1.
Cast iron
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Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
2.
Dragon
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A dragon is a legendary creature, typically scaled or fire-spewing and with serpentine, reptilian or avian traits, that features in the myths of many cultures around world. The two most well-known cultural traditions of dragon are The European dragon, derived from European folk traditions and ultimately related to Balkans, most are depicted as reptilian creatures with animal-level intelligence, and are uniquely six-limbed. The Chinese dragon, with counterparts in Japan, Korea and other East Asian, most are depicted as serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence, and are quadrupeds. The two traditions may have evolved separately, but have influenced each other to a certain extent, the English word dragon and Latin word draco derives from Greek δράκων, dragon, serpent of huge size, water-snake. The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological, a dragon is a mythological representation of a reptile. In antiquity, dragons were mostly envisaged as serpents, but since the Middle Ages, it has become common to them with legs. Dragons are usually shown in modern times with a body like a huge lizard, the European dragon has bat-like wings growing from its back. A dragon-like creature with wings but only a pair of legs is known as a wyvern. The association of the serpent with a monstrous opponent overcome by a deity has its roots in the mythology of the Ancient Near East, including Canaanite, Hittite. Humbaba, the fire-breathing dragon-fanged beast first described in the Epic of Gilgamesh, is described as a dragon with Gilgamesh playing the part of dragon-slayer. The folk-lore motif of the dragon guarding gold may have come from earlier Bronze Age customs of introducing serpents to village granaries to deter rats or mice. Although dragons occur in many legends around the world, different cultures have varying stories about monsters that have been grouped together under the dragon label, some dragons are said to breathe fire or to be poisonous, such as in the Old English poem Beowulf. They are commonly portrayed as serpentine or reptilian, hatching from eggs and they are sometimes portrayed as hoarding treasure. Some myths portray them with a row of dorsal spines, European dragons are more often winged, while Chinese dragons resemble large snakes. Dragons can have a number of legs, none, two, four, or more when it comes to early European literature. Dragons are often held to have spiritual significance in various religions. In many Asian cultures, dragons were, and in some still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of nature, religion. They are associated with wisdom—often said to be wiser than humans—and longevity and they are commonly said to possess some form of magic or other supernatural power, and are often associated with wells, rain, and rivers
3.
City of London
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The City of London is a city and county within London. It constituted most of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, the City is now only a tiny part of the metropolis of London, though it remains a notable part of central London. Administratively, it one of the 33 local authority districts of Greater London, however, the City of London is not a London borough. The City of London is widely referred to simply as the City and is colloquially known as the Square Mile. Both of these terms are often used as metonyms for the United Kingdoms trading and financial services industries. The name London is now used for a far wider area than just the City. London most often denotes the sprawling London metropolis, or the 32 London boroughs and this wider usage of London is documented as far back as 1888, when the County of London was created. The local authority for the City, namely the City of London Corporation, is unique in the UK and has some unusual responsibilities for a local council and it is also unusual in having responsibilities and ownerships beyond its boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, the current Lord Mayor, as of November 2016, is Andrew Parmley. The City is a business and financial centre. Throughout the 19th century, the City was the primary business centre. London came top in the Worldwide Centres of Commerce Index, published in 2008, the insurance industry is focused around the eastern side of the City, around Lloyds building. A secondary financial district exists outside of the City, at Canary Wharf,2.5 miles to the east, the City has a resident population of about 7,000 but over 300,000 people commute to and work there, mainly in the financial services sector. It used to be held that Londinium was first established by merchants as a trading port on the tidal Thames in around 47 AD. However, this date is only supposition, many historians now believe London was founded some time before the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 AD. They base this notion on evidence provided by both archaeology and Welsh literary legend, archaeologists have claimed that as much as half of the best British Iron Age art and metalwork discovered in Britain has been found in the London area. One of the most prominent examples is the famously horned Waterloo Helmet dredged from the Thames in the early 1860s and now exhibited at the British Museum. Also, according to an ancient Welsh legend, a king named Lud son of Heli substantially enlarged and improved a pre-existing settlement at London which afterwards came to be renamed after him, the same tradition relates how this Lud son of Heli was later buried at Ludgate
4.
