1.
Powdery mildew
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Powdery mildew is a fungal disease that affects a wide range of plants. Powdery mildew diseases are caused by different species of fungi in the order Erysiphales. Erysiphe cichoracearum was formerly reported to be the causal organism throughout most of the world. Powdery mildew is one of the plant diseases to identify. Infected plants display white powdery spots on the leaves and stems, the lower leaves are the most affected, but the mildew can appear on any above-ground part of the plant. As the disease progresses, the spots get larger and denser as large numbers of spores are formed. Powdery mildew grows well in environments with high humidity and moderate temperatures, in an agricultural setting, the pathogen can be controlled using chemical methods, genetic resistance, and careful farming methods. It is important to be aware of powdery mildew and its management as the disease can significantly reduce crop yields. Greenhouses provide an ideal moist, temperate environment for the spread of the disease, Powdery mildew fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is via chasmothecia, a type of ascocarp, within each ascocarp are several asci. Over time, ascospores mature and are released to new infections. Conditions necessary for spore maturation differ among species, wooly aphids and other sucking insects are often vectors of transmission for powdery mildew, and other infectious diseases. Typically wooly aphids in sub temperate climates precede and are an indicator of various infections, aphids penetrate plant surfaces where they often reside and provide a host of potential inoculants through physical, digestive or fecal secretions. Aphids are often an indicator of other potential plant problems, in an agricultural setting, the pathogen can be controlled using chemical methods, genetic resistance, and careful farming methods. Chemical control is possible with such as triadimefon and propiconazole. Another chemical treatment involves treating with a solution or calcium silicate slag. Silicon helps the plant cells defend against fungal attack by degrading haustoria and by producing callose, with silicon treatment, epidermal cells are less susceptible to powdery mildew of wheat. Potassium bicarbonate is a fungicide against powdery mildew and apple scab
2.
Oomycete
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Oomycota or oomycetes form a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms. They are filamentous, microscopic, absorptive organisms that reproduce sexually and asexually. One oomycete, the mycoparasite Pythium oligandrum, is used for biocontrol, the oomycetes are also often referred to as water molds, although the water-preferring nature which led to that name is not true of most species, which are terrestrial pathogens. The Oomycota have a sparse fossil record. A possible oomycete has been described from Cretaceous amber, the oomycetes rarely have septa, and if they do, they are scarce, appearing at the bases of sporangia, and sometimes in older parts of the filaments. Some are unicellular, but others are filamentous and branching and this group was originally classified among the fungi and later treated as protists, based on general morphology and lifestyle. A cladistic analysis based on modern discoveries about the biology of these organisms supports a close relationship with some photosynthetic organisms, such as brown algae. A common taxonomic classification based on data, places the class Oomycota along with other classes such as Phaeophyceae within the phylum Heterokonta. This relationship is supported by a number of observed differences in the characteristics of oomycetes, for instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella, one flagellum has a whiplash morphology, and the other a branched tinsel morphology. The tinsel flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta, spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ, the ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae. In spite of evidence to the contrary, many species of oomycetes are still described or listed as types of fungi and may sometimes be referred to as pseudofungi. Previously the group was arranged into six orders, the Saprolegniales are the most widespread. Many break down decaying matter, others are parasites, the Leptomitales have wall thickenings that give their continuous cell body the appearance of septation. They bear chitin and often reproduce asexually, the Rhipidiales use rhizoids to attach their thallus to the bed of stagnant or polluted water bodies. The Albuginales are considered by authors to be a family within the Peronosporales
3.
Commerce
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Commerce is the activity of buying and selling of goods and services, especially on a large scale. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that are in operation in any country or internationally, commerce is derived from the Latin commercium, from cum, together, and merx, merchandise. Some commentators trace the origins of commerce to the start of transaction in prehistoric times. Apart from traditional self-sufficiency, trading became a facility of prehistoric people. Historian Peter Watson and Ramesh Manickam dates the history of commerce from circa 150,000 years ago. In historic times, the introduction of currency as a money, facilitated a wider exchange of goods. Numismatists have collections of these tokens, which include coins from some Ancient World large-scale societies. For example, if a man who makes pots for a living needs a new house, he/she may wish to hire someone to build it for him/her. But he/she cannot make an equivalent number of pots to equal this service done for him/her, because if the builder could build the house. During the Middle Ages, commerce developed in Europe by trading luxury goods at trade fairs, wealth became converted into movable wealth or capital. Banking systems developed where money on account was transferred across national boundaries, hand to hand markets became a feature of town life, and were regulated by town authorities. Today commerce includes as a subset a complex system of companies which try to maximize their profits by offering products and services to the market at the lowest production cost
4.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
5.
Brassicaceae
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Brassicaceae or Cruciferae is a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. The name Brassicaceae is derived from the included genus Brassica, the alternative older name, Cruciferae, meaning cross-bearing, describes the four petals of mustard flowers, which resemble a cross. Cruciferae is one of eight plant family names without the suffix -aceae that are authorized alternative names, the family contains 372 genera and 4060 accepted species. The largest genera are Draba, Erysimum, Lepidium, Cardamine, pieris rapae and other butterflies of the family Pieridae are some of the best-known pests of Brassicaceae species planted as commercial crops. The family is included in the Brassicales according to the APG system, older systems placed them into the Capparales, a now-defunct order that had a similar definition. This family comprises about 375 genera and 2500 species all over the world,94 species of 38 genera are found in Nepal, a close relationship has long been acknowledged between the Brassicaceae and the caper family, Capparaceae, in part because members of both groups produce glucosinolate compounds. The APG II system, therefore, has merged the two families under the name Brassicaceae, the APG III system has recently adopted this last solution, but this may change as a consensus arises on this point. This article deals with Brassicaceae sensu stricto, i. e. treating the Cleomaceae and Capparaceae as segregated families, the family consists mostly of herbaceous plants with annual, biennial, or perennial lifespans. The leaves are alternate, sometimes organized in basal rosettes, in rare shrubby crucifers of Mediterranean their leaves are mostly in terminal rosettes and they are very often pinnately incised and do not have stipules. The structure of the flowers is extremely uniform throughout the family and they have four free saccate sepals and four clawed free petals, staggered. They can be disymmetric or slightly zygomorphic, with a typical cross-like arrangement and they have six stamens, four of which are longer and are arranged in a cross like the petals and the other two are shorter. The pistil is made up of two fused carpels and the style is short, with two lobes. The flowers form ebracteate racemose inflorescences, often apically corymb-like, pollination occurs by entomogamy, nectar is produced at the base of the stamens and stored on the sepals. The fruit is a kind of capsule named siliqua. It opens by two valves, which are the modified carpels, leaving the attached to a framework made up of the placenta. Often, an indehiscent beak occurs at the top of the style, where a siliqua is less than three times as long as it is broad, it is usually termed a silicula. The siliqua may break apart at constrictions occurring between the segments of the seeds, thus forming a sort of loment, it may eject the seeds explosively or may be evolved in a sort of samara. The fruit is often the most important diagnostic character for plants in this family, most members share a suite of glucosinolate compounds that have a typical pungent odour usually associated with cole crops
6.
