucester and Berkshire pigs, as well as Black Rock hens, National Trust for Scotland webpage for Phantassie Doocot Family life at Phantassie in the mid-1870s Aerial photos of Phantassie from RCAHMS
Phantassie Doocot
–
Phantassie village and Doocot
Phantassie Doocot
–
The doocot and field
Phantassie Doocot
–
The beehive doocot at Phantassie
Phantassie Doocot
–
Horseshoe-shaped parapet of the doocot
40.
Finavon Castle
–
Finavon Castle lies on the River South Esk, about a quarter of a mile south of Milton of Finavon village and five miles to the north-east of Forfar in Angus, Scotland. The name is applied both to a ruined 17th-century castle, as well as the 19th-century mansion house 130m to the west, the estate was the property of the Lindsay Earls of Crawford from 1375, who built the now-ruined castle. David Lindsay, 10th Earl of Crawford, married Margaret, the daughter of Cardinal David Beaton, extravagance ruined the Crawford fortunes, and in 1625 the barony of Finavon was disposed of by a forced sale to Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Lord Spynie. It passed through the Carnegie family, the Gordon Earls of Aboyne, in 1843 the Castle was bought by Thomas Gardyne of Middleton. Through an 18th-century marriage he came of the old Lindsay stock and his descendant, Lieutenant-Colonel Alan David Greenhill Gardyne died in 1953, leaving the estate to a daughter, Mrs Susan Mazur. The castle was an L-plan tower-house of five storeys, with a garret, the tower visible today dates from about 1600. Excavations have revealed that the tower is an adjunct tacked onto the north-east corner of a much older, the house is a Scottish baronial style mansion built in 1865 for the then laird, David Greenhill Gardyne, by Messrs Carver and Symon of Arbroath. Part of the castle is now let as holiday accommodation, the nearby Finavon Doocot is Scotlands largest doocot, with 2400 nesting boxes. It is believed to have built for the Earl of Crawford in the 16th Century and is now maintained by the National Trust for Scotland. On Finavon Hill, above the Castle there is a vitrified Iron Age hillfort dating from the mid-1st millennium BCE, the Finavon Castle beat on the River South Esk provides salmon and seatrout fly fishing. Rewritten and corrected by James Gammack Historic Scotland
Finavon Castle
–
The 19th century Finavon Castle
Finavon Castle
–
Ruins of the earlier Finavon Castle
41.
Pigeon keeping
–
Pigeon keeping is the art and science of breeding domestic pigeons. People have practised pigeon keeping for about 10,000 years in almost every part of the world, in that time, mankind has substantially altered the morphology and the behaviour of the domesticated descendants of the rock dove to suit his needs for food, aesthetic satisfaction and entertainment. People who breed pigeons are commonly referred to as pigeon fanciers, the hobby is gaining in popularity in the United States, after having waned within the last 50 years. Both the hobby and commercial aspects of keeping pigeons are thriving in parts of the world. The rock dove, which is believed to be the ancestor of domesticated pigeons, was probably domesticated around ten thousand years ago. There are hundreds of breeds of domesticated pigeons arising from this common ancestor which are cultivated by pigeon fanciers. Because of the number of domesticated breeds, pigeon fanciers find it convenient for certain purposes to group sets of domesticated pigeons into larger groups. The Australian grouping system is similar to the UK/European groupings, for example, see, Major breed families of fancy pigeon. These pigeons are kept and bred for their performance and for reproduction. Racing homers are a type of Homing pigeon, trained to participate in the sport of pigeon racing, such races often have large cash prizes of up to $1 million as the Sun City Million Dollar Pigeon Race. Fanciers who fly racing pigeons sometimes win long-distance races and even break records, other flying/sporting pigeons are bred for unique flying characteristics other than homing, such as rolling, high-flying, and diving. These birds, which may be flown in competitions, include but are not limited to Rollers, Tumblers and it should also be noted that a few varieties, for example, the Parlor Roller, are considered to be within the flying/sporting group even though they do not fly. This is because they compete on the basis of their performance, competitors in pigeon sporting competitions such as pigeon races can win large sums of prize money when their pigeons return home the fastest from a race. The use of pigeons to carry messages is commonly called pigeon post, Pigeons can also carry small light-weight packages, and have been used to smuggle drugs into a prison. Fancy pigeons are pigeons which are bred to perpetuate particular features. Examples of fancy pigeons would include Jacobins, Fantails and Pigmy Pouters and their owners compete them against each other at exhibitions or pigeon shows and judges decide who has the best by comparing them to each other and their respective breed standard. There are many breeds of fancy pigeons of all sizes, colors, utility pigeons are bred for their meat and as replacement breeding stock. The meat of pigeons is customarily referred to as squab and is considered a delicacy in parts of the world
Pigeon keeping
–
A pigeon fancier with his racing pigeon
Pigeon keeping
–
A pair of White Kings
Pigeon keeping
–
A Sputnik trap.