Coat of arms of the City of London
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The coat of arms of the City of London is the official coat of arms of the City of London, which is one of a number of cities and boroughs in Greater London. The blazon of the arms is as follows, Arms, Argent a cross gules, crest, On a wreath argent and gules a dragons sinister wing argent charged on the underside with a cross throughout gules. Supporters, On either side a dragon argent charged on the undersides of the wings with a cross throughout gules, the coat of arms is anciently recorded at the College of Arms. It was in use in 1381, forming part of the design of a new mayoralty seal taken into use on 17 April of that year, the arms consist of a silver shield bearing a red cross with a red upright sword in the first quarter. They combine the emblems of the saints of England and London. The 1381 arms replaced an earlier shield, found on a charter of 1319, the sword is often erroneously supposed to commemorate the killing of Peasants Revolt leader Wat Tyler by Lord Mayor of London William Walworth. However the arms were in use some months before Tylers death, the crest and supporters came into use in the 17th century, but were used without authority until 30 April 1957, when they were confirmed and granted by letters patent from the College of Arms. The crest is a dragons wing bearing the cross of St George, a primitive form of the crest first appeared in 1539 on the reverse of a new common seal. This showed a fan-like object bearing a cross, over time this evolved into a dragons wing, and was shown as such in 1633 when it appeared above the citys coat of arms in the frontispiece to the fourth edition of John Stows Survey of London. The wing is specified as a left wing, i. e. its proper left wing. It has been speculated that the use of a peers helmet relates to the use of the honorific prefix The Right Honourable by the Lord Mayor, the helm was confirmed in 1957. On the seal of 1381 two lions were shown supporting the arms, however, by 1609 the present supporters, two silver dragons bearing red crosses upon their wings, had been adopted. The dragons were probably suggested by the legend of Saint George, the Latin motto of the City is Domine dirige nos, which translates as Lord, direct us. It appears to have adopted in the 17th Century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633. A banner of the arms is flown as a flag of the City, coat of arms of London County Council
5.
Attitude (heraldry)
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In heraldry, an attitude is the position in which an animal, fictional beast, mythical creature, human or human-like being is emblazoned as a charge, supporter or crest. Many attitudes apply only to predatory beasts and are exemplified by the beast most frequently found in heraldry—the lion, some other terms apply only to docile animals, such as the doe. Other attitudes describe the positions of birds, mostly exemplified by the bird most frequently found in heraldry—the eagle, the term naiant, however, is usually reserved for fish but may also apply to swans, ducks or geese. Birds are often described by the exact position of their wings. The term segreant is apparently reserved for creatures, as this term is the approximation of rampant as it applies to winged quadrupeds such as griffins and dragons. Additionally, there are positions applying to direction, to indicate variations from the position of any charge. Animals and animal-like creatures are presumed to be shown in profile, facing dexter, animals and animal-like creatures are presumed to be shown in profile facing dexter. This attitude is standard unless otherwise stated in the blazon, as a warrior will usually carry a shield in the left hand, the animal shown on the shield will then face toward the knights body. Humans and human-like beings are presumed to be shown affronté, note that the heraldic terms dexter and sinister represent the shield bearers perspective, not the viewers. To dexter or the left is the direction animals are presumed to face. This position is not specified unless necessary for clarity, as when a human or human-like being is depicted or when an animals head. To sinister or contourné is said of a creature facing the viewers right, affronté is said of a creature that faces the viewer. En Arrière is said of a creature positioned with its back to the viewer and it is most common used of birds and insects, where the understanding is of an overhead view of the animal with its wings spread. Guardant or In Full Aspect indicates an animal with a body positioned sideways, regardant indicates an animal with its head turned backward, as if looking over its shoulder. Unless other instructions are given, the body will face to dexter, in Trian Aspect is when the animals head is facing at a 3/4 view to give the appearance of depth. The head will be viewed at an angle somewhere between profile and straight-on, many attitudes commonly met with in heraldic rolls apply specifically to predatory beasts, while others may be better suited to the docile animals. These will each be discussed in detail below, also worth note is that a lion or other beast may additionally be described in terms of the position of its head, differently coloured parts, or by the shape or position of its tail. A beast may be armed or langued of a tincture, while a stag may be attired or unguled of a tincture, a lion carries the tail between its hind legs
6.