Grape
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A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus Vitis. Grapes can be fresh as table grapes or they can be used for making wine, jam, juice, jelly, grape seed extract, raisins, vinegar. Grapes are a type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters. The cultivation of the grape began 6, 000–8,000 years ago in the Near East. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, the earliest archeological evidence for a dominant position of wine-making in human culture dates from 8,000 years ago in Georgia. The oldest known winery was found in Armenia, dating to around 4000 BC, by the 9th century AD the city of Shiraz was known to produce some of the finest wines in the Middle East. Thus it has proposed that Syrah red wine is named after Shiraz. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians. The growing of grapes would later spread to regions in Europe, as well as North Africa. Vitis vinifera cultivars were imported for that purpose, Grapes are a type of fruit that grow in clusters of 15 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green, orange, and pink. White grapes are actually green in color, and are derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins, which are responsible for the color of purple grapes. Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines. Grapes are typically an ellipsoid shape resembling a prolate spheroid, most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Vitis riparia, a vine of North America, is sometimes used for winemaking. It is native to the entire Eastern U. S. Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine, are native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico. Vitis amurensis is the most important Asian species, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization,75,866 square kilometers of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit
7.
Vegetable
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In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed by humans as food as part of a meal. The term vegetable is somewhat arbitrary, and largely defined through culinary and it normally excludes other food derived from plants such as fruits, nuts, and cereal grains, but includes seeds such as pulses. The original meaning of the vegetable, still used in biology, was to describe all types of plant, as in the terms vegetable kingdom. At first, plants which grew locally would have been cultivated, nowadays, most vegetables are grown all over the world as climate permits, and crops may be cultivated in protected environments in less suitable locations. China is the largest producer of vegetables and global trade in agricultural products allows consumers to purchase vegetables grown in faraway countries, the scale of production varies from subsistence farmers supplying the needs of their family for food, to agribusinesses with vast acreages of single-product crops. Depending on the type of vegetable concerned, harvesting the crop is followed by grading, storing, processing, and marketing. Vegetables can be either raw or cooked and play an important role in human nutrition, being mostly low in fat and carbohydrates. Many nutritionists encourage people to consume plenty of fruit and vegetables, the word vegetable was first recorded in English in the early 15th century. It comes from Old French, and was applied to all plants. It derives from Medieval Latin vegetabilis growing, flourishing, a change from a Late Latin meaning to be enlivening, quickening. The meaning of vegetable as a plant grown for food was not established until the 18th century, in 1767, the word was specifically used to mean a plant cultivated for food, an edible herb or root. The year 1955 saw the first use of the shortened, slang term veggie, the broadest definition is the words use adjectivally to mean matter of plant origin to distinguish it from animal, meaning matter of animal origin. More specifically, a vegetable may be defined as any plant, part of which is used for food, a secondary meaning then being the edible part of such a plant. A more precise definition is any plant part consumed for food that is not a fruit or seed, falling outside these definitions are edible fungi and edible seaweed which, although not parts of plants, are often treated as vegetables. In everyday language, the fruit and vegetable are mutually exclusive. Fruit has a precise meaning, being a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant. This is considerably different from the words culinary meaning, while peaches, plums, and oranges are fruit in both senses, many items commonly called vegetables, such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes, are botanically fruits. The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893
8.
Cucurbitaceae
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The Cucurbitaceae family ranks among the highest of plant families for number and percentage of species used as human food. The Cucurbitaceae consist of 98 proposed genera with 975 species, mainly in tropical and subtropical. All species are sensitive to frost, most of the plants in this family are annual vines, but some are woody lianas, thorny shrubs, or trees. Many species have large, yellow or white flowers, the stems are hairy and pentangular. Tendrils are present at 90° to the petioles at nodes. Leaves are exstipulate alternate simple palmately lobed or palmately compound, the flowers are unisexual, with male and female flowers on different plants or on the same plant. The female flowers have inferior ovaries, the fruit is often a kind of modified berry called a pepo. One of the oldest fossil records so far is Cucurbitaciphyllum lobatum from the Paleocene epoch, found at Shirley Canal and it was described for the first time in 1924 by Knowlton. The fossil leaf is palmate, trilobed with rounded lobal sinuses and it has a leaf pattern similar to the members of the genera Kedrostis, Melothria and Zehneria. Cucurbits are represented in 23 of the 134 mosaics containing images of crop plants, several of the cucurbit images have not been found elsewhere, suggesting a diverse and highly developed local horticulture of cucurbits in Israel during the Byzantine era. Representations of mature sponge gourds are found in localities, suggestive of the high value accorded to cleanliness. The name Cucurbitaceae comes to scientific vocabulary from New Latin, from Cucurbita, the type genus, + -aceae. The genus name comes from the Classical Latin word cucurbita, gourd, bates D, Robinson R, Jeffrey C, ed. Biology and Utilization of the Cucurbitaceae. CS1 maint, Multiple names, editors list Jeffrey C, Cucurbitaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz. The families of flowering plants, descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval
9.
Chlorothalonil
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Chlorothalonil is an organic compound mainly used as a broad spectrum, nonsystemic fungicide, with other uses as a wood protectant, pesticide, acaricide, and to control mold, mildew, bacteria, algae. Chlorothalonil-containing products are sold under the names Bravo, Echo, and it was first registered for use in the US in 1966. Including nonagricultural uses, the EPA estimates, on average, almost 15 million pounds were used annually from 1990-1996, in the US, chlorothalonil is used predominantly on peanuts, potatoes, and tomatoes, though the EPA recognizes its use on many other crops. It is also used on golf courses and lawns and as an additive in some paints, resins, emulsions. Chlorothalonil is commercially available in different formulations and delivery methods. It is applied as a dust, dry or water-soluble grains, a powder, a liquid spray, a fog. It may be applied by hand, by ground sprayer, or by aircraft, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, chlorothalonil is a toxicity category I eye irritant, producing severe eye irritation. Long-term exposure to chlorothalonil resulted in damage and tumors in animal tests. Chlorothalonil is a Group B2 probable human carcinogen, based on observations of cancers and tumors of the kidneys, Chlorothalonil was found to be an important actor in the decline of the honey bee population, by making the bees more vulnerable to the gut parasite Nosema ceranae. Chlorothalonil is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates, but not toxic to birds, at a concentration of 164 µg/l, chlorothalonil was found to kill a species of frog within a 24-hour exposure. According to the EPA report, post-application exposure to HCB from chlorothalonil is not expected to be a based on the low level of HCB in chlorothalonil. In the first three cases, the contamination is presumed to have come from potato farms and it has also been detected in several fish kills in Prince Edward Island. The main breakdown product of chlorothalonil is 4-hydroxy-2,5, 6-trichloroisophthalonitrile and it has been shown to be 30 times more acutely toxic than chlorothalonil and more persistent in the environment. Laboratory experiments have shown it can thin the eggshells of birds, Chlorothalonil can be produced by the direct chlorination of isophthalonitrile or by dehydration of tetrachloroisophthaloyl amide with phosphoryl chloride. It breaks down under conditions, but is stable in neutral. Technical grade chlorothalonil contains traces of dioxins and hexachlorobenzene, a persistent organic pollutant banned under the Stockholm Convention, pesticideinfo. org, Chlorothalonil Extension Toxicology Network, Chlorothalonil Pesticide Information Profile Chlorothalonil in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
10.