Pigeon keeping
–
Pigeon loft in a garden.
42.
Glasgow
–
Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
Glasgow
–
Clockwise from top-left: View of
Glasgow Science Centre, Duke of Wellington statue outside
Gallery of Modern Art,
Royal Exchange Square, cityscape view from
The Lighthouse, Gilbert Scott Building of
University of Glasgow,
Finnieston Crane,
Glasgow City Chambers
Glasgow
–
The
seal or signet of
Jocelin,
Bishop of Glasgow, founder of the burgh of Glasgow.
Glasgow
–
Shipping on the Clyde,
Atkinson Grimshaw, 1881.
Glasgow
–
Glasgow University in the 1890s
43.
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
Edinburgh
–
Clockwise from top-left: View from
Calton Hill,
Old College,
Old Town from Princes Street,
Edinburgh Castle,
Princes Street from Calton Hill
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh, showing Arthur's Seat, one of the earliest known sites of human habitation in the area
Edinburgh
–
Edinburgh in the 17th century
Edinburgh
–
A painting showing Edinburgh characters (based on
John Kay 's caricatures) behind
St Giles' Cathedral in the late 18th century
44.
Aberdeenshire
–
Aberdeenshire is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland. It takes its name from the old County of Aberdeen which had different boundaries. Modern Aberdeenshire includes all of what was once Kincardineshire, as well as part of Banffshire, the old boundaries are still officially used for a few purposes, namely land registration and lieutenancy. Aberdeenshire Council is headquartered at Woodhill House, in Aberdeen, making it the only Scottish council whose headquarters are located outside its jurisdiction, Aberdeen itself forms a different council area. Aberdeenshire borders onto Angus and Perth and Kinross to the south, Highland and Moray to the west, traditionally, it has been economically dependent upon the primary sector and related processing industries. Its land represents 8% of Scotlands overall territory and it covers an area of 6,313 square kilometres. Aberdeenshire has a prehistoric and historic heritage. It is the locus of a number of Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, including Longman Hill, Kempstone Hill, Catto Long Barrow. The area was settled in the Bronze Age by the Beaker culture, in the Iron Age, hill forts were built. Around the 1st century AD, the Taexali people, who have little history, were believed to have resided along the coast. The Picts were the next documented inhabitants of the area, and were no later than 800-900 AD, the Romans also were in the area during this period, as they left signs at Kintore. Christianity influenced the early on, and there were Celtic monasteries at Old Deer. Since medieval times there have been a number of paths that crossed the Mounth through present-day Aberdeenshire from the Scottish Lowlands to the Highlands. Some of the most well known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth, Aberdeenshire played an important role in the fighting between the Scottish clans. Clan MacBeth and the Clan Canmore were two of the larger clans, macbeth fell at Lumphanan in 1057. During the Anglo-Norman penetration, other families such as House of Balliol, Clan Bruce. When the fighting amongst these newcomers resulted in the Scottish Wars of Independence, in 1307, Robert the Bruce was victorious near Inverurie. Along with his victory came new families, namely the Forbeses and these new families set the stage for the upcoming rivalries during the 14th and 15th centuries
Aberdeenshire
–
Blaeu – Atlas of Scotland 1654 – ABERDONIA & BANFIA
Aberdeenshire
–
Aberdeenshire within Scotland
Aberdeenshire
–
Ythan Estuary nature reserve, with tern colonies and dunes in background.
Aberdeenshire
–
The B976 road near Gairnshiel
45.
