1.
Downe House School
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Downe House School is a selective independent girls day and boarding school in Cold Ash, a village near Newbury, Berkshire, for girls aged 11–18. Downe House was founded in 1907 by Olive Willis, its first headmistress and its first home was Down House in the village of Downe, Kent, which had been the home of Charles Darwin. By 1921 Down House was too small for the school, so Willis bought The Cloisters, Cold Ash, Berkshire, to which the school moved in 1922, and it now accepts day pupils but is still predominantly a boarding school. She wrote to John Vickers, the OFT director-general, saying and they are schools that have quite openly continued to follow a long-established practice because they were unaware that the law had changed. Downe House won the Tatler Best Public School Award in 2011, as most girls at Downe House are boarders, the house system is incorporated with the boarding programme. Girls can join the school at the ages of eleven, twelve, or thirteen, on leaving a primary or prep school, entry into Downe House is competitive, with entrants needing to pass the Common Entrance Examination. In 2010, the Cambridge Pre-U was introduced as an alternative to A Levels at Downe House. M. H, down, the Home of the Darwins, the story of a house and the people who lived there. London, Longmans Green and Co. pp. 185–194, Downe House, a Mystery and a Miracle. Olive Willis and Downe House, an adventure in education, at openlibrary. org School website Profile on MyDaughter Profile on the ISC website
2.
Downe
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Downe is a village in Greater London within the London Borough of Bromley. It is also in the county of Kent. Downe is 3.4 miles south west of Orpington and 14.2 miles south east of Charing Cross, Downe lies on a hill, and much of the centre of the village is unchanged, the former village school now acts as the village hall. The word Downe originates from the Anglosaxon word doon, latterly down, the village was part of Kent until April 1965 when it was subsumed into the new London Borough of Bromley. When Charles Darwin moved there in 1842, the village was known as Down and its name was changed later to Downe. Charles Darwin lived in Down House for 40 years, from 1842 until he died there in 1882. A favourite place of his was Downe Bank, now a reserve and Site of Special Scientific Interest. Down House and the area has been nominated by the Department of Culture, Media. However, this decision has been deferred, Downe is the location of Buckston Browne Farm, built in 1931 as a surgical research centre by the Royal College of Surgeons. In the 1980s, the farm caused controversy because of its use of vivisection techniques, the farm has now been made into four houses. There are two campsites in the Downe area, The Downe Scout Activity Centre consisting of 86 acres of woodland. The Greenwich District campsite is also nearby, despite being within Greater London, Downe has limited connections to the rest of the city. There are no links to the village, but it is served by two hourly bus routes,146 Bromley–Downe R8 Biggin Hill–Orpington
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
English Heritage
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English Heritage is a registered charity that manages the National Heritage Collection. This comprises over 400 of Englands historic buildings, monuments and sites spanning more than 5,000 years of history, within its portfolio are Stonehenge, Dover Castle, Tintagel Castle and the best preserved parts of Hadrians Wall. English Heritage also manages the London Blue Plaques scheme, which links influential historical figures to particular buildings and it was created to combine the roles of existing bodies that had emerged from a long period of state involvement in heritage protection. The British government gave the new charity an £80 million grant to establish it as an independent trust. Over the centuries, what is now called Heritage has been the responsibility of a series of state departments. There was the Kings Works after the Norman Conquest, the Office of Works, the Office of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues and Works, and the Ministry of Works. Responsibility subsequently transferred to the Ministry of Public Building and Works then to the Department of the Environment and now the Department for Culture, Media, the states legal responsibility for the historic environment goes back to the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882. Central government subsequently developed several systems of protection for different types of assets, introducing listing for buildings after WW2. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission was formed under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983 on 1 April 1984, soon after, the commission gained the operating name of English Heritage by its first Chairman, Lord Montagu of Beaulieu. A national register of parks and gardens, was set up in 1984. Registration is a consideration in the planning process. In 2010–2011 it recorded 4.3 million unique online user sessions, in 2012 the section responsible for archive collections was renamed the English Heritage Archive. As a result of the National Heritage Act 2002, English Heritage acquired administrative responsibility for historic wrecks, the administration of the listed building system was transferred from DCMS to English Heritage in 2006. It was retained on grounds of performing a function which should remain independent from Government. However the department also suffered from budget cuts during the recession of the 2010s resulting in a deficit of £100 million. In June 2013 the British Government announced plans to provide an £80 million grant to enable English Heritage to become a self-financing charity, the national portfolio of historic properties remain in public ownership, but the new English Heritage will be licensed to manage them. The change occurred on 1 April 2015 with the planning and heritage protection functions remaining an independent, non-departmental public body. The new trust has a licence to operate the properties until 2023, English Heritage is the guardian of over 400 sites and monuments, the most famous of which include Stonehenge, Iron Bridge and Dover Castle
5.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
6.
Charles Darwin
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
7.
Evolution
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Evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. Evolutionary processes give rise to biodiversity at every level of organisation, including the levels of species, individual organisms. In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 genes from the LUCA of all living on Earth. The fossil record includes a progression from early biogenic graphite, to microbial mat fossils, existing patterns of biodiversity have been shaped both by speciation and by extinction. More than 99 percent of all species that lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates of Earths current species range from 10 to 14 million, more recently, in May 2016, scientists reported that 1 trillion species are estimated to be on Earth currently with only one-thousandth of one percent described. In the mid-19th century, Charles Darwin formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection. This teleonomy is the quality whereby the process of natural selection creates and preserves traits that are fitted for the functional roles they perform. The processes by which the changes occur, from one generation to another, are called evolutionary processes or mechanisms, the four most widely recognized evolutionary processes are natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and gene migration. Natural selection and genetic drift sort variation, mutation and gene migration create variation, consequences of selection can include meiotic drive, nonrandom mating and genetic hitchhiking. In the early 20th century the modern evolutionary synthesis integrated classical genetics with Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection through the discipline of population genetics, the importance of natural selection as a cause of evolution was accepted into other branches of biology. Moreover, previously held notions about evolution, such as orthogenesis, evolutionism, evolutionary computation, a sub-field of artificial intelligence, involves the application of Darwinian principles to problems in computer science. The proposal that one type of organism could descend from another type goes back to some of the first pre-Socratic Greek philosophers, such as Anaximander, such proposals survived into Roman times. The poet and philosopher Lucretius followed Empedocles in his masterwork De rerum natura, in contrast to these materialistic views, Aristotelianism considered all natural things as actualisations of fixed natural possibilities, known as forms. This was part of a teleological understanding of nature in which all things have an intended role to play in a divine cosmic order. In the 17th century, the new method of modern science rejected the Aristotelian approach, however, this new approach was slow to take root in the biological sciences, the last bastion of the concept of fixed natural types. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 explicitly recognized the nature of species relationships. Other naturalists of this time speculated on the change of species over time according to natural laws
8.
Natural selection
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Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in heritable traits of a population over time, Charles Darwin popularised the term natural selection, and compared it with artificial selection. Variation exists within all populations of organisms and this occurs partly because random mutations arise in the genome of an individual organism, and offspring can inherit such mutations. Throughout the lives of the individuals, their genomes interact with their environments to cause variations in traits, the environment of a genome includes the molecular biology in the cell, other cells, other individuals, populations, species, as well as the abiotic environment. Individuals with certain variants of the trait may survive and reproduce more than individuals with other, less successful, variants, therefore, factors that affect reproductive success are also important, including sexual selection and fecundity selection. Over time, this process can result in populations that specialise for particular ecological niches, in other words, natural selection is a key process in the evolution of a population. Natural selection can be contrasted with artificial selection, in which humans intentionally choose specific traits, Natural selection is one of the cornerstones of modern biology. The concept of natural selection originally developed in the absence of a theory of heredity, at the time of Darwins writing. The union of traditional Darwinian evolution with subsequent discoveries in classical genetics formed the synthesis of the mid-20th century. The addition of molecular genetics has led to developmental biology. While genotypes can slowly change by random genetic drift, natural selection remains the primary explanation for adaptive evolution, empedocles idea that organisms arose entirely by the incidental workings of causes such as heat and cold was criticised by Aristotle in Book II of Physics. He posited natural teleology in its place, and believed that form was achieved for a purpose, nevertheless, he accepted in his biology that new types of animals, monstrosities, can occur in very rare instances. And in like manner as to the parts in which there appears to exist an adaptation to an end. Yet it is impossible that this should be the true view, for teeth and all other natural things either invariably or normally come about in a given way, but of not one of the results of chance or spontaneity is this true. We do not ascribe to chance or mere coincidence the frequency of rain in winter, but frequent rain in summer we do, nor heat in the dog-days, therefore action for an end is present in things which come to be and are by nature. The struggle for existence was later described by the Islamic writer Al-Jahiz in the 9th century, the classical arguments were reintroduced in the 18th century by Pierre Louis Maupertuis and others, including Darwins grandfather, Erasmus Darwin. Until the early 19th century, the view in Western societies was that differences between individuals of a species were uninteresting departures from their Platonic ideals of created kinds. However, the theory of uniformitarianism in geology promoted the idea that simple and this theory, Lamarckism, was an influence on the Soviet biologist Trofim Lysenkos antagonism to mainstream genetic theory as late as the mid 20th century
9.