Copper
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Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of copper has a reddish-orange color. Copper is one of the few metals that occur in nature in directly usable metallic form as opposed to needing extraction from an ore and this led to very early human use, from c.8000 BC. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form a green verdigris, Copper is sometimes used in decorative art, both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as agents, fungicides, and wood preservatives. Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase. In molluscs and crustaceans, copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin, replaced by the hemoglobin in fish. In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, the adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper, at the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice, such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form. The softness of copper partly explains its high conductivity and high thermal conductivity. The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3. 1×106 A/m2 of cross-sectional area, Copper is one of a few metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air, as with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal, galvanic corrosion will occur. A green layer of verdigris can often be seen on old structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings. Copper tarnishes when exposed to sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides. There are 29 isotopes of copper, 63Cu and 65Cu are stable, with 63Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper, both have a spin of 3⁄2
11.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
12.
Basil
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Basil UK /ˈbæzəl/, US /ˈbeɪzəl/, also called great basil or Saint-Josephs-wort, is a culinary herb of the family Lamiaceae. It is also called the king of herbs and the royal herb, the name basil comes from Greek βασιλικόν φυτόν, royal/kingly plant. Basil is possibly native to India, and has been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years and it was thoroughly familiar to the Greek authors Theophrastus and Dioscorides. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, there are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil, lemon basil, and holy basil. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil, the Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in some royal unguent, bath, or medicine. Basil is still considered the king of herbs by many cookery authors, most commercially available basils are cultivars of sweet basil. There are over 160 named cultivars available, with new ones appearing every year, there are also a number of species sold. Here are some basils commonly sold in the US, in general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, Basil is one of the main ingredients in pesto—a green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are Genovese, Purple Ruffles, Mammoth, Cinnamon, Lemon, Globe, the Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups and they also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create a flavor in ice cream or chocolates. The leaves are not the part of basil used in culinary applications. Thai basil is also a condiment in the Vietnamese noodle soup, when soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as faluda, sharbat-e-rihan, or hột é. Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a flavor that is, in general
13.
Pseudoperonospora cubensis
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Pseudoperonospora cubensis is a species of water mould known for causing downy mildew on cucurbits such as cantaloupe, cucumber, pumpkin, squash and watermelon. This water mould is an important pathogen of all crops, especially in areas with high humidity and rainfall. Considered a highly destructive disease of cucurbits, successful breeding in the mid-twentieth century provided adequate control of downy mildew in cucumber without the use of fungicides. The resurgence in virulence has caused great concern and substantial economic losses. The pathogen causes angular chlorotic lesions on the foliage and these lesions appear angular because they are bound by leaf veins. During humid conditions, inspection of the underside of the leaf reveals gray-brown to purplish-black fungal growth and this downy material is the sporulation of the pathogen. Magnification of the sporulation reveals the acutely and dichotomously branched sporangiophores bearing lemon-shaped sporangia, eventually, leaves will turn necrotic and curl upwards. The disease is sometimes called wildfire because of how rapidly it progresses, symptoms on watermelon and cantaloupe are different from on other cucurbits, leaf spots are typically not angular and turn brown to black in color. Often, an exaggerated upward leaf-curling will occur, regardless of which cucurbit is involved, only the leaves are infected, not fruit, flowers, stems or roots. Disease of the results in three major effects,1. A greater proportion of fruit, especially in cucumber, and 3. Sunscalded fruit, due to increased exposure to sunlight, especially in watermelon. P. cubensis is a parasite or biotroph, meaning that it requires live host tissue in order to survive. Because of this characteristic, the pathogen must overwinter in an area that does not experience a hard frost, such as southern Florida, the spores are dispersed via wind to neighboring plants and fields and often over long distances. Symptoms appear 4 to 12 days after infection, the pathogen thrives under cool and moist conditions, but can do well under a wide range of conditions. Optimum conditions for sporulation are 59 °F with 6 to 12 hours of moisture present, even when high daytime temperatures are not favorable for the pathogen, nighttime temperatures may be very suitable. Oospores of P. cubensis are rare and their role in nature is unknown, within the cucurbit family, P. cubensis isolates will exhibit a specific host range, that is, it will infect certain cucurbits and not others. For example, if cucumber and squash are grown side-by-side sometimes only the cucumber is diseased, when a pathogen exhibits this type of host specificity within a plant family, it is referred to as a pathotype
14.
Muskmelon
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Muskmelon is a species of melon that has been developed into many cultivated varieties. These include smooth-skinned varieties such as honeydew, Crenshaw, and casaba, the Armenian cucumber is also a variety of muskmelon, but its shape, taste, and culinary uses more closely resemble those of a cucumber. The large number of cultivars in this species approaches that found in wild cabbage and it is a fruit of a type called pepo. Muskmelon is native to Iran, Anatolia and the Caucasus, with a center including northwest India. They do not cross with watermelon, cucumber, pumpkin, or squash, the genome of Cucumis melo L. was first sequenced in 2012. Per 100 gram serving, cantaloupe melons provide 34 calories and are an excellent source of vitamin A and vitamin C, Melons are 90% water and 9% carbohydrates, with less than 1% each of protein and fat. In addition to their consumption when fresh, melons are sometimes dried, other varieties are cooked, or grown for their seeds, which are processed to produce melon oil. Still other varieties are only for their pleasant fragrance. The Japanese liqueur, Midori, is flavored with muskmelon, seeds Handbook, Biology, Production, Processing, and Storage, Vol.103. A portable dictionary of the higher plants, food and feed crops of the United States. Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul, Cucumis melo L. – Purdue University, Center for New Crops & Plant Products. Sorting Cucumis names – Multilingual multiscript plant name database Cooks Thesaurus, Melons – Varietal names and pictures
15.
Cucumber
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Cucumber is a widely cultivated plant in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae. It is a vine that bears cucumiform fruits that are used as vegetables. There are three varieties of cucumber, slicing, pickling, and seedless. Within these varieties, several cultivars have been created, in North America, the term wild cucumber refers to plants in the genera Echinocystis and Marah, but these are not closely related. The cucumber is originally from South Asia, but now grows on most continents, many different types of cucumber are traded on the global market. The cucumber is a vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin. The plant may also root in a medium and will sprawl along the ground if it does not have supports. The vine has large leaves form a canopy over the fruits. The fruit of cultivars of cucumber is roughly cylindrical, but elongated with tapered ends. Botanically speaking, the cucumber is classified as a pepo, a type of berry with a hard outer rind. Much like tomato and squash, it is perceived, prepared. Cucumber fruits are more than 90% water. A few cultivars of cucumber are parthenocarpic, the blossoms creating seedless fruit without pollination, pollination for these cultivars degrades the quality. In the United States, these are grown in greenhouses. In Europe, they are outdoors in some regions. Most cucumber cultivars, however, are seeded and require pollination, thousands of hives of honey bees are annually carried to cucumber fields just before bloom for this purpose. Cucumbers may also be pollinated by bumblebees and several other bee species, most cucumbers that require pollination are self-incompatible, so pollen from a different plant is required to form seeds and fruit. Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the Lemon cultivar, symptoms of inadequate pollination include fruit abortion and misshapen fruit
16.