St Andrews
–
St Andrews is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland,10 miles southeast of Dundee and 30 miles northeast of Edinburgh. The town is home to the University of St Andrews, the third oldest university in the English-speaking world, according to some rankings, it is ranked as the third best university in the United Kingdom, behind Oxbridge. The University is an part of the burgh and during term time students make up approximately one third of the towns population. St Andrews has a population of 16,800, the town is named after Saint Andrew the Apostle. There has been an important church in St Andrews since at least the 8th century, the settlement grew to the west of St Andrews cathedral with the southern side of the Scores to the north and the Kinness burn to the south. The burgh soon became the capital of Scotland, a position which was held until the Scottish Reformation. The famous cathedral, the largest in Scotland, now lies in ruins, St Andrews is also known worldwide as the home of golf. Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches. The Martyrs Memorial, erected to the honour of Patrick Hamilton, George Wishart, the civil parish has a population of 18,421. The earliest recorded name the area is Muckross, after the founding of a religious settlement in Muckross in around 370 AD, the name changed to Cennrígmonaid. This is Old Gaelic and composed of the elements cenn, ríg and this became Cell Rígmonaid and was anglicised Kilrymont. The modern Gaelic spelling is Cill Rìmhinn, the name St Andrews derives from the towns claim to be the resting place of bones of the apostle Andrew. According to legend, St Regulus brought the relics to Kilrymont and this is the origin of a third name for the town Kilrule. The first inhabitants who settled on the fringes of the rivers Tay. This was followed by the people who settled around the modern town around 4,500 BC as farmers clearing the area of woodland. In AD877, king Causantín mac Cináeda built a new church for the Culdees at St Andrews and later the same year was captured and executed after defending against Viking raiders. In AD906, the became the seat of the bishop of Alba. In 940 Constantine III abdicated and took the position of abbot of the monastery of St Andrews, the establishment of the present town began around 1140 by Bishop Robert on an L-shaped vill, possibly on the site of the ruined St Andrews Castle
St Andrews
–
St Andrews, seen from the top of St Rule's Tower
St Andrews
–
St Andrews Cathedral in 1845
St Andrews
–
The Martyrs Memorial
St Andrews
–
St Andrews Town Hall
46.
Milton of Campsie
–
Milton of Campsie is a large village situated in East Dunbartonshire, Scotland roughly 10 miles north of Glasgow. Nestling at the foot of the Campsie Fells, it is neighboured by Kirkintilloch, the village expanded greatly in the 1970s with the addition of modern housing estates by Barratt and Bellway, the latter being more extensive. It has one full sized grass football park in what is known locally as The Battlefield, amenities include a newsagent, a Co-op Store (the converted Craigfoot Inn and a Scotmid, Post Office, pharmacy, two hairdressing salons and now a Coffee House. The Kincaid House Hotel consists of accommodation and licensed bars and restaurants, Milton of Campsie Old Parish Church situated on Antermony Road is to close very soon, with a new Church nearly completed for use at Locheil Drive. The Roman Catholic church, St Pauls, is located nearby on Cairnview Road, until the late nineteenth century, the Kincaid and Lennox families were influential in Milton. A small plaque at the centre of the village commemorates the landing of the Italian diplomat and balloonist, Vincenzo Lunardi. Directly across from Scotmid and next to the church there is a small World War I, at the Cross there is an open seating area called The Old Mans Rest, previously there was a shelter for an earlier generation. Milton of Campsie also has a non-denominational Primary School called Craighead Primary School, the road that passes next to the Post Office is called School Lane. There is also a school located next to Craighead Primary. The village lives a peaceful life and has a low crime rate. Milton of Campsie was served by the railway for over a hundred years from 1848 until it was closed to traffic in 1951. The village is serviced by the half-hourly First Glasgow X85 Service from Glasgow Buchanan Street Bus Station. The village is where the B757 meets the A891 John Bell, doctor, lesley Fitz-Simons, Take the High Road actress. Kirsty McWilliam, triathlete and 2008 Olympic torchbearer, gudrun Ure, actress Campsie, Stirlingshire Campsie Fells Visit Scotland - Milton of Campsie EDLC - Milton of Campsie
Milton of Campsie
–
McDowall's & Co. mills at Milton in 1800.
47.
Phantassie
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Phantassie is an agricultural hamlet near East Linton, East Lothian, Scotland. It is close to the River Tyne, Preston Mill, the 704 acres Phantassie Farm and Workshop, presently owned by Hamilton Farmers, is the birthplace and childhood home of the civil engineer John Rennie the Elder, and his brother George Rennie. John Rennie is commemorated at Phantassie by balusters taken from Waterloo Bridge in London, the estate was formerly the property of the Countess of Aberdeen, until purchased by the Rennie family in the 18th century. The 18th century main house is a category A listed building, Phantassie Doocot is a beehive doocot, or dovecote, and is a National Trust for Scotland property, along with the nearby Preston Mill. It was built in the 16th century, and has a parapet in the shape of a horseshoe. Behind the 4 feet thick walls, there are 544 nestboxes which, in years gone by, the building was given to the National Trust for Scotland in 1961 by William Hamilton of Phantassie Farm, and is a category A listed building. Phantassie walled garden has been used for over 150 years and is dedicated to the rearing of Gloucester and Berkshire pigs, as well as Black Rock hens, National Trust for Scotland webpage for Phantassie Doocot Family life at Phantassie in the mid-1870s Aerial photos of Phantassie from RCAHMS
Phantassie
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Phantassie village and Doocot
Phantassie
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The doocot and field
Phantassie
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The beehive doocot at Phantassie
Phantassie
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Horseshoe-shaped parapet of the doocot
48.