Listed building
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A listed building or listed structure, in the United Kingdom, is one that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. The statutory bodies maintaining the list are Historic England in England, Cadw in Wales, Historic Scotland in Scotland, however, the preferred term in Ireland is protected structure. In England and Wales, an amenity society must be notified of any work to a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Owners of listed buildings are, in circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of the listing remain the same. It was the damage to caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. The listings were used as a means of determining whether a building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning Order 1972, the listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. In the UK, the process of protecting the historic environment is called ‘designation’. A heritage asset is a part of the environment that is valued because of its historic. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a consideration in the planning process. Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building, Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and these include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. Both Historic Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners, in England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state, this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed, full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural, the Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or delist the building. In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning Act 1990, Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England Heritage at Risk Register
10.
Charing Cross
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Charing Cross denotes the junction of Strand, Whitehall and Cockspur Street, just south of Trafalgar Square in central London. It gives its name to several landmarks, including Charing Cross railway station, Charing Cross is named after the Eleanor cross that stood on the site, in what was once the hamlet of Charing. The site of the cross has been occupied since 1675 by a statue of King Charles I. A loose Victorian replica of the cross, the Queen Eleanor Memorial Cross, was erected a short distance to the east outside the railway station. Until 1931, Charing Cross referred to the part of Whitehall between Great Scotland Yard and Trafalgar Square, at least one property retains a Charing Cross postal address, Drummonds Bank, on the corner of Whitehall and The Mall, which is designated 49 Charing Cross. Since the early 19th century, Charing Cross has often been regarded as the centre of London. Erect a rich and stately carved cross, Whereon her statue shall with glory shine, George Peele The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First The name of the area, Charing, is derived from the Old English word cierring, referring to a bend in the River Thames. Folk etymology suggests the name derives from chère reine — dear queen in French — and this wooden sculpted cross was the work of the medieval sculptor, Alexander of Abingdon. It was destroyed in 1647 on the orders of Parliament during the Civil War, a 70 ft -high stone sculpture in front of Charing Cross railway station is a copy of the original cross. Erected in 1865, it is situated a few hundred yards to the east of the original cross and it was designed by the architect E. M. Barry and carved by Thomas Earp of Lambeth out of Portland stone, Mansfield stone and Aberdeen granite. It is not a replica, being more ornate than the original. A variation on the name appears to be Charygcrouche, near St Martin in the Fields, since 1675 the site of the cross has been occupied by a statue of King Charles I mounted on a horse. The site is recognised by convention as the centre of London for the purpose of indicating distances by road in favour of other measurement points. Charing Cross is marked on maps as a road junction. Since 1 January 1931 this section of road has been designated part of the Whitehall thoroughfare, the cross has given its name to a railway station, a tube station, police station, hospital, a hotel, a theatre, and a music hall. Charing Cross Road the main route from the north was named after the railway station, at some time between 1232 and 1236, the Chapel and Hospital of St Mary Rounceval was founded at Charing. It occupied land at the corner of the modern Whitehall and into the centre of Northumberland Avenue and it was an Augustinian house, tied to a mother house at Roncesvalles in the Pyrenees. The house and lands were seized for the king in 1379, protracted legal action returned some rights to the prior, but in 1414, Henry V suppressed the alien houses
11.
Kent
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Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
12.
London Borough of Bromley
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The London Borough of Bromley /ˈbrɒmli/ is one of the 32 London boroughs which make up Greater London. The London Borough of Bromley is south of the River Thames which flows through London, the borough is named after Bromley, its principal town. The local authority is Bromley London Borough Council, the borough is the largest in Greater London by area and occupies 59 square miles, of which the majority is Metropolitan Green Belt land. It is also perhaps the most rural, most of the population lives in the north and west of the borough, with an outlier at Biggin Hill in the far south. The borough shares borders with the London Boroughs of Lewisham and Greenwich to the North, Bexley to the North East, Southwark and Lambeth to the North West, as well as Croydon to the West. It also borders the Sevenoaks District of Kent to the East and South, westerham Heights, the highest point in London at an altitude of 804 feet, is located on the southern boundary. The Prime Meridian passes through Bromley, about 30% of the land in Bromley is farmland, the highest figure of a London Borough. The borough was formed, as were all other London boroughs, in 1969, after a local campaign, the village of Knockholt was transferred back to Kent to become part of the Sevenoaks Rural District and later Sevenoaks District. Before 1965 it had part of the Orpington Urban District. The borough is partly urban and partly rural, the former to the north, other smaller suburban areas include Anerley and nearby Crystal Palace, and Penge. In addition, parts of Mottingham, Sydenham, Swanley and Ruxley lie within the borough boundaries, there are two main built-up areas in the southern part of the borough, Hayes and West Wickham. Biggin Hill, Downe and Keston with Leaves Green and Nash are separate, smaller, local attractions include Down House, Chislehurst Caves, Holwood House, Crofton Roman Villa, and the site of The Crystal Palace. Bromley is divided into 22 wards with a total of 60 council seats, after a number of by-elections and a defection, the Conservatives regained control on 5 July 2001. The 22 wards are shown on the accompanying map, ward names often straddle the named settlements and suburban areas above, their boundaries are fixed, whereas the latter are not. In 1801, the parishes that form the modern borough had a total population of 8,944. This rose slowly throughout the 19th century, as the district built up. When the railways arrived the rate of growth increased. The population peaked in the 1970s, when began to relocate from London
13.
Yeoman
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A yeoman /ˈjoʊmən/ was a member of a social class in late medieval to early modern England. A specialized meaning in naval terminology, petty officer in charge of supplies, the term is first recorded c. It may be a contraction of Old English iunge man, meaning young man, the Canons Yeomans Prologue and Tale appears in Geoffrey Chaucers Canterbury Tales, written between 1387 and 1400. During the late 14th to 18th centuries, yeomen were farmers who owned land and their wealth and the size of their landholding varied. Often it was hard to distinguish minor landed gentry from the wealthier yeomen, the Concise Oxford Dictionary states that a yeoman was a person qualified by possessing free land of 40/- annual value, and who can serve on juries and vote for a Knight of the Shire. He is sometimes described as a landowner, a farmer of the middle classes. The term had a sense as in the Yeomanry Cavalry of the late 18th century. The yeoman archer was unique to England and Wales, though Kentish Weald and Cheshire archers were noted for their skills, it appears that the bulk of the yeomanry was from the English and Welsh Marches. The original Yeomen of the Guard chartered in 1485 were most likely of Brittonic descent, including Welshmen and they were established by King Henry VII, himself a Briton who was exiled in Brittany during the Wars of the Roses. He recruited his forces mostly from Wales and the West Midlands of England on his journey to victory at Bosworth Field, Yeomen were often constables of their parish, and sometimes chief constables of the district, shire or hundred. Many yeomen held the positions of bailiffs for the High Sheriff or for the shire or hundred, other civic duties would include churchwarden, bridge warden, and other warden duties. It was also common for a yeoman to be an overseer for his parish, Yeomen, whether working for a lord, king, shire, knight, district or parish served in localised or municipal police forces raised by or led by the landed gentry. Some of these roles, in particular those of constable and bailiff were carried down through families, Yeomen often filled ranging, roaming, surveying, and policing roles. In Chaucers Friars Tale, a yeoman who is a bailiff of the forest who tricks the Summoner turns out to be the devil ready to grant wishes already made, the earlier class of franklins were similar to yeomen, wealthy peasant landowners, freeholders or village officials. They were typically village leaders, constables or mayors, Franklin militias were similar to later yeomanries. Yeomen took over roles in the 14th century as many of them became leaders, constables, sheriffs, justices of the peace, mayors. It was too much, for even ‘valets’ known as ‘yeoman archers’ were forbidden to be returned to parliament, the yeoman also comprised a military class or status. In the United States, yeomen were identified in the 18th and 19th centuries as non-slaveholding, small landowning, in Southern areas where land was poor, like East Tennessee, the landowning yeomen were typically subsistence farmers, but some managed to grow some crops for market
14.