Pumpkin
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A pumpkin is a cultivar of a squash plant, most commonly of Cucurbita pepo, that is round, with smooth, slightly ribbed skin, and deep yellow to orange coloration. The thick shell contains the seeds and pulp, some exceptionally large cultivars of squash with similar appearance have also been derived from Cucurbita maxima. Specific cultivars of winter squash derived from other species, including C. argyrosperma, in New Zealand and Australian English, the term pumpkin generally refers to the broader category called winter squash elsewhere. Native to North America, pumpkins are grown for commercial use and are used both in food and recreation. Pumpkins, like squash, are thought to have originated in North America. The oldest evidence, pumpkin-related seeds dating between 7000 and 5500 BC, was found in Mexico, since some squash share the same botanical classifications as pumpkins, the names are frequently used interchangeably. Pumpkin fruits are a type of botanical berry known as a pepo, traditional C. pepo pumpkins generally weigh between 6 and 18 pounds, though the largest cultivars regularly reach weights of over 75 pounds. The color of pumpkins derives from orange carotenoid pigments, including beta-cryptoxanthin, alpha and beta carotene, the word pumpkin originates from the word pepon, which is Greek for large melon, something round and large. The French adapted this word to pompon, which the British changed to pumpion and later American colonists changed that to the word that is used today, pumpkin. The term pumpkin has no agreed upon botanical or scientific meaning, all pumpkins are winter squash, mature fruit of certain species in the genus Cucurbita. Characteristics commonly used to define pumpkin include smooth and slightly ribbed skin, circa 2005, white pumpkins had become increasingly popular in the United States. Other colors, including green, also exist. Pumpkins are grown all around the world for a variety of reasons ranging from agricultural purposes to commercial and ornamental sales. Of the seven continents, only Antarctica is unable to produce pumpkins, the biggest international producers of pumpkins include the United States, Canada, Mexico, India, the traditional American pumpkin used for jack-o-lanterns is the Connecticut Field variety. As one of the most popular crops in the United States,1.5 billion pounds of pumpkins are produced each year, the top pumpkin-producing states include Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and California. According to the Illinois Department of Agriculture, 95% of the U. S. crop intended for processing is grown in Illinois, Nestlé, operating under the brand name Libbys, produces 85% of the processed pumpkin in the United States, at their plant in Morton, Illinois. In the fall of 2009, rain in Illinois devastated the Nestlé crop, Pumpkins are a warm-weather crop that is usually planted in early July. The specific conditions necessary for growing pumpkins require that soil temperatures three inches deep are at least 60 °F and soil that holds water well
17.
Cucurbita
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Cucurbita is a genus of herbaceous vines in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, native to the Andes and Mesoamerica. Five species are grown worldwide for their fruit, variously known as squash, pumpkin, or gourd depending on species, variety, and local parlance. Other kinds of gourd, also called bottle-gourds, are native to Africa and belong to the genus Lagenaria and these other gourds are used as utensils or vessels, and their young fruits are eaten much like those of Cucurbita species. Most Cucurbita species are vines that grow several meters in length and have tendrils. The yellow or orange flowers on a Cucurbita plant are of two types, female and male, the female flowers produce the fruit and the male flowers produce pollen. Many North and Central American species are visited by specialist bee pollinators, the fruits of the genus Cucurbita are good sources of nutrients, such as vitamin A and vitamin C, among other nutrients according to species. The plants also contain phytochemicals, such as cucurbitin, cucurmosin. There is debate about the taxonomy of the genus, as the number of accepted species varies from 13 to 30, the five domesticated species are Cucurbita argyrosperma, C. ficifolia, C. maxima, C. moschata, and C. pepo. All of these can be treated as winter squash because the fruits can be stored for months, however. Cucurbita fruits have played a role in culture for at least 2,000 years. They are often represented in Moche ceramics from Peru, after Christopher Columbuss arrival in the New World, paintings of squashes started to appear in Europe early in the sixteenth century. The fruits have culinary uses including pumpkin pie, biscuits, bread, desserts, puddings, beverages. Pumpkins and other Cucurbita fruits are celebrated in festivals and in flower, Cucurbita species fall into two main groups. The first group are annual or short-lived perennial vines and are mesophytic, the second group are perennials growing in arid zones and so are xerophytic, tolerating dry conditions. Cultivated Cucurbita species were derived from the first group, growing 5 to 15 meters in height or length, the plant stem produces tendrils to help it climb adjacent plants and structures or extend along the ground. Most species do not readily root from the nodes, an exception is C. ficifolia. The vine of the perennial Cucurbita can become semiwoody if left to grow, there is wide variation in size, shape, and color among Cucurbita fruits, and even within a single species. C. ficifolia is an exception, being uniform in appearance
18.
Citrullus lanatus
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Citrullus lanatus is a plant species in the family Cucurbitaceae, a vine-like flowering plant originally from sub-Saharan Africa. It is cultivated for its fruit, the subdivision of this species into two cultivars, watermelons and citron melons, originated with the erroneous synonymization of Citrullus lanatus Matsum. & Nakai and Citrullus vulgaris Schrad. by L. H. Bailey in 1930, molecular data including sequences from the original collection of Thunberg and other relevant type material, show that the sweet watermelon and the bitter wooly melon Citrullus lanatus Matsum. & Nakai are not closely related to each other, since 1930, thousands of papers have misapplied the name Citrullus lanatus Matsum. & Nakai for the watermelon, and a proposal has therefore submitted to conserve the name with this meaning. The bitter South African melon first collected by Thunberg has become naturalized in regions of several continents. Tswana, Lekatane, Makatane Afrikaans, Karkoer, Bitterboela, Bitterwaatlemoen, Tsamma, Kolokwint, english, Tsamma melon, Wild watermelon, Colocynth, etc. The watermelon is an annual that has a prostrate or climbing habit, stems are up to 3 m long and new growth has yellow or brown hairs. Leaves are 60 to 200 mm long and 40 to 150 mm wide and these usually have three lobes which are themselves lobed or doubly lobed. Plants have both male and female flowers on 40-mm-long hairy stalks and these are yellow, and greenish on the back. This plant is listed on the Threatened Species Programme of the The South African National Biodiversity Institute, the bitter wooly melon was formally described by Carl Peter Thunberg in 1794 and given the name Momordica lanata. It was reassigned to the genus Citrullus in 1916 by Japanese botanists Ninzo Matsumura, the sweet watermelon was formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 and given the name Cucurbita citrullus. It was reassigned to the genus Citrullus in 1836 by the German botanist Heinrich Adolf Schrader, the bitter wooly melon is the sister species of Citrullus ecirrhosus Cogn. from South African arid regions, while the sweet watermelon is the sister species of mucosospermus Fursa from West Africa. It is not a form of the sweet watermelon C. vulgaris, the citron melon or makataan - a variety with sweet yellow flesh that is cultivated around the world for fodder, and the production of citron peel and pectin. Lanatus group C. caffer Schrad. is a synonym of C. amarus Schrad, the variety known as tsamma is grown for its juicy white flesh. The variety was an important food source for travellers in the Kalahari Desert, another variety known as karkoer or bitterboela is unpalatable to humans, but the seeds may be eaten. A small-fruited form with a bumpy skin has caused poisoning in sheep, vulgaris group This is Linnaeuss sweet watermelon, it has been grown for human consumption for thousands of years. C. lanatus mucosospermus Fursa This West African species is the closest wild relative of the watermelon and it is cultivated for cattle feed
19.