Shirley Plantation
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Shirley Plantation is an estate located on the north bank of the James River in Charles City County, Virginia, USA. It is located on State Route 5, a scenic byway which runs between the independent cities of Richmond and Williamsburg, Shirley Plantation is the oldest active plantation in Virginia and is the oldest family-owned business in North America, dating back to 1614 with operations starting in 1638. The plantation was added to the National Register in 1969 and declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970, the lands of Shirley Plantation were first settled in 1613 by Sir Thomas West, 3rd Baron De la Warr and were named West and Sherley Hundred. The land was cultivated for growing tobacco to be shipped around the colonies, in 1638, a portion of this land was granted to Edward Hill, thus beginning the occupation by the Hill family. The original 450-acre plot was expanded by marriage and gradual land acquisition, the land passed to Edward Hill II who was owner during Bacons Rebellion in 1676. He sided with Governor William Berkeley, and Bacons rebels proceeded to plunder his home, the land was then inherited by Edward Hill III in 1700. Edward Hill IIIs only son, Edward Hill IV, died at 16 of consumption, the property reverted to Edward Hill IIIs youngest daughter Elizabeth who married John Carter, in October 1723. The construction of the present mansion and outbuildings began c, the mansion, called the Great House, was completed in 1738 and was located close to the original house built by the Hills that became known as the Hill House. The Hill House stood until the late 1860s, when it was demolished, the house has been occupied by the Hill Carter family since 1738 and has housed eight generations. It was at Shirley that Anne Hill Carter was born, the couple were later parents of the famous Confederate General Robert E. Lee. The house is largely in its state and is owned, operated and lived in by direct descendants of Edward Hill I. The house was placed on the National Register in 1969 and recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1970, the three story Great House is constructed in the Georgian style with red brick walls and white trim boards on a square foundation. The house has no front door, as both the riverside and courtyard side entrances have a two story portico with Doric columns supporting a pediment. The entrance is located in the center, framed by a pair of rectangular windows on either side. The hipped roof rests on an entablature containing dentil moldings, the roof is broken up by dormers and two large brick chimneys. In the center of the roof is a pedestal supporting an overturned pineapple. These buildings all frame the house, lending to the majesty of the building and creating a Queen Anne Forecourt
Shirley Plantation
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Shirley
Shirley Plantation
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The Shirley Plantation, c. 1900-1906. Photo by
William Henry Jackson.
49.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
National Register of Historic Places
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Logo used for the NRHP.
National Register of Historic Places
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Old Slater Mill, a historic district in
Pawtucket, Rhode Island, was the first property listed in the National Register on November 13, 1966.
National Register of Historic Places
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The
Loren Andrus Octagon House in
Washington, Michigan has been on the NRHP since September 3, 1971.
National Register of Historic Places
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Built in 1800 by
Samuel McIntire in
Salem, the
Stephen Phillips House is operated as a
historic house museum by
Historic New England and open for public tours.
50.
Gable
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A gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of intersecting roof pitches. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the system used, which reflects climate, material availability. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the wall, including the gable. A variation of the gable is a gable, which has a stairstep design to accomplish the sloping portion. Gable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing can be ambiguous or misleading, gable style is also used in the design of fabric structures, with varying degree sloped roofs, dependent on how much snowfall is expected. Sharp gable roofs are a characteristic of the Gothic and classical Greek styles of architecture, the opposite or inverted form of a gable roof is a V-roof or butterfly roof. While a front-gabled building faces the street with its gable, a building faces it with its cullis. The terms are used in architecture and city planning to determine a building in its urban situation, front-gabled buildings are considered typical for German city streets in the medieval gothic period, while later Renaissance buildings, influenced by Italian architecture are often side-gabled. In America, front-gabled houses, such as the Gablefront house, were primarily between the early 19th century and 1920. A wimperg is a German and Dutch word for a Gothic ornamental gable with tracery over windows or portals and it was a typical element in Gothic Architecture especially in cathedral architecture. Wimpergs often had crockets or other elements in the Gothic style. The intention behind the wimperg was the perception of increased height, the gable end roof is a poor design for hurricane regions, as it easily peels off in strong winds. The part of the roof overhangs the triangular wall very often creates a trap that can catch wind like an umbrella. A series of ornamental timber gables, from existing examples in England and France of the 16th Century
Gable
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A single-story house with three gables, although only two can be seen (highlighted in yellow). This intersection of gables is a cross gable roof
Gable
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Decorative gable roof at 176-178 St. John's Place between Sixth and Seventh Avenue in the
Park Slope neighborhood of
Brooklyn, New York City
Gable
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The cathedral in Amiens showing three portals with wimperg and pinnacles and rose window.
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