Flint
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Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks, inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white or brown in colour, and often has a glassy or waxy appearance. A thin layer on the outside of the nodules is usually different in colour, typically white, from a petrological point of view, flint refers specifically to the form of chert which occurs in chalk or marly limestone. Similarly, common chert occurs in limestone, the exact mode of formation of flint is not yet clear but it is thought that it occurs as a result of chemical changes in compressed sedimentary rock formations, during the process of diagenesis. One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as bored by crustaceans or molluscs. This hypothesis certainly explains the shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the media could be the spicules of silicious sponges. Certain types of flint, such as that from the south coast of England, pieces of coral and vegetation have been found preserved like amber inside the flint. Thin slices of the stone often reveal this effect, puzzling giant flint formations known as paramoudra and flint circles are found around Europe but especially in Norfolk, England on the beaches at Beeston Bump and West Runton. Flint sometimes occurs in large flint fields in Jurassic or Cretaceous beds, flint was used in the manufacture of tools during the Stone Age as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades when struck by another hard object. This process is referred to as knapping, flint mining is attested since the Palaeolithic, but became more common since the Neolithic. When struck against steel, a flint edge will produce sparks, the hard flint edge shaves off a particle of the steel that exposes iron which reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere and can ignite the proper tinder. Prior to the availability of steel, rocks of pyrite would be used along with the flint. These methods are popular in woodcraft, bushcraft, and among those who wish to use traditional skills, a later, major use of flint and steel was in the flintlock mechanism, used primarily in flintlock firearms, but also used on dedicated fire-starting tools. The sparks ignite the powder and that flame, in turn, ignites the main charge, propelling the ball, bullet. While the military use of the flintlock declined after the adoption of the cap from the 1840s onward, flintlock rifles. Flint and steel used to strike sparks were superseded by ferrocerium and this man-made material, when scraped with any hard, sharp edge, produces sparks that are much hotter than obtained with natural flint and steel, allowing use of a wider range of tinders. Because it can produce sparks when wet and can start fires when used correctly, ferrocerium is used in many cigarette lighters, where it is referred to as flint
15.
West Peckham
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West Peckham is a village in the local government district of Tonbridge and Malling in Kent, England. The River Bourne flows through the extreme west of the parish, the Wateringbury Stream rises in the parish. Oxon Hoath is the manor house of West Peckham. The Domesday entry for East and West Peckham reads, - The Archbishop himself holds Pecheham, In the time of King Edward the Confessor it was taxed at six sulungs, the arable land is ten carucates. In demesne there are two, and sixteen villeins, with fourteen borderers, having four carucates and a half, there is a church, and ten servants, and one mill, and six acres of meadow. Wood for the pannage of six hogs, Richard de Tonebridge holds of the same favour two sulungs and one yoke, and has there twenty-seven villeins, having seven carucates, and wood for the pannage of ten hogs. The whole value being four pounds, in the time of King Edward the Confessor, the manor was worth twelve pounds, when the Archbishop received it eight pounds, and now what he has is worth eight pounds. You can find out more at the church website, john Culpeper built Oxon Hoath and established West Peckham Preceptory c1408. Joyce Culpeper was born at Oxon Hoath, sir Richard Watts noted philanthropist, merchant and MP for Rochester was probably born in West Peckham. Media related to West Peckham at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Hatton Garden
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Hatton Garden is a street and area in the Holborn district of the London Borough of Camden. It is noted as Londons jewellery quarter and centre of the UK diamond trade, the area surrounding Hatton Garden has been the centre of Londons jewellery trade since medieval times. The old City of London had streets, or quarters, dedicated to types of business, nearly 300 businesses in Hatton Garden are in the jewellery industry and over 55 shops represent the largest cluster of jewellery retailers in the UK. The largest of companies is De Beers, the international family of companies that dominate the international diamond trade. De Beers has its headquarters in a complex of offices and warehouses just behind the main Hatton Garden shopping street, the area also plays host to a large number of media, publishing and creative businesses, including Blinkbox and Grey Advertising. Hatton Garden has an extensive infrastructure of vaults, tunnels, offices. Hatton Garden was also the home to the invention of the machine gun, sir Hiram Maxim had a small factory at 57 Hatton Garden and in 1881 invented and started to produce the Maxim Gun, capable of firing 666 rounds a minute. A building with statues of charity school children is a chapel and parish school. In 1962, Lawrence Graff of Wittelsbach-Graff Diamond fame, opened the first retail jewellery store here, in July 1993 thieves stole £7 million worth of gems belonging to the jewellers Graff Diamonds - it was Londons biggest gem heist of modern times. In April 2015, a safe deposit facility in Hatton Garden area was burgled in the Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary. The total stolen may have had a value of up to £200m, Hatton Garden features in the 1967 childrens novel Smith by Leon Garfield, where the main character tries to elude two pursuers through the crumbling streets of 18th century Holborn. The Avengers, Season 2, Episode 10, Death on the Rocks, is set in the business in Hatton Garden. The diamond robbery in the film A Fish Called Wanda takes place in Hatton Garden, Hatton Garden Liberty List of eponymous roads in London
17.
Window tax
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The window tax was a property tax based on the number of windows in a house. It was a significant social, cultural, and architectural force in England, France, to avoid the tax some houses from the period can be seen to have bricked-up window-spaces. In England and Wales it was introduced in 1696 and was repealed in 1851,156 years after first being introduced, France and Scotland both had window taxes for similar reasons. In fact the first permanent British income tax was not introduced until 1842, and the issue remained intensely controversial well into the 20th century. When the window tax was introduced, it consisted of two parts, a house tax of 2 shillings per house, and a variable tax for the number of windows above ten windows in the house. Properties with between ten and twenty windows paid an extra four shillings, and those above twenty windows paid an extra eight shillings. In 1709 with the union of England and Scotland, taxes were harmonised, in 1747 the 2s flat rate was detached from the window tax as a tax in its own right and the way the window tax was calculated was altered. 6d was charged for each window in a house with 10-14, 9d for each window in a house with 15-19, in 1758 the flat rate charge was increased to 3s. The number of windows that incurred tax was changed to seven in 1766, the flat-rate tax was changed to a variable rate, dependent on the property value, in 1778. People who were exempt from paying church or poor rates, for reasons of poverty, were exempt from the window tax, window tax was relatively unintrusive and easy to assess. Manchester Royal Infirmary had to pay a tax of 1/9d per window on the windows of the occupied by staff of the infirmary in 1841 - a total of £1 9/9d. Certain rooms, particularly dairies, cheeserooms and milkhouses were exempt providing they were clearly labelled, the bigger the house, the more windows it was likely to have, and the more tax the occupants would pay. Nevertheless, the tax was unpopular, because it was seen by some as a tax on light, in Scotland, a window tax was imposed after 1748. A house had to have at least seven windows or a rent of at least £5 to be taxed, a similar tax existed in France from 1798 to 1926, Impôt sur les portes et fenêtres. There was a strong agitation in England in favour of the abolition of the tax during the winter of 1850–51, and it was repealed on 24 July 1851. The Scottish window tax was abolished at the same time. Brick tax Hearth tax Wallpaper tax Glass tax Workplace parking levy
18.
East India Company
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The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
19.
Bombay Army
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The Bombay Army was the army of the Bombay Presidency, one of the three presidencies of British India within the British Empire. In 1895 all three armies were merged into the Indian Army. In the early stages of HEIC rule Bombay was rated as a unhealthy, accordingly only a small garrison was maintained while emphasis was placed on creating a local navy to control piracy. In 1742 the Bombay Army consisted of eight companies of European and Eurasian garrison troops and these had evolved from independent companies dating back as far as 1668 when the Company took over control of the city of Bombay. By 1783 the Bombay Army had grown to 15,000 men, recruitment from the 1750s on had however been expanded to include a majority of indigenous sepoys, initially employed as irregulars for particular campaigns. The first two regular battalions were raised in 1768, a third in 1760 and a fourth ten years later. The non-Indian element was organized in a single Bombay European Regiment, in 1777 a marine battalion was created to serve on the HEIC warships based on the port of Bombay. In 1796 the Bombay Native Infantry was reorganized into four regiments, the Bombay Foot Artillery, which traced its history back nearly 50 years prior to this date, was brought up to six companies in strength in 1797. The Bombay Army was heavily involved in the First Maratha War, the Bombay native infantry establishment continued to expand until it reached 26 regiments in 1845. Three Bombay Light Cavalry regiments were raised after 1817, plus a few troops of irregular horse, one brigade of Bombay Horse Artillery comprising both British and Indian personnel had been established by 1845, plus three battalions of foot artillery. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was almost entirely confined to the Bengal Army, of the thirty-two Bombay infantry regiments in existence at the time only two mutinied. Some Bombay units saw service during the repression of the rebellion in Central India. Following the transfer of HEIC rule to that of the British government in 1861 the Bombay Army underwent a series of changes and these included the disbandment of three regiments of Bombay Native Infantry and the recruitment of replacement units from the Beluchi population. Originally created as units, the three Belooch regiments in their red trousers were to remain a conspicuous part of the Bombay Army for the remainder of its separate existence. During the remainder of the 19th century Bombay Army units participated in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia, the Second Afghan War of 1878-80, in 1895 the three separate Presidency Armies were abolished and the Army of India was divided into four commands, each commanded by a lieutenant-general. These comprised Madras, Punjab, Bengal and Bombay, prestigious units of the Bombay Army include the 1st Bombay Grenadiers raised in 1784 from grenadier companies of existing regiments, and the Maratha Light Infantry. Belasis Commanding Major-General R. Jones Commanding Lieutenant-General John Abercromby Major-General W. Wilkinson Commanding Major-General C, the Victorians at War, 1815-1914, An Encyclopedia of British Military History. Presidency armies Bengal Army Madras Army
20.