Plasmopara viticola
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Plasmopara viticola, the causal agent of grapevine downy mildew, is a heterothallic oomycete that overwinters as oospores in leaf litter and soil. In the spring, oospores germinate to produce macrosporangia, which under wet condition release zoospores, zoospores are splashed by rain into the canopy, where they swim to and infect through stomata. After 7–10 days, yellow lesions appear on foliage, during favorable weather, the lesions sporulate and new secondary infections occur. Plasmopara viticola, also known as downy mildew is considered to be the most devastating disease of grapevines in climates with relatively warm. It was first observed in 1834 by Schweinitz on Vitis aestivalis in the southeastern of the United States, shortly after this first observation, the pathogen was introduced to European countries where it played a devastating role in the yield and production of their grapes, and consequently their wine. France was among the first of the European countries to experience in dealing with the pathogen. Within just a few years of the introduction the French attempted to graft American root stock to their own vines in order to produce a more resistant strain of grape. Depending on the year, production of grapes in France has been estimated to have reduced by as much as 50%. Because of numbers and results like these, downy mildew has been considered the most devastating disease of a pathogen to affect European vineyards. Symptoms cover a large range depending mostly on the host. Common symptoms include necrosis of the stem or shoot, discoloration including brown spotting, grapes may exhibit sporangia and sporangiophores, appearing as white to gray coat on the outer surface. Downy mildew has a set of environmental conditions to reproduce. A warm, moist, and humid environment is required, studies in Sicily have shown optimum time for oospore germination is between the end of February and the middle of March. With this understanding, if fungicides are used just before optimum conditions occur, other control methods include proper watering, and a good location where the plant can receive continual sunlight. The hosts of the Plasmopara viticola pathogen are the European Vitis vinifera, the European cultivar is most susceptible to the pathogen, as it lacks evolutionary resistance that the American varieties have. This is because the pathogen originated in the Americas and was transmitted into Europe. Regardless of cultivar, once this oomycete lands on a susceptible host, the first symptom to occur includes irregular, yellow spots on the surface of the leaves. Over time, if one follows these spots through a cross-section of the leaf to the bottom, sporangia will form the “white downy” appearance of the leaves, giving the pathogen it’s common name
20.
Hops
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Hops are the flowers of the hop plant Humulus lupulus. The hop plant is a vigorous, climbing, herbaceous perennial, usually trained to grow up strings in a called a hopfield, hop garden. Many different varieties of hops are grown by farmers around the world, the first documented use of hops in beer is from the 9th century, though Hildegard of Bingen,300 years later, is often cited as the earliest documented source. Before this period, brewers used gruit, composed of a variety of bitter herbs and flowers, including dandelion, burdock root, marigold, horehound, ground ivy. Early documents include mention of a hop garden in the will of Charlemagnes father, historically, traditional herb combinations for beers were believed to have been abandoned when beers made with hops were noticed to be less prone to spoilage. The first documented hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany, however, in a will of Pepin the Short, the father of Charlemagne,768 hop gardens were left to the Cloister of Saint-Denis. Not until the 13th century did hops begin to start threatening the use of gruit for flavoring, gruit was used when taxes were levied by the nobility on hops. Whichever was taxed made the then quickly switch to the other. In Britain, hopped beer was first imported from Holland around 1400, yet hops were condemned as late as 1519 as a wicked, in 1471, Norwich, England, banned use of the plant in the brewing of ale. In Germany, using hops was also a religious and political choice in the early 16th century, there was no tax on hops to be paid on the Catholic church, unlike on gruit, for which the Protestant preferred hopped beer. Therefore, in the hop industry there are words which originally were Dutch words. Hops were then grown as far north as Aberdeen, near breweries for infrastructure convenience, in England there were many complaints over the quality of imported hops, the sacks of which were often contaminated by stalks, sand or straw to increase their weight. Hop cultivation was begun in the present-day United States in 1629 by English, before national alcohol prohibition, cultivation was mainly centered around New York, California, Oregon, and Washington. Problems with powdery mildew and downy mildew devastated New Yorks production by the 1920s, Hops production is concentrated in moist temperate climates, with much of the worlds production occurring near the 48th parallel north. Historically, hops were not grown in Ireland, but were imported from England, in 1752 more than 500 tons of English hops were imported through Dublin alone. Important production centers today are the Hallertau in Germany, the Yakima and Willamette valleys, the principal production centers in the UK are in Kent which produces Kent Goldings hops, Herefordshire and Worcestershire. Essentially all of the hops are used in beer making. Although hops are grown in most of the continental United States and Canada, as hops are a climbing plant, they are trained to grow up trellises made from strings or wires that support the plants and allow them significantly greater growth with the same sunlight profile
21.
Impatiens
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Impatiens /ɪmˈpeɪʃəns/ is a genus of about 850 to 1,000 species of flowering plants, widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere and the tropics. Together with the genus Hydrocera, Impatiens make up the family Balsaminaceae, common names include impatiens, jewelweed, touch-me-not, snapweed, patience, and, for I. walleriana in Great Britain, busy lizzie, as well as, ambiguously, balsam. As a rule-of-thumb, jewelweed is used exclusively for Nearctic species, balsam is usually applied to tropical species, some species are annual plants and produce flowers from early summer until the first frost, while perennial species, found in milder climates, can flower all year. Regardless of their lifespan, the largest impatiens grow up to about 2 meters tall, the leaves are entire and shiny, their upperside has a thick, water-repellent cuticula that gives them a greasy feel. Particularly on the underside of the leaves, tiny air bubbles are trapped over and under the leaf surface, others, like the busy lizzie, have flattened flowers with large petals and just a tiny spur that appear somewhat similar to those of violets, an unrelated genus. A few Impatiens species have flowers intermediate between the two basic types, the scientific name Impatiens and the common name touch-me-not refer to the explosive dehiscence of the seed capsules. The mature capsules burst, sending seeds up to several meters away, Impatiens foliage is used for food by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the dot moth, as well as other insects, such as the Japanese beetle. Some bees also use jewelweed as a source for nectar and pollen, one such species is Bombus terricola, which consistently forages on jewelweed as well as milkweed and fireweed. The leaves are toxic to other animals, including the budgerigar. The flowers are visited by bumblebees and certain Lepidoptera, such as the common spotted flat. Parasitic plants that use impatiens as hosts include the European dodder, a number of plant diseases affect this genus. In the 19th and 20th centuries, humans transported the orange jewelweed to England, France, the Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Finland, and potentially other areas of Northern and Central Europe. For example, it was not recorded from Germany as recently as 1996, small balsam, originally native to southern Central Asia, is even more extensively naturalized in Europe. More problematic is the Himalayan balsam, a densely growing species which displaces smaller plants by denying them sunlight and it is an invasive weed in many places, and tends to dominate riparian vegetation along polluted rivers and nitrogen-rich spots. Thus, it exacerbates ecosystem degradation by forming stands where few plants can grow. Also, Impatiens is rather closely related to the plant families Roridulaceae and Sarraceniaceae. Peculiar stalked glands found on balsam sepals secrete mucus and might be related to the structures from which the prey-catching and -digesting glands of these carnivorous plants evolved, balsams are not known to be protocarnivorous plants, however. In 2011-2013, the United States experienced a significant outbreak of the fungal disease downy mildew that affects impatiens, the disease was also reported in Canada as well
22.
Peronospora manshurica
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Peronospora manshurica is a plant pathogen. It is a disease on the leaves of soybeans and other crop plants. The fungi is referred to as downy mildew, leafspot. The most visible symptoms of P. manshurica are pale green to yellow spots that enlarge into pale to bright yellow lesions of variable size. Lesions later turn grayish-brown to dark-brown with a margin that may eventually become entirely brown. Tufts of grayish to pale-colored sporangiophores on the underside of leaves easily distinguish the infection from other foliar diseases, the fungus spreads by oospores on diseased leaves and/or on infected seed. The disease spreads in environments with high humidity and favors temperatures between 20-22 °C, the disease is often controlled using fungicides such as mancozeb, maneb, or zineb. Dalla Pria, M. May-De Mio, L. L, potassium phosphite for control of downy mildew of soybean. Index Fungorum USDA ARS Fungal Database
23.