Lake Erie
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Lake Erie is the fourth-largest lake of the five Great Lakes in North America, and the thirteenth-largest globally if measured in terms of surface area. It is the southernmost, shallowest, and smallest by volume of the Great Lakes, at its deepest point Lake Erie is 210 feet deep. Lake Eries northern shore is bounded by the Canadian province of Ontario, with the U. S. states of Ohio, Pennsylvania and these jurisdictions divide the surface area of the lake by water boundaries. The lake was named by the Erie people, a Native Americans people who lived along its southern shore and that Iroquoian tribe called it Erige because of its unpredictable and sometimes violently dangerous nature. It is a matter of whether the lake was named after the tribe. Situated below Lake Huron, Eries primary inlet is the Detroit River, Lake Erie has a mean elevation of 571 feet above sea level. It has an area of 9,990 square miles with a length of 241 statute miles. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the 85 °F limit necessary to keep the plants cool, also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first to freeze in the winter. The waves build very quickly, according to other accounts, after being trapped for an hour-and-a-half, Baker was back on dry land, exhausted and battered but alive. This area is known as the thunderstorm capital of Canada with breathtaking lightning displays. Lake Erie is primarily fed by the Detroit River and drains via the Niagara River, navigation downstream is provided by the Welland Canal, part of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Other major contributors to Lake Erie include the Grand River, the Huron River, the Maumee River, the Sandusky River, the Buffalo River, the drainage basin covers 30,140 square miles. Point Pelee National Park, the southernmost point of the Canadian mainland, is located on a peninsula extending into the lake. Several islands are found in the end of the lake, these belong to Ohio except for Pelee Island and eight neighboring islands. Major cities along Lake Erie include Buffalo, Erie, Pennsylvania, Toledo, Ohio, Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number. The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear red hats and are prone to break off cartwheels in the park. Pelee Island is the largest of Eries islands, accessible by ferry from Leamington, Ontario and Sandusky, songbirds migrate to Pelee in spring, and monarch butterflies stop over during the fall. Lake Erie has a retention time of 2.6 years
21.
Dunnville, Ontario
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Dunnville is an unincorporated community located near the mouth of the Grand River in Haldimand County, Ontario, Canada, near the historic Talbot Trail. It was formerly a town encompassing the surrounding area with a total population of 12,000. Dunnville was the site of a Cayuga settlement called Detgahnegahagó, wah, the European settlement was originally built as the entrance to the Welland feeder canal and the town once boasted several water-powered mills and a once-bustling canal port. The feeder canal closed in the late 1880s and the last mill was destroyed and replaced with a complex about ten years ago. There is a dam at Dunnville which regulates the level of the Grand River at Port Maitland which, in the 19th century. Dunnville was incorporated as a village in 1860 and then as a town in 1900, in 1974, the town amalgamated with the townships of Dunn, Canborough, Moulton and Sherbrooke when the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk was formed. In 2001, Dunnville and all municipalities within the region were dissolved. What was the town of Dunnville now consists of Wards 5 and 6 in Haldimand County. Only a few kilometres from Lake Erie, Dunnville has many private vacation properties, there are many events and natural attractions. In June the annual Mudcat Festival is held to one of the Grand Rivers most well-known inhabitants. The festival includes a parade, strongman contests, midway, another popular event is the Dunnville Agricultural Fair, held in late August which includes heavy, light and miniature horse shows, sheep and goat shows. Dunnville has tennis, golf, lawn bowling and swimming facilities and many Bed & Breakfasts, tuesday and Saturday are Farmers Market days. The former World War II RCAF Training Base, the Dunnville Airport, offers a window on history with its massive hangars. Previously used for flying and skydiving, the runways now boast six large wind-turbine power generators. The airport is home to Haldimand Countys newest museum, the No.6 RCAF Dunnville Museum. The Grand River and nearby Lake Erie offers aquatic activities including swimming, sailing, wind-surfing, canoeing, nearby are Byng Island Conservation Area, Rock Point Provincial Park, and Port Maitlands new pier. In the fall, Rock Point hosts thousands of monarch butterflies heading south, Dunnville is also the site of one of the largest expanses of provincially significant wetlands in Ontario, bird watching and nature photography are practised there. Smuckers Foods of Canada Co. which operates the Bicks Pickle Plant, provides employment for a percentage of the towns population
22.
Emma Darwin
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Emma Darwin was an English woman who was the wife and first cousin of Charles Darwin. They were married on 29 January 1839 and were the parents of ten children and she was born at the family estate of Maer Hall in Maer, Staffordshire, the youngest of seven children of Josiah Wedgwood II and his wife Elizabeth Bessie. Her grandfather Josiah Wedgwood had made his fortune in pottery, and like others who were not part of the aristocracy they were nonconformist. Charles Darwin was her first cousin, their grandparents were Josiah and Sarah Wedgwood. She was close to her sister Fanny, the two being known by the family as the Doveleys, and was charming and messy, accounting for her nickname, the Wedgwoods visited Paris for six months in 1818. Though Emma was only 10 at the time, the strangeness, Emma was by then one of the show performers on the piano, to the extent that on one occasion she was invited along to play for George IVs Mrs Fitzherbert. After this time, Emma was taught by her sisters as well as tutors in some subjects. For the rest of her life Emma continued to be a fine pianist and she had piano lessons from Moscheles, and allegedly two or three from Chopin. She was keen on sports and became a Dragoness at archery. At Maer on 31 August 1831 she was with her family when they helped Charles Darwin to overturn his fathers objections to letting Charles go on a voyage on the Beagle. When Charles returned and was quick to visit Maer, she joined in the interest in his travels and she accepted Charles marriage proposal on 11 November 1838 at the age of 30, and they were married on 29 January 1839 at St. Peters Anglican Church in Maer. Their cousin, the Reverend John Allen Wedgwood, officiated, the village was later renamed Downe. Emma Darwin is especially remembered for her patience and fortitude in dealing with her husbands long-term illness and she also nursed her children through frequent illnesses, and endured the deaths of three of them, Anne, Mary, and Charles Waring. Emmas religious beliefs were founded on Unitarianism which emphasizes inner feeling over the authority of texts or doctrine. Her views were not simple and unwavering, and were the result of intensive study, following their marriage, they shared discussions about Christianity for several years. She valued his openness, and his uncertainty regarding the existence and nature of God. This may have been a bond between them, without resolving the tensions between their views. By early 1837 Charles Darwin was already speculating on transmutation of species, having decided to marry, he visited Emma on 29 July 1838 and told her of his ideas on transmutation
23.
William Erasmus Darwin
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William Erasmus Darwin was the first-born son of Charles and Emma Darwin, and the subject of psychological studies by his father. He was educated at Rugby School and Christs College Cambridge, and later became a banker at Grant, in 1877 he married an American, Sara Price Ashburner Sedgwick. William was a believer in university education being available to all. The Darwins had no children of their own, and after his wife died, William devoted himself much to his nieces Gwen Raverat, Frances Cornford, William died on 8 September 1914 at Sedbergh in Cumbria. Raverat remembered him fondly as an eccentric and entirely unselfconscious man in her childhood memoirs Period Piece, there is a story about him at my grandfathers funeral at Westminster Abbey. William is primarily notable as a subject of Charles Darwins studies of infant psychology, Darwin was very fond of his son, at his birth he called him a prodigy of beauty & intellect, and named him after his own grandfather Erasmus Darwin. During Williams first three years his father kept a diary of gestures and facial expressions the infant made, the studies were part of Darwins comparison between animal and human development, after he had already thoroughly studied orangutan babies at the London Zoo. He also noticed the development of more profound personality traits, such as reason and, at two-and-a-half years, Charles Darwin published his findings in the journal Mind in June 1877, in an article titled A biographical sketch of an infant. The studies were also an influence behind his work The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, William was a keen amateur photographer, and took several portraits of members of his family. William Darwin and his wife are buried in St. Nicolas Church, North Stoneham, Hampshire, having lived in Bassett, near Southampton, William Erasmus Darwin at Find a Grave
24.
Anne Darwin
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Anne Elizabeth Annie Darwin was the second child and eldest daughter of Charles and Emma Darwin. According to biographers, she was a child who brought much happiness to her parents. Eminent Darwin scholar E. Janet Browne writes of her, Anne was, the apple of her proud fathers eye, his favourite child, he confessed to Fox. In 1849, Anne caught scarlet fever along with her two sisters, and her health declined, some authorities believe that she suffered from tuberculosis. In vain pursuit of help from Gullys water cure, Charles Darwin took his daughter to the Worcestershire spa town and she died in Montreal House on the Worcester Road, aged ten, and was buried in the Great Malvern Priory churchyard. Annies death was a blow for her parents. Charles wrote in a personal memoir We have lost the joy of the household, oh that she could now know how deeply, how tenderly we do still & and shall ever love her dear joyous face. The loss of Charles Darwins beloved daughter was only softened by the addition of Horace Darwin, around 2000, Charles Darwins great-great-grandson Randal Keynes discovered a box containing keepsakes of Anne collected by Charles and Emma. He wrote a biography of Charles Darwin centered on the relationship between Darwin and his daughter, entitled Annies Box, the script of the 2009 film Creation is based on the book, Annies Box, Charles Darwin, His Daughter, and Human Evolution. Anne Darwin at Find a Grave
25.