Sporangium
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A sporangium is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a cell or can be multicellular. All plants, fungi, and many other lineages form sporangia at some point in their life cycle, sporangia can produce spores by mitosis, but in nearly all land plants and many fungi, sporangia are the site of meiosis and produce genetically distinct haploid spores. Structure containing the spores in fungal species, in mosses, liverworts and hornworts, an unbranched sporophyte produces a single sporangium, which may be quite complex morphologically. Most non-vascular plants, as well as many lycophytes and most ferns, are homosporous, some bryophytes, most lycophytes, and some ferns are heterosporous. These plants produce microspores and megaspores, which rise to gametophytes that are functionally male or female. In some cases, both kinds of spores are produced in the sporangium, and may even develop together as part of a spore tetrad. However, in most heterosporous plants there are two kinds of sporangia, termed microsporangia and megasporangia, a few ferns and some lycophytes are heterosporous with two kinds of sporangia, as are all the seed plants. Sporangia can be terminal or lateral of stems or associated with leaves, in ferns, sporangia are typically found on the abaxial surface of the leaf and are densely aggregated into clusters called sori. Sori may be covered by a structure called an indusium, some ferns have their sporangia scattered along reduced leaf segments or along the margin of the leaf. Lycophytes, in contrast, bear their sporangia on the surface of leaves or laterally on stems. Leaves that bear sporangia are called sporophylls, if the plant is heterosporous, the sporangia-bearing leaves are distinguished as either microsporophylls or megasporophylls. In seed plants, sporangia are located within strobili or flowers. Cycads form their microsporangia on microsporophylls which are aggregated into strobili, megasporangia are formed within ovules, which are borne on megasporophylls, which are aggregated into strobili on separate plants. Conifers typically bear their microsporangia on microsporophylls aggregated into pollen strobili. Flowering plants contain microsporangia in the anthers of stamens and megasporangia inside ovules inside ovaries, in all seed plants, spores are produced by meiosis and develop into gametophytes while still inside the sporangium. Categorized based on sequence, eusporangia and leptosporangia are differentiated in the vascular plants. In a leptosporangium, found only in ferns, development involves a single cell that becomes the stalk, wall
24.
Zineb
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Zineb is the chemical compound with the formula n. Structurally, it is classified as a coordination polymer and this pale yellow solid is used as fungicide. It is produced by treating ethylene bis sodium salt, nabam and this procedure can be carried out by mixing nabam and zinc sulfate in a spray tank. Its uses include control of downy mildews, rusts and redfire disease, in the US it was once registered as a General Use Pesticide, however all registrations were voluntarily cancelled following an EPA special review. It continues to be used in other countries. Zineb is a complex of zinc with the bis derived from the reaction. The polymer is composed of Zn2 subunits linked by ethylene backbone, a reference compound is 2, which features a pair of tetrahedral Zn centers bridged by one sulfur center. Metam sodium - A related dithiocarbamate salt which is used as a fungicide Maneb - ethylene bis with manganese instead of zinc Zineb in the Pesticide Properties DataBase
25.
Sunflower
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Helianthus or sunflowers L. /ˌhiːliˈænθəs/ is a genus of plants comprising about 70 species in the family Asteraceae. The genus is one of many in the Asteraceae that are known as sunflowers, except for three species in South America, all Helianthus species are native to North America. The common name, sunflower, typically refers to the annual species Helianthus annuus, or the common sunflower. This and other species, notably Jerusalem artichoke, are cultivated in regions as food crops. The largest sunflower field is located in Tuscany, Italy, the domesticated sunflower, H. annuus, is the most familiar species. Perennial sunflower species are not as popular for gardens due to their tendency to spread rapidly and become invasive. Whorled sunflowers, H. verticillatus, were listed as a species in 2014 when the U. S. Fish. The primary threats are industrial forestry and pine plantations in Alabama, Georgia and they grow to 1.8 m and are primarily found in woodlands, adjacent to creeks and moist, prairie-like areas. Sunflowers are usually annual or perennial plants that grow to a height of 300 centimetres or more. They bear one or more wide, terminal capitula, with yellow ray florets at the outside. Several ornamental cultivars of Helianthus annuus have red-colored ray florets, all of them stem from a single original mutant, during growth, sunflowers tilt during the day to face the sun, but stop once they begin blooming. This tracking of the sun in young sunflower heads is called heliotropism, by the time they are mature, sunflowers generally face east. The rough and hairy stem is branched in the part in wild plants but is usually unbranched in domesticated cultivars. The petiolate leaves are dentate and often sticky, the lower leaves are opposite, ovate or often heart-shaped. They are distinguished technically by the fact that the ray florets are sterile, some species also have additional shorter scales in the pappus, and there is one species that lacks a pappus entirely. Another technical feature that distinguishes the genus more reliably, but requires a microscope to see, is the presence of a prominent, sunflowers are especially well known for their symmetry based on Fibonacci numbers and the Golden angle. There is quite a bit of variability among the species that make up the bulk of the species in the genus. Some have most or all of the leaves in a rosette at the base of the plant
26.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
27.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
28.
Viticulture
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Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes. It deals with the series of events occur in the vineyard. It is a branch of the science of horticulture, for this reason, viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Viticulturists are often involved with winemakers, because vineyard management. A great number of varieties are now approved in the European Union as true grapes for wine-growing and viticulture, the earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 7,000 years. The history of viticulture is closely related to the history of wine, evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia. The oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. There is also evidence of domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age. Evidence of ancient viticulture is provided by sources, plant remains, historical geography. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption, in addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic, during this period, grape cultivation developed from an aspect of local consumption to an important component of international economies and trade. From 1200 BC to 900 BC, the Phoenicians developed viticulture practices that were used in Carthage. Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian writer Mago recorded such practices in a work that was one of the few artifacts to survive the Roman destruction of Carthage during the Third Punic War. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder was influenced by texts, and around 160 BC he wrote De Agricultura. Around 65 AD, the Roman writer Columella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume text De Re Rustica, columellas work is one of the earliest to detail trellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice of training vines to grow up along tree trunks. Roman viticulturists were among the first to identify steep hillsides as one of the locations to plant vines, because cool air runs downhill
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Ampelography
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Ampelography is the field of botany concerned with the identification and classification of grapevines, Vitis spp. Traditionally this has been done by comparing the shape and colour of the leaves and grape berries. The grape vine is a variable species and some varieties, such as Pinot. Many vine identification books were published at time, one of which is Victor Rendus Ampélographie française of 1857. Until the Second World War, ampelography had been an art, then Pierre Galet of the École nationale supérieure agronomique de Montpellier made a systematic assembly of criteria for the identification of vines. The grapes are less affected by environmental factors than the leaves and the shoots and he even included grape flavour as a criterion, but this is rather subjective. Galet then published the book, Ampélographie pratique, in 1952. Ampélographie pratique was translated into English by Lucie Morton, published in 1979, carole Meredith at the University of California, Davis pioneered the use of genetic fingerprinting for vine identification. Famous successes with the technique include proving the identity of Zinfandel, Primitivo, and Crljenak Kaštelanski, such exercises are giving valuable insight into historical patterns of trade and migration. DNA fingerprinting uses segments of DNA that do not affect the look or taste of the grapes, the original Galet Ampélographie Pratique is the definitive book, either in French or in English translation, but has long been out of print and does not include any DNA evidence. Upper canopy collection and identification of grapevines from selected forests in the southeastern United States, Galet, Pierre Précis d’Ampélographie Pratique Galet, Pierre trans. Lucie Morton A Practical Ampelography, Grapevine Identification Cornell University Press Galet, Pierre ed. Illustrated Historical Universal Ampelography, LArtistica Editrice, Savigliano
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Annual growth cycle of grapevines
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From a winemaking perspective, each step in the process plays a vital role in the development of grapes with ideal characteristics for making wine. The stages of the growth cycle usually become observable within the first year of a vines life. The amount of time spent at each stage of the cycle depends on a number of factors-most notably the type of climate. The grape starts its growth cycle in the spring with bud break. In the Northern Hemisphere, this stage begins around March while in the Southern Hemisphere it begins around September when daily temperatures begin to surpass 10 °C, if the vine had been pruned during the winter, the start of this cycle is signaled by a bleeding of the vine. During this period a single vine can bleed up to 5 litres of water, tiny buds on the vine start to swell and eventually shoots begin to grow from the buds. Buds are the part of the vine that rest between the vines stem and the petiole. Inside the buds contain usually three primordial shoots and these buds appear in the summer of previous growth cycle green and covered in scales. During winter dormancy they turn brown until the spring when the vine begins the process of bud break, the energy to facilitate this growth comes from reserves of carbohydrate stored in roots and wood of the vine from the last growth cycle. Eventually the shoots sprout tiny leaves that can begin the process of photosynthesis, in warm climates, after about 4 weeks the growth of the shoots starts to rapidly accelerate with the shoots growing in length an average of 3 cm a day. In temperate climates, where temperatures can reach above 10 °C in mid-winter, after bud break, the young shoots are very vulnerable to frost damage with vineyard managers going to great lengths protect the fragile shoots should temperature dramatically drop below freezing. This can include setting up heaters or wind circulators in the vineyard to keep air from settling on the vines. Depending on temperatures, 40–80 days after bud break the process of flowering begins with small flower clusters appearing on the tips of the young shoots looking like buttons. Flowering occurs when average daily temperatures stay between 15–20 °C which in the Northern Hemisphere wine regions is generally around May and for the Southern Hemisphere regions around November, a few weeks after the initial clusters appear, the flowers start to grow in size with individual flowers becoming observable. It is during this stage of flowering that the pollination and fertilization of the takes place with the resulting product being a grape berry. Hermaphroditic vines are preferred for cultivation because each vine is more likely to self-pollinate, at the beginning of the flowering process the only part that is visible is the fused cap of petals known as the calyptra. Shortly after the calyptra is shed, liberating the pollen from the anthers of the stamen, wind and insects generally play only a small role in aiding pollination, with the process being mostly self-contained within the vine. But cross-pollination between vine species is possible as in the cases of the origins of several varieties like Cabernet Sauvignon
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Hybrid grape
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Hybrid grapes are grape varieties that are the product of a crossing of two or more Vitis species. This is in contrast to crossings between grape varieties of the species, typically Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine. Hybrid grapes are referred to as inter-specific crossings or Modern Varieties. The recently developed varieties, Rondo, and Regent are examples of hybrid grape varieties for European viticulturalists. Hybrid varieties exhibit a mix of traits from their European, Asiatic and these attributes proved unpopular in Europe, and were among the factors that led to the prohibition of the commercial growth of hybrid vines in many countries in Europe. After extensive attempts, grafting European varieties onto North American rootstock proved to be the most successful method of dealing with the problem. From the 1950s onwards, grape varieties such as De Chaunac, Baco noir, Marechal Foch, Vidal, etc. have been a staple of the industries in Ontario, New York, Pennsylvania. Only since the 1970s and 1980s have vinifera varieties begun to displace hybrid grapes in this area, even in those areas where vitis vinifera now predominates, hybrid varieties still have cult following with some wine consumers. Furthermore, in some cases hybrid grapes are used to unique and exceptional products, for example, ice wine produced from Vidal blanc or Vignoles in Ontario. Hybrid grapes are expanding in traditional wine regions, because they can be easier to grow and can ripen earlier than vinifera. Therefore, hybrid grapes are considered a Green alternative to vinifera grapes, the best-known grape species in reference to viticulture include, Vitis vinifera, the so-called European or wine grape, indigenous in the Eurasian area. Classed within this species are the table and wine grape varieties such as Riesling, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, Merlot. Vitis aestivalis, native to eastern North America, Vitis rupestris, native to North America. Vitis riparia, the river bank grape, native to northeastern North America, Vitis amurensis, the Asiatic grape species, native to Siberia and China. Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, native to the half of the United States Vitis labrusca. Concord and Niagara are both interspecific hybrids with a large labrusca content, while rare, interspecific hybrid vines can result in the wild from cross-pollination. Due to the abundance of American Vitis species one finds such natural hybrid vines on the American continent, the majority of the well-known hybrid vines however, have been artificially created. The earliest named hybrid in America was the Alexander grape, discovered around 1740 near a vineyard planted for William Penn along the Schuylkill, albert Seibel, Probably the best-known breeder, who developed an immense number of breeding between 1886 and 1936 in Aubenas
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International Grape Genome Program
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The International Grape Genomics Program is a collaborative genome project dedicated to determining the genome sequence of the grapevine Vitis vinifera. It is a project involving research centers in Australia, France, Canada, Chile, Germany, Italy, South Africa, Spain. The project was initiated in on the premise that whereas the Vitis family provides the worlds most economically important fruit, while advances in quality have certainly been achieved, it has involved increased costs and is in danger of incurring unsustainable environmental overheads. As of March 2007, the project has mapped over half of the grapevine genome, white grapes are believed to have arisen due to the extremely rare and independent mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes, VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2, in a red grape parent. Although either can dictate colour, the VvMYBA1 gene, which activates the anthocyanin biosynthesis necessary to produce red grapes, was not to be transcribed in white grape berries. The white berry allele of VvMYBA2 was inactivated by two mutations, one leading to an amino acid substitution and the other to a frameshift mutation. Tests showed that either mutation removes the ability of the regulator to switch on anthocyanin biosynthesis, assuming this to be true of all white cultivars, without this single parent vine there would be no white grapes today. A similar dual mutation occurred during the last decade, viticultor Jesús Galilea Esteban, of the vineyard Murillo de Rio Leza in Rioja, Spain, noticed a white grape mutation in some Tempranillo grapevines growing on his estate. Both white and red vines share identical leaves, clusters and berry shape, as well as the short ripening cycles and sensitivity to pests, the mutation is thought to have occurred as a result of environmental factors
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Ripeness in viticulture