Robert Darwin
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Robert Waring Darwin FRS was an English medical doctor, who today is best known as the father of the naturalist Charles Darwin. He was a member of the influential Darwin-Wedgwood family, Darwin was born in Lichfield, the son of Erasmus Darwin and his first wife, Mary Howard. He was named after his uncle, Robert Waring Darwin of Elston and his mother died in 1770 and Mary Parker, the governess hired to look after him, became his fathers mistress and bore Erasmus two illegitimate daughters. In 1783 Darwin began his studies of medicine at the University of Edinburgh and his father then sent him to the Leiden University in the Netherlands for a few months, and he took his MD there on 26 February 1785. His Leyden dissertation was impressive and was published in the Philosophical Transactions, in Edinburgh Robert Darwin had studied under several leading scholars, including John Walker. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 21 February 1788, in 1787, when he was still under 20 years old, Darwin set up practice in Shrewsbury, the county town of Shropshire. Darwin was called in, and as the apothecary would give no information, had to decide on treatment himself and she died, and there was a controversy about which doctor was to blame. Darwin hastily published a pamphlet showing that the doctor had been treating her for a disease which she did not have, and while his reputation was gained. After only six months, Darwin already had between forty and fifty patients, and within two years had a large practice, for two or three years he lived on St. Johns Hill, then moved to The Crescent. For years afterwards Darwin, regretting the hasty way the pamphlet had been written, bought up all copies, with small inheritances from his mother and an aunt, Darwin invested in housing, buying the freehold of several buildings in Shrewsbury and getting income from rents. He became a stockholder in the Trent and Mersey Canal. Erasmus Darwin reached an understanding with his close friend Josiah Wedgwood that his son Robert would marry Wedgwoods favourite daughter, Susannah, Josiah died in January 1795, leaving £25,000 to Susannah. By then Robert Darwin was well established, and they married on 18 April 1796 and their first child, Marianne, was born at The Crescent. Robert Darwin purchased land overlooking the River Severn and had a large house built there around 1800 which was named The Mount, Shrewsbury. He took great pleasure in the garden, and had it planted out with ornamental trees. A large man of 62, he reportedly stopped weighing himself when he weighed 24 stone and he required his coachman to test the floorboards of houses he was visiting, and had to have special stone steps made for him to enter his carriage. He held his experience in Edinburgh in such regard that he sent his son Charles to study there. He at first refused to let his son join the voyage of HMS Beagle
26.
Windsor, Berkshire
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Windsor is a historic market town and unparished area in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. It is widely known as the site of Windsor Castle, one of the residences of the British Royal Family. The town is situated 23 miles west of Charing Cross, London,7 miles south east of Maidenhead and it is immediately south of the River Thames, which forms its boundary with its ancient twin town of Eton. Windlesora is first mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the name originates from old English Windles-ore or winch by the riverside. By the late 12th century the settlement at Windelsora was renamed Old Windsor, the early history of the site is unknown, although it was almost certainly settled some years before 1070 when William the Conqueror had a timber motte and bailey castle constructed. The focus of royal interest at that time was not the castle, however, from about the 8th century, high status people started to visit the site occasionally, and possibly this included royalty. From the 11th century the sites link with king Edward the Confessor is documented, after the Conquest of 1066 royal use of the site increased, probably because it offered good access to woodlands and opportunities for hunting – a sport which also practised military skills. Windsor Castle is noted in the Domesday Book under the entry for Clewer, although this might seem strange, it occurred because plans for the castle had changed since 1070, and more land had been acquired in Clewer on which to site a castle town. This plan was not actioned until the early 12th century, King Henry married his second wife at Windsor Castle in 1121, after the White Ship disaster. The settlement at Old Windsor largely transferred to New Windsor during the 12th century,1170, under Henry II, following the civil war of Stephens reign. At about the time, the present upper ward of the castle was rebuilt in stone. It had a merchant guild from the early 13th century and, under patronage, was made the chief town of the county in 1277. Somewhat unusually, this gave no new rights or privileges to Windsor. Windsors position as town of Berkshire was short-lived, however. Wallingford took over this position in the early 14th century, as a self-governing town Windsor enjoyed a number of freedoms unavailable to other towns, including the right to hold its own borough court, the right of membership and some financial independence. The town accounts of the 16th century survive in part, although most of the once substantial borough archive dating back to the 12th century was destroyed, probably in the late 17th century. New Windsor was a significant town in the Middle Ages. Its prosperity came from its association with the royal household
27.
Chobham, Surrey
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Chobham is a village and civil parish in the Borough of Surrey Heath in Surrey, England. The village has a high street area, specialising in traditional trades. The River Bourne and its tributary, the Hale, Mill Bourne or Windle Brook run through the village. Chobham lost a large minority of its land to West End, in 1968, Chobham has a wide range of outlying businesses, particularly plant growing and selling businesses, science/technology and restaurants. Chobham has no railway line, it is midway between London-terminating services at Woking and Sunningdale, just under 5 miles away. The village lay within the Godley hundred, a Saxon administrative area and its Domesday assets were,10 hides,1 church,1 chapel,16 ploughs,10 acres of meadow, woodland worth 130 hogs. It rendered £15 10s 0d per year, chabbeham is the version written in Chertsey Charter, and Chabham was the version recorded in the 13th century Patent Rolls. St Lawrence Church is on the High Street and its earliest parts date from about 1080 although there may have been an earlier church on the site. It is dedicated to St Lawrence, who was martyred in Rome in 258, until the 19th century almost entirely surrounded by Chobham Common, which was heathland of little agricultural value compared to its central fertile belt, the village was isolated. During mediaeval times, Chobham remained part of the Chertsey Abbey estates, as across the whole hundred which he dominated, the power of the Abbot of Chertsey was considerable. Thus Chobham remained largely undeveloped during the Industrial Revolution and 20th century meanwhile Woking has grown into a town on the South West Main Line. In the 19th century peat was cut from the all around the village. However, some expansion in building and a modest amount of farming resulted from the presence of two lines of baronets, the Abdy baronets and Le Marchant baronets. The buildings and estate no longer survive. The land was inclosed by a pale, whence it was called a park, and is marked as such in Norden and Speeds map of 1610. This grant was confirmed by Queen Elizabeth, but as Heath was later deprived for refusing the statutory oaths, the former archbishop continued, however, to reside when his nephew Thomas forfeited his new lands in 1588. Later they were restored, and in 1606 sold to Francis Leigh, the Cope, Hale and Henn families held the lands until 1681. The Martin and Crawley families held them until the time when Mr Revel, in 1758, his daughter and heiress married Sir George Warren, and in 1777 their daughter married Thomas Bulkeley, 7th Viscount Bulkeley. The latter died in 1822, leaving the land to Sir Richard Williams-Bulkeley, 10th Baronet, after which now reduced in area, it was acquired by the Le Marchant baronets
28.
Drawing room
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A drawing room is a room in a house where visitors may be entertained. The name is derived from the sixteenth-century terms withdrawing room and withdrawing chamber, which remained in use through the seventeenth century and it was often off the great chamber and usually led to a formal, or state bedroom. During the American Civil War, in the White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, Virginia, president Jefferson Davis greeted his guests. At the conclusion of these greetings, the men remained in the parlor to talk politics and this was common practice in the affluent circles of the Southern United States. If a Morning-room be not provided, it is properly the only Sitting-room of the family, in it in any case the ladies receive calls throughout the day, and the family and their guests assemble before dinner. After dinner the ladies withdraw to it, and are joined by the gentlemen for the evening and it is also the Reception-room for evening parties. In size, a small Drawing-room will be about 16 feet wide by from 18 to 20 feet long,18 by 24 feet is a size,20 by 30 to 26 by 40 is enough for a very superior apartment. Until the mid-twentieth century, after a dinner the ladies of a dinner party withdrew to the room, leaving the gentlemen at table. After an interval of conversation, the gentlemen rejoined the ladies in the drawing room and this term is still widely used in India and Pakistan, probably dating from the colonial days, in the larger urban houses of the cities where there are many rooms. The term parlour initially designated the more modest reception rooms of the middle classes, parlor remained the common usage in North America into the 20th century. An example, named as such, was a Midland Drawing Room Car in 1874 which was a Pullman Import from the USA, in North America, it meant a room which slept three or more persons, with a private washroom. The drawing room, being a room in the house to visitors, gave its name to drawing room plays. Beginning with the forms of drama, the drawing room play has evolved to encompass comedy as well as to include the forms of the dramatic monologue. The play format itself has grown out of the traditional drawing room performance and back into main street theater. While the drawing room itself has fallen out of favor, the format has continued to provide a source of entertainment. Drawing room comedy typically features wit and verbal banter among wealthy, leisured, genteel, Drawing room comedy is also sometimes called the comedy of manners. Oscar Wildes The Importance of Being Earnest and several of the plays of Noël Coward are typical works of the genre, george Bernard Shaws Heartbreak House adds an undercurrent of social criticism to the genre. Cary Grant appeared in a number of filmed drawing-room comedies, ernst Lubitsch was especially known as a director of drawing-room comedies
29.
Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
30.
Erasmus Alvey Darwin
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See also Darwin — Wedgwood family. He was a member of the semi-secretive Cambridge Apostles society, a debating club largely reserved for the brightest students and he attended Shrewsbury School 1815–1822 as a boarder, and as a frail and studious boy his interest was in books and plants rather than friends. His mother died in 1817 and he was joined at the school by his brother Charles in September 1818, Eras became bored with the classical curriculum and took an interest in chemistry, with Charles as his assistant. They had a shed at their home fitted out as a laboratory. In 1822 Eras went on to a course at Christs College, Cambridge where he studied Chemistry under Professor James Cumming. When it came to be time for his external hospital study in 1825 he went to Edinburgh University. At the end of his hospital study year Erasmus enrolled in a London anatomy school and that summer he went on a Continental tour to Munich, Milan and Vienna, and on his return home during the Christmas holiday he and Charles visited London, touring the scientific institutions. Eras was very agreeable to retiring at the age of 26, the brothers visited the Birmingham Music Festival for what Charles described as the most glorious experience. The departure was delayed, and Erasmus visited Plymouth for a few days to be shown round HMS Beagle by Charles and he was still on board on the morning of 10 December to say his farewells just before she set out. The Wedgwoods had a baby, ending his junkitting at her house and their father was concerned that her radicalism made her unsuitable as a daughter-in-law, and possibly a bad influence on his boys. Charles wrote that Erasmus is just returned from driving out Miss Martineau. — Our only protection from so admirable a sister-in-law is in her working him too hard, I much doubt whether it will be equality in practice. We must pray for our poor nigger, in December Charles called on Martineau and remarked that She was very agreeable and managed to talk on a most wonderful number of subjects, considering the limited time. I was astonished to find how little ugly she is, but as it appears to me, she is overwhelmed with her own projects, her own thoughts, Erasmus palliated all this, by maintaining one ought not to look at her as a woman. Radical and dissenting heterodoxy was the norm, in the Spring of 1837 Charles moved to nearby lodgings where he could readily visit and attend Erass dinner parties. In April 1838 Charles told his older sister Susan that he had seen the rhinoceros in the zoo let out for the first time that spring, kicking & rearing and galloping for joy. Before marrying at the start of 1839 Charles moved to Gower Street, London, in the summer of that year Martineaus health broke down during a visit to the Continent and, fearing a tumour she retired to solitary lodgings in Tynemouth near her brother. She and Erasmus remained on good terms, writing to each other, Erasmuss social circle drifted apart, while sticks to his opium with many groans. While Charles Darwins illness made him increasingly reclusive after his move to Downe, he would still visit Erasmus as one of his relatives, one such occasion was the Great Exhibition in 1851 when the family came to London and stayed with Uncle Ras
31.
Verandah
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A veranda or verandah is a roofed, open-air gallery or porch. A veranda is often enclosed by a railing and frequently extends across the front. Although the form verandah is correct and very common, some prefer the version without an h. The veranda has featured prominently in Australian vernacular architecture and first became widespread in colonial buildings during the 1850s. The Victorian Filigree architecture style is used by residential and commercial buildings across Australia and features decorative screens of wrought iron, the Queenslander is a style of residential construction in Queensland, Australia, which is adapted to subtropical climates and characterized by its large verandas. The bandeirista style house from Brazil typically has a veranda positioned to face the sunrise, the Creole townhouse in New Orleans, Louisiana, is also noted for its prominent use of verandas. In fact, most houses constructed in the Southern United States before the advent of air conditioning were built with a front porch or veranda. Spanish Colonial architecture commonly incorporates verandas, both on the exterior of buildings and, in cases of buildings with courtyards, along the walls of courtyards. In some cases, homes were constructed with every room opening into a courtyard veranda, rather than interior corridors or direct connections to other rooms
32.
Etty Darwin
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Henrietta Emma Litchfield was a daughter of Charles Darwin and his wife Emma Wedgwood. Henrietta was born at Down House, Downe, Kent, in 1843 and she was Darwins third daughter and the eldest daughter to reach adulthood after the eldest, Annie, died aged 10, and a second daughter, Mary, died before she was a month old. She and her brother Frank helped their father with his work, on 31 August 1871, she married Richard Buckley Litchfield, who was born in Yarpole, near Leominster, in 1832, the couple had no children. She was widowed on 11 January 1903, when Richard died in Cannes, France, he was buried in the English Cemetery, Cannes. Henrietta edited Charles Darwins biography of his grandfather Erasmus Darwin, The Life of Erasmus Darwin and she also edited her mothers private papers. She responded to the Lady Hope Story that her father had undergone a conversion by writing an article in The Christian in 1922 saying it no foundation whatsoever. She died in Burrows Hill, Gomshall, Surrey, aged 84, an obituary was in The Times She is buried in St Mary the Virgin Churchyard, Downe, Kent. VIAF,63973551 VIAF,89160341 Henrietta Litchfield at Find a Grave Henrietta Litchfield at Find a Grave Period Piece, A Cambridge Childhood – an autobiographical work by Gwen Raverat
33.
George Darwin
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Sir George Howard Darwin KCB FRS FRSE was an English barrister, eugenicist, astronomer, and mathematician. George Darwin was born at Down House, Kent, the son and fifth child of Charles Darwin. He graduated as second wrangler in 1868, when he was placed second for the Smiths Prize and was appointed to a college fellowship. He earned his M. A. in 1871 and he was admitted to the bar in 1872, but returned to science. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1879 and won their Royal Medal in 1884 and he delivered their Bakerian Lecture in 1891 on the subject of tidal prediction. In 1883 Darwin became Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at the University of Cambridge and he studied tidal forces involving the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and formulated the fission theory of Moon formation. Darwin was a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society and won the Gold Medal of the RAS in 1892, from 1899–1901 he served as President of the RAS. The RAS founded a prize lectureship in 1984 and named it the George Darwin Lectureship in Darwins honour and he was an invited speaker in the International Congress of Mathematicians 1908, Rome on the topic of Mechanics, Physical Mathematics, Astronomy. As President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, he gave the Introductory Address to the Congress in 1912 on the character of pure. George and Maud Darwin bought Newnham Grange, Cambridge in 1885, the Darwins extensively remodelled the house. Since 1962 the Grange has been part of Darwin College, Cambridge, Darwin married Martha du Puy, the daughter of Charles du Puy of Philadelphia, in 1884, his wife was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, with 11 other members. She died on 6 February 1947 and they had three sons and two daughters, Gwen Raverat, artist. Sir Charles Galton Darwin, physicist and applied mathematics, margaret Elizabeth Darwin, married Sir Geoffrey Keynes. William Robert Darwin Leonard Darwin Tides, Scientific papers, Figures of equilibrium of rotating liquid and geophysical investigations. Scientific papers, Periodic orbits and miscellaneous papers, Scientific papers Supplementary volume, containing biographical memoirs by Sir Francis Darwin and Professor E. W. Brown, lectures on Hills lunar theory, etc. The Scientific Papers of Sir George Darwin, Cambridge University Press On Beneficial Restrictions to Liberty of Marriage, The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXII, June/November 1873. Commodities Versus Labour, The Contemporary Review, Vol. XXII, the Birth of a Satellite Harpers Monthly Magazine, December 1903, pages 124 to 130. George Howard Darwin at the Mathematics Genealogy Project The Genesis of Double Stars – by George Darwin, from A. C. Sewards Darwin, archival material relating to George Darwin
34.