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In viticulture, ripeness is the completion of the ripening process of wine grapes on the vine which signals the beginning of harvest. What exactly constitutes ripeness will vary depending on style of wine is being produced and what the winemaker. There are several factors contribute to the ripeness of the grape. As the grapes go through veraison, sugars in the grapes will continue to rise as acid levels fall, if ripening is broadly defined as the development of wine grapes, then it could be said that ripening is happening throughout the continuous annual cycle of the grapevine. More narrowly defined, ripening begins at the inception of veraison, at this point, the grapes are hard and green with low sugar levels and very high levels of mostly malic acids. During veraison, which may last from 30–70 days depending on the climate and other factors, the concentration of phenolic compounds in the skin, most notably anthocyanins for red wine grapes, replace the green color of chlorophyll as the grape berries themselves change color. The increase of sugars in the grapes comes from the storage of carbohydrates in the roots, sucrose produced by photosynthesis is transferred from the leaves to the berries as it is broken down into glucose and fructose molecules. As the concentration of sugars build up, the concentration of acids decrease due, in part, to simple dilution, the decrease in free acids, as well as the buildup of potassium, triggers a rise in the pH level of the grape juice. In addition to the change in sugar, acids and pH levels other components of the grapes are building up during the ripening process. The mineral components of potassium, calcium, magnesium and sodium increase in concentration as they are disseminated among the skin of the grapes, the color of the grape berries begin to change due to the building up of phenolic compounds such as anthocyanin in the skins. Flavonoids and volatile compounds known as flavor precursors which contribute to the flavor and aroma of the wine also begin to build up in the skins. Additionally the concentration of tannins in the increases in several areas of the grape including the skin, seeds. Early in the process these tannins are very bitter and green. Exposure to the warmth and sunlight during the ripening period ushers in chemical changes to the tannins that when processed into wine makes the tannins feel softer in the mouth. What constitutes ripeness will vary according to style of wine is being produced as well as the particular views of winemakers. The style of wine is usually dictated by the balance between sugars and acids, what may be considered ripe for one winemaker could be considered under ripe to another winemaker or even overripe to yet a third winemaker. Climate and the grape variety will also play a role in determining ripeness. This is because sugars are converted by yeast into alcohol by the process of fermentation, the greater the concentration of sugars in the grape, the greater the potential alcohol level
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Veraison
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In viticulture, veraison is the onset of ripening. The term is originally French, but has been adopted into English use, the official definition of veraison is change of color of the grape berries. Veraison represents the transition from berry growth to berry ripening, grape berries follow a double sigmoid growth curve. The initial phase of growth is a result of cell division. As berry growth of phase I slows this is termed the lag phase, the lag phase is not a physiological growth stage, but an artificial designation between the two growth periods of grape berry development. Post-veraision, fruit acidity decreases due to degradation of malic acid, the degradation of malic acid during ripening makes tartaric acid the predominant acid, grape berries also possess a small amount of citric acid. Tartaric acid accumulates early in phase I of berry growth, while malic acid accumulates at the end of phase I berry growth, at the same time as acidity decreases, hexose sugars are accumulated. Physiologically, the concentration can increase to around 25 percent via sugar development. Further increases in concentration are due to dehydration of the fruit. The deposition of sugar into the berry depends on the level of leaf photosynthesis, as ripening continues, the fruit becomes attractive to animals due to changes in aroma from acidic to sweet with fruitiness. As ripening occurs, herbaceous aromas are degraded and it is unknown whether the degradation of herbaceous aromas allows fruit aromas to be detected, or if fruity aromas develop later in berry ripening. The berry also changes in color, presumably because chlorophyll is broken down, in white cultivars, carotenoids are formed, while in red cultivars, anthocyanins and xanthophylls are formed. The trigger of veraison is unknown, but may signify the seed reaching maturity, fête de la Véraison is a medieval festival held in the famous winemaking village of Châteauneuf-du-Pape. Annual growth cycle of grapevines Site showing images of Veraison
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Vineyard
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A vineyard /ˈvɪnjərd/ is a plantation of grape-bearing vines, grown mainly for winemaking, but also raisins, table grapes and non-alcoholic grape juice. The science, practice and study of production is known as viticulture. The earliest evidence of production dates from between 6000 and 5000 BC. Wine making technology improved considerably with the ancient Greeks but it wasnt until the end of the Roman Empire that cultivation techniques as we know them were common throughout Europe. In medieval Europe the Church was a supporter of wine. They owned and tended the best vineyards in Europe and vinum theologium was considered superior to all others, European vineyards were planted with a wide variety of the Vitis vinifera grape. However, in the late 19th century, the species was nearly destroyed by the plant louse phylloxera accidentally introduced to Europe from North America. Native American grapevines include varieties such as Vitis labrusca, which is resistant to the bug, the quest for vineyard efficiency has produced a bewildering range of systems and techniques in recent years. Due to the much more fertile New World growing conditions. Innovation in palissage and pruning and thinning methods have replaced more general, traditional concepts like yield per unit area in favor of maximizing yield of desired quality. Many of these new techniques have since adopted in place of traditional practice in the more progressive of the so-called Old World vineyards. Other recent practices include spraying water on vines to protect them from sub-zero temperatures, new grafting techniques, soil slotting, such techniques have made possible the development of wine industries in New World countries such as Canada. Today there is increasing interest in developing organic, ecologically sensitive, biodynamics has become increasingly popular in viticulture. The use of irrigation in recent years has expanded vineyards into areas which were previously unplantable. The research includes developing improved grape varieties and investigating pest control, the International Grape Genome Program is a multi-national effort to discover a genetic means to improving quality, increasing yield and providing a natural resistance to pests. The implementation of mechanical harvesting is often stimulated by changes in laws, labor shortages. It can be expensive to hire labor for periods of time. Numbers of New World vineyard plantings have been increasing almost as fast as European vineyards are being uprooted, the size of individual vineyards in the New World is significant
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Vitis
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Vitis is a genus of 79 accepted species of vining plants in the flowering plant family Vitaceae. The genus is made up of species predominantly from the Northern hemisphere and it is economically important as the source of grapes, both for direct consumption of the fruit and for fermentation to produce wine. The study and cultivation of grapevines is called viticulture, most Vitis varieties are wind-pollinated with hermaphroditic flowers containing both male and female reproductive structures. These flowers are grouped in bunches called inflorescences, in many species, such as Vitis vinifera, each successfully pollinated flower becomes a grape berry with the inflorescence turning into a cluster of grapes. Grapevines usually only produce fruit on shoots that came from buds that were developed during the growing season. In viticulture, this is one of the principles behind pruning the previous years growth that includes shoots that have turned hard and these vines will be pruned either into a cane which will support 8 to 15 buds or to a smaller spur which holds 2 to 3 buds. Flower buds are formed late in the season and overwinter for blooming in spring of the next year. Vitis is distinguished from other genera of Vitaceae by having petals which remain joined at the tip, the flowers are mostly bisexual, pentamerous, with a hypogynous disk. The calyx is greatly reduced or nonexistent in most species and the petals are joined together at the tip into one unit, the fruit is a berry, ovoid in shape and juicy, with a two-celled ovary each containing two ovules, thus normally producing four seeds per flower. In the wild, all species of Vitis are normally dioecious, most Vitis species have 38 chromosomes, but 40 in Vitis rotundifolia. Most Vitis species are found in the regions of the Northern Hemisphere in North America. The wine grape Vitis vinifera originated in southern Europe and southwestern Asia, the species occur in widely different geographical areas and show a great diversity of form. Their growth makes leaf collection challenging and polymorphic leaves make identification of species difficult, mature grapevines can grow up to 48 cm in diameter at breast height and reach the upper canopy of trees more than 35 m in height. Many species are closely related to allow easy interbreeding and the resultant interspecific hybrids are invariably fertile. The exact number of species is not certain, with species in Asia in particular being poorly defined, estimates range from 40 to more than 60. Some of the more notable include, Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine, native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Vitis labrusca, the Fox grapevine, sometimes used for wine, native to the Eastern United States and Canada. Vitis riparia, the Riverbank Grapevine, sometimes used for winemaking, native to the entire Eastern U. S. and north to Quebec