Francis Darwin
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Sir Francis Frank Darwin, FLS FRS, FRSE LLD, was a son of the British naturalist and scientist Charles Darwin. He, like his father, was a botanist and he was a brother of George Howard Darwin, Horace Darwin, and Leonard Darwin. Francis Darwin was born in Down House, Downe, Kent in 1848 and he was the third son and seventh child of Charles Darwin and his wife Emma Wedgwood. He was educated at Clapham Grammar School and he then went to Trinity College, Cambridge, first studying mathematics, then changing to natural sciences, graduating in 1870. He then went to study medicine at St Georges Medical School, London, earning an MB in 1875, Darwin was married three times and widowed twice. First he married Amy Richenda Ruck in 1874, but she died in 1876 four days after the birth of their son Bernard Darwin, who was later to become a golf writer. In September 1883 he married Ellen Wordsworth Crofts and they had a daughter Frances Crofts Darwin and his third wife was Florence Henrietta Fisher, daughter of Herbert William Fisher and widow of Frederic William Maitland, whom he married in 1913, the year in which he was knighted. Her sister Adeline Fisher was the first wife of Darwins second cousin once removed Ralph Vaughan Williams, Francis Darwin worked with his father on experiments dealing with plant movements, specifically phototropism and they co-authored The Power of Movement in Plants. Their experiments showed that the coleoptile of a young grass seedling directs its growth toward the light by comparing the responses of seedlings with covered and uncovered coleoptiles and these observations would later lead to the discovery of auxin. Darwin was nominated by his father to the Linnean Society of London in 1875 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 8 June 1882, the same year in which his father died. He also edited Thomas Huxleys On the Reception of the Origin of Species, Cambridge University awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1909. He also received doctorates from Dublin, Liverpool, Sheffield, Brussels, St Andrews, Upsala. He is buried at in Cambridge and his daughter, Frances Cornford, was later buried with him. His first wife, Amy Ruck, died in 1876 and was buried in Holy Trinity Church, Corris, according to a letter written by Charles Darwin to his close friend, Joseph Dalton Hooker, I never saw anyone suffer so much as poor Frank. Wales to bury the body in a little church-yard amongst the mountains and he married his second wife, Ellen Wordsworth Crofts, in 1883. She was a Fellow and lecturer at Newnham College and she was a member of the Ladies Dining Society in Cambridge, together with 11 other members. She died in 1903, and is buried in St. Andrews Churchs churchyard, in 1913, he married his third wife, Lady Florence Henrietta Darwin, the widow of Frederic William Maitland, née Fisher. She died in 1920 and is interred in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground, Cambridge, opposite the grave of Sir Francis Darwin, Charles Darwin, vol.2 The Power of Place
35.
Leonard Darwin
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Leonard Darwin was born in 1850 in Down House in Kent, England into the wealthy Darwin-Wedgwood family. He was the son and eighth child of the naturalist Charles Darwin and his wife Emma. He considered himself the least intelligent of their children and he was sent to Clapham School in 1862. Darwin joined the Royal Engineers in 1871, between 1877 and 1882 he worked for the Intelligence Division of the Ministry of War. He went on several expeditions, including those to observe the Transits of Venus in 1874 and 1882. He wrote vigorously on the issues of the day, bimetallism, Indian currency reform. Darwin married Elizabeth Frances Fraser on 11 July 1882, but she died on 13 January 1898 and was buried in Putney and their shared ancestor was Josiah Wedgwood II. Charlotte Mildred Massingberds paternal grandfather, Charles Langton, married Charles Darwins sister Emily Catherine Darwin, since Charles Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were cousins, Charlotte Mildred Massingberd was also a second cousin on his fathers side. Leonard Darwin had no children from either marriage, President of the Royal Geographical Society from 1908 to 1911, he was then Chairman of the British Eugenics Society in 1911–28, and became Honorary President from 1928 until his death. In 1912 the University of Cambridge conferred on him a doctorate of science. Darwin played an important part in the life of the geneticist and statistician Ronald Fisher, supporting him intellectually, morally, an example came later in 1929. Some years before Fisher had resigned from the Royal Statistical Society after a disagreement, Darwin regretted the development and engineered Fishers re-entry by making him the gift of a life-time subscription to the society. Fishers 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection is dedicated to Darwin, after Darwins death in 1943 at the age of 93, Fisher wrote to Darwins niece, Margaret Keynes, My very dear friend Leonard Darwin. was surely the kindest and wisest man I ever knew. Leonard was the last surviving and the longest lived of Charles Darwins ten children and he and his second wife were buried at Forest Row Cemetery, Forest Row, East Sussex. The Need for Eugenic Reform What is Eugenics, a. W. F. Edwards, Darwin, Leonard, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,2004. The editors introduction to the volume of Darwin-Fisher correspondence has a sketch of Darwins life, two of Darwins nieces, daughters of George Howard Darwin, described their uncle. Gwen Raverat wrote about Uncle Lennie in Period Piece, A Cambridge Childhood Margaret Keynes, wife of Geoffrey Keynes and this was preceded by an account of Darwins economic writings by the editor of the journal, Margarets brother-in law, John Maynard Keynes. Darwin expressed his feelings about Keynes in a letter to Fisher, I neither like him nor trust him
36.
Horace Darwin
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Sir Horace Darwin, KBE, FRS, a son of the English naturalist Charles Darwin, was a civil engineer and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Darwin was born in Down House in 1851, the son and ninth child of the British naturalist Charles Darwin and his wife Emma. He was educated at a school in Woodbridge, Suffolk, and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He founded the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company in 1885 and was Mayor of Cambridge between 1896 and 1897 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1903. Ruth Frances Darwin, married Dr William Rees-Thomas, was an advocate of eugenics. Emma Nora Darwin edited the 1959 edition of The Autobiography of Charles Darwin and his family home, the Orchard, in Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, is now the site of Murray Edwards College. He is buried at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge with his wife, Lady Ida Darwin and his other brother Sir George Darwin is buried in the Trumpington Extension Cemetery, Cambridge. Horace Darwin at Find a Grave Darwin Correspondence database
37.
Charles Waring Darwin (infant)
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Charles Robert Darwin, FRS FRGS FLS FZS was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution. Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, by the 1870s, the scientific community and much of the general public had accepted evolution as a fact. In modified form, Darwins scientific discovery is the theory of the life sciences. Darwins early interest in nature led him to neglect his education at the University of Edinburgh, instead. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion for natural science, puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and in 1838 conceived his theory of natural selection. Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research and he was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting immediate joint publication of both of their theories. Darwins work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature, in 1871 he examined human evolution and sexual selection in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, followed by The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. His research on plants was published in a series of books, Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, and he was honoured by burial in Westminster Abbey. Charles Robert Darwin was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his familys home and he was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier Robert Darwin and Susannah Darwin. He was the grandson of two prominent abolitionists, Erasmus Darwin on his fathers side, and Josiah Wedgwood on his mothers side, both families were largely Unitarian, though the Wedgwoods were adopting Anglicanism. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. From September 1818, he joined his older brother Erasmus attending the nearby Anglican Shrewsbury School as a boarder and he found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so neglected his studies. He learned taxidermy in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from John Edmonstone, one day, Grant praised Lamarcks evolutionary ideas. Darwin was astonished by Grants audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus journals, Darwin was rather bored by Robert Jamesons natural-history course, which covered geology - including the debate between Neptunism and Plutonism. He learned the classification of plants, and assisted with work on the collections of the University Museum, as Darwin was unqualified for the Tripos, he joined the ordinary degree course in January 1828. He preferred riding and shooting to studying, when his own exams drew near, Darwin focused on his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of William Paleys Evidences of Christianity. In his final examination in January 1831 Darwin did well, coming out of 178 candidates for the ordinary degree. Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831, inspired with a burning zeal to contribute, Darwin planned to visit Tenerife with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics
38.
John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury
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John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury PC FRS, known as Sir John Lubbock, 4th Baronet from 1865 until 1900, was a banker, Liberal politician, philanthropist, scientist and polymath. He was a banker and worked with his family’s company, but also significant contributions in archaeology, ethnography. He helped establish archaeology as a discipline, and was also influential in nineteenth-century debates concerning evolutionary theory. He introduced the first law on the protection of the UKs archaeological and architectural heritage. John Lubbock was born in 1834, the son of Sir John Lubbock, 3rd Baronet, a London banker, the youth was soon a frequent visitor to Down House, and became the closest of Darwin’s younger friends. Their relationship stimulated young Lubbock’s passion for science and evolutionary theory, in 1845, Lubbock began studies at Eton College, and after graduation was employed by his fathers bank, of which he became a partner at the age of twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy, in the early 1870s Lubbock became increasingly interested in politics. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was elected as a Liberal Party Member of Parliament for Maidstone and he lost the seat at the election of 1880, but was at once elected member for London University, of which he had been vice-chancellor since 1872. He was successful with numerous enactments in parliament, including the Bank Holidays Act of 1871, when the Liberals split in 1886 on the issue of Irish Home Rule, Lubbock joined the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party in opposition to Irish home rule. A prominent supporter of the Statistical Society, he took a part in criticizing the encroachment of municipal trading. In 1879 Lubbock was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers, in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnean Society of London. In March 1883 he founded the Bank Clerks Orphanage, which in 1986 became the Bankers’ Benevolent Fund – a charity for bank employees, past and present, in January 1884 he founded the Proportional Representation Society, later to become the Electoral Reform Society. From 1888 to 1892 he was president of the London Chamber of Commerce, from 1889 to 1890 vice-chairman, in February 1890 he was appointed a privy councillor, and was chairman of the committee of design for the new coinage in 1891. He was President of the Royal Statistical Society from 1900 to 1902, the quotation, We may sit in our library and yet be in all quarters of the earth, is widely attributed to Lubbock. This variation appears in his book The Pleasures of Life, in addition to his work at his father’s bank, Lubbock took a keen interest in archaeology and evolutionary theory. A collection of Iron Age antiquities Lubbock and Sir John Evans excavated at the site of Hallstatt in Austria is now in the British Museums collection and he spoke in support of the evolutionist Thomas Henry Huxley at the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate. During the 1860s, he published articles in which he used archaeological evidence to support Darwin’s theory. In 1864, he one of the founding members of the elite X Club
39.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
40.
James Manby Gully
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James Manby Gully was a Victorian medical doctor, well known for practising hydrotherapy, or the water cure. Gullys clinic using Malvern water in Great Malvern, and those that followed, were responsible for Malverns rapid development from a village to a large town. He is also remembered as a suspect in the Charles Bravo poisoning case, James Manby Gully was born in Kingston, Jamaica, the son of a wealthy coffee planter. When he was 6 he was taken to England to attend school in Liverpool and he became a medical student at the University of Edinburgh in 1825, as did Charles Darwin in the same year. After three years at Edinburgh, Gully became an externe at LÉcole de Médecine in Paris, then returned to Edinburgh to take his MD in 1829 and he edited the London Medical and Surgical Journal and the Liverpool Medical Gazette. Gully showed an interest in the idea of transmutation of species and he was dissatisfied with the medical treatments of the time, and in 1837 met Dr. James Wilson who then spent some time on the continent, and had returned enthused with the idea of hydrotherapy. One writer states Wilson was at Grafenberg for 10 months, nevertheless, in an earlier 1842 publication, Wilson acknowledged having read Claridges work, and unconditionally praised his enthusiastic promotion of hydropathy. In 1842, Gully and Wilson opened water cure clinics, then in 1846 Gully published The Water Cure in Chronic Disease, further describing the treatments available at the clinic. In 1848, Gully became a member of the British Homoeopathic Society, the fame of the water-cure establishment grew, and Gully and Wilson became well-known national figures. Two more clinics were opened at Malvern, famous patients included Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens, Thomas Carlyle, Florence Nightingale, Lord Tennyson and Samuel Wilberforce. With his fame he also attracted criticism, Sir Charles Hastings, a physician and founder of the British Medical Association, was a critic of hydropathy. Dr. Gullys patients at Malvern were woken at 5 am, an hour later, buckets of water were thrown upon the patients who then went on a five-mile walk, carrying an alpenstock and a Gräfenberg flask of mineral water, stopping at wells for the waters. They returned to the Malvern pump room for a breakfast of dry biscuits and water. They then had the day to spend bathing in a range of kinds of baths, or in some cases wore a wet sheet called the Neptune Girdle round their middle at all times, removing it only at meal times. Dinner which was always boiled mutton and fish was followed by a few hours in a dry bed, the exercise, plain food and absence of alcohol together with the congenial company of other wealthy patrons proved generally beneficial. Charles Darwin suffered repeated episodes of illness involving stomach pains from 1838 onwards, in 1849 after about four months of incessant vomiting, he followed the recommendation of his friend Captain Sulivan and cousin Fox. After reading Gullys book The Water-Cure in Chronic Disease, he rented a villa at Malvern for his family, Darwin enjoyed the attention and the demanding regime which left him no time to feel guilty about not working. His health improved rapidly and he felt that the water-cure was no quackery and he had no faith in the homœopathic medicines Gully gave him three times a day, but took them obediently
41.
Dining room
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A dining room is a room for consuming food. In modern times it is adjacent to the kitchen for convenience in serving. In the Middle Ages, upper class Britons and other European nobility in castles or large manor houses dined in the great hall and this was a large multi-function room capable of seating the bulk of the population of the house. The family would sit at the table on a raised dais. Tables in the hall would tend to be long trestle tables with benches. The sheer number of people in a Great Hall meant it would probably have had a busy, suggestions that it would also have been quite smelly and smoky are probably, by the standards of the time, unfounded. These rooms had large chimneys and high ceilings and there would have been a flow of air through the numerous door. In the first instance, the Black Death that ravaged Europe in the 14th Century caused a shortage of labour, also the religious persecutions following the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII made it unwise to talk freely in front of large numbers of people. Over time, the nobility took more of their meals in the parlour, and the parlour became, functionally and it also migrated farther from the Great Hall, often accessed via grand ceremonial staircases from the dais in the Great Hall. Eventually dining in the Great Hall became something that was primarily on special occasions. Toward the beginning of the 18th Century, a pattern emerged where the ladies of the house would withdraw after dinner from the room to the drawing room. The gentlemen would remain in the room having drinks. The dining room tended to take on a more masculine tenor as a result, a typical North American dining room will contain a table with chairs arranged along the sides and ends of the table, as well as other pieces of furniture, as space permits. Often tables in modern dining rooms will have a leaf to allow for the larger number of people present on those special occasions without taking up extra space when not in use. Although the typical family dining experience is at a table or some sort of kitchen area. In modern American and Canadian homes, the room is typically adjacent to the living room. Smaller houses and condos may have a breakfast bar instead, often of a different height than the kitchen counter. If a home lacks a dinette, breakfast nook, or breakfast bar and this was traditionally the case in Britain, where the dining room would for many families be used only on Sundays, other meals being eaten in the kitchen
42.
Billiards
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Historically, the umbrella term was billiards. While that familiar name is employed by some as a generic label for all such games. There are other variants that use of obstacles and targets. Fields, Babe Ruth, Bob Hope, and Jackie Gleason, the modern term cue sports can be used to encompass the ancestral mace games, and even the modern cueless variants, such as finger billiards, for historical reasons. Cue itself came from queue, the French word for a tail and this refers to the early practice of using the tail of the mace to strike the ball when it lay against a rail cushion. A recognizable form of billiards was played outdoors in the 1340s, king Louis XI of France had the first known indoor billiard table. Louis XIV further refined and popularized the game, and it spread among the French nobility. Mary, Queen of Scots, claimed that her table de billiard had been taken away by those who became her executioners. In 1588, the Duke of Norfolk, owned a billyard bord coered with a greene cloth, three billyard sticks and 11 balls of yvery. Billiards grew to the extent that by 1727, it was being played in almost every Paris café, in England, the game was developing into a very popular activity for members of the gentry. By 1670, the butt end of the mace began to be used not only for shots under the cushion. The cue as it is today was finally developed by about 1800. Initially, the mace was used to push the balls, rather than strike them, the newly developed striking cue provided a new challenge. Cushions began to be stuffed with substances to allow the balls to rebound, after a transitional period where only the better players would use cues, the cue came to be the first choice of equipment. The demand for tables and other equipment was initially met in Europe by John Thurston, the early balls were made from wood and clay, but the rich preferred to use ivory. The early croquet-like games eventually led to the development of the carom or carambole billiards category – what most non-Commonwealth, variations include three-cushion, straight rail and the balkline variants, cushion caroms, five-pins, and four-ball, among others. In the United States pool and billiards had died out for a bit, players in annual championships began to receive their own cigarette cards. This was mainly due to the fact that it was a pastime for troops to take their minds off from battle
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Fertilisation of Orchids
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Darwins previous book, On the Origin of Species, had briefly mentioned evolutionary interactions between insects and the plants they fertilised, and this new idea was explored in detail. Field studies and practical scientific investigations that were initially a recreation for Darwin—a relief from the drudgery of writing—developed into enjoyable and challenging experiments. Aided in his work by his family, friends, and a circle of correspondents across Britain and worldwide. The book was his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection, the view has been expressed that the book led directly or indirectly to all modern work on coevolution and the evolution of extreme specialisation. It influenced botanists, and revived interest in the idea that insects played a part in pollinating flowers. Although the general public showed less interest and sales of the book were low, Orchids was the first in a series of books on his innovative investigations into plants. The book describes how the relationship between insects and plants resulted in the beautiful and complex forms which natural theology attributed to a grand designer and this was confirmed in 1903 when Xanthopan morgani praedicta was found in Madagascar. Charles Darwin grew up with an interest in history, and as a student at the University of Cambridge he became a pupil. The year he graduated, Darwin was given a position as a gentleman naturalist and geologist on the second voyage of HMS Beagle. By the time he returned in October 1836, he had doubts about the doctrine that species were fixed, Darwin began editing and publishing the expert reports, collected in the Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle, at the time as writing a series of books on geology. His species work was his hobby, a background to this writing. Darwins speculations on the origin of species convinced him that cross-fertilisation played an important role in keeping specific forms consistent and he rejected the doctrine that the characteristics of a species were static, and was aware from animal husbandry that inbreeding could lead to changes, often deleterious. He thought that natural outbreeding through cross-fertilisation would keep wild species homogenous yet vigorous, cross-fertilisation would confer an evolutionary advantage by spreading favourable changes throughout a reproductive community. In the summer of 1841 Charles and Emma Darwin moved from the turmoil of London to the countryside, to Down House and he wrote, The flowers are here very beautiful. Darwin followed the recommendation of his friend, the leading botanist Robert Brown and this functional view was rejected and mostly forgotten, as it contradicted the common belief that flowers had been created for beauty, and were generally self-fertilising. For Darwin, the concept of evolution gave new meaning to Sprengels research into the mechanisms for cross-fertilisation, a favourite walk took the Darwin family to a spot above the quiet Cudham valley, teeming with orchids including Cephalanthera, Neottia, Fly Orchids and Musk Orchids. They called this place Orchis Bank, and the family became involved in Darwins researches