Supporter
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In heraldry, supporters, sometimes referred to as attendants, are figures or objects usually placed on either side of the shield and depicted holding it up. Early forms of supporters are found in medieval seals, however, unlike the coronet or helmet and crest, supporters were not part of early medieval heraldry. As part of the achievement, they first become fashionable towards the end of the 15th century. The arms of nutritionist John Boyd-Orr use two garbs as supporters, the arms of the USS Donald Cook, missiles, the arms of the state of Rio Grande do Norte in Brazil, letters of the alphabet are used as supporters in the arms of Valencia, Spain. Human supporters can also be allegorical figures, or, more rarely, specifically named individuals, the arms of the Congo provide an extremely unusual example of two supporters issuing from behind the shield. While such single supporters are generally eagles with one or two heads, there are examples, including the cathedra in the case of some Canadian cathedrals. At the other extreme and even rarer, the Scottish chief Dundas of that Ilk had three supporters, two red lions and the whole supported by a salamander. The coat of arms of Iceland even has four supporters, an example of whales non-rampant is the arms of the Dutch municipality of Zaanstad. However, medieval Scottish seals afford numerous examples in which the 13th and 14th century shields were placed between two creatures resembling lizards or dragons, further, on his retirement from office as Chief Herald, Robert Watt was granted supporters as an honour. Trees and other objects which are sometimes used are called Soutiens. Knights Grand Companion and Principal Companions of the New Zealand Order of Merit are granted the use of heraldic supporters, originally, in England, supporters were regarded as little more than mere decorative and artistic appendages. In the United Kingdom, supporters are typically an example of royal favour. Hereditary supporters are normally limited to hereditary peers, certain members of the Royal Family, knights banneret were also granted non-hereditary supporters, but no such knight has been created since the time of Charles I. Tom Brown was so knighted by George II at the Battle of Dettingen, supporters may also be granted to corporations which have a royal charter
7.
Coal Exchange (London)
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The London Coal Exchange was situated on the north side of Thames Street in the City of London, nearly opposite to Old Billingsgate Market, occupying three different structures from 1770 to 1962. The original coal exchange opened in 1770, a second building from 1805 was replaced by a new purpose-built structure constructed from 1847 to 1849, and opened by Prince Albert on 30 October 1849. This third London coal exchange was one of the first substantial buildings constructed from cast iron and it was demolished in 1962 to allow widening of what is now Lower Thames Street despite a campaign by The Victorian Society to save the building. Cast iron decorations from the 1849 Coal Exchange building were selected as the model for the dragon boundary mark for the entrances to the City of London. Coal had been imported to London by sea since at least medieval times. A coal exchange was established in 1770 on Thames Street in the City of London, near the site of Smarts Quay and close to Billingsgate Market, the main trades at Billingsgate Dock were fish and coal. A new building had been built in 1805, with a classical portico supported by small Doric pillars and triangular pediment above. Under the control of the City Corporation, the Coal Exchange became a free and open market, regulated by various Acts of Parliament, at this period, London was heated almost entirely by coal. By 1848, approximately 3.5 million tons of coal was being transported each year from the coalfields in Northumberland and Durham to London, the coal trade was also an important source of tax revenue for the city. Historically, coal taxes were charged by the City based on volume measurements. A coal duty of 4 pence was confirmed by James I, with a duty of 8 pence more added under William and Mary, by 1875, five million tons of coal were being brought to London each year by rail and three million tons by sea. The coal was sorted by coal-sifter and put into coal-sacks by a coal-filler, then transported by coal-waggoners, the work was heavy manual labour, but the trade was essential and workers were reasonably well paid for the period. In the Coal Exchange, coal factors acted as agents between sellers and buyers, all sales were agreed privately, with no public auction, and factors would take a 0. 5% commission. By 1845, a petition was made to build a new exchange, construction started in December 1847 and the new Coal Exchange was formally opened by Prince Albert on 30 October 1849. The Lord Mayor and City MP, James Duke, was made a baronet in honour of the occasion, the new Coal Exchange was built on the north side of Thames Street, on the east side of its junction with St. Mary-at-Hill, with four floors. A Roman hypocaust was found during the excavation of the foundations, part of the Roman house at Billingsgate. The south and west fronts, facing the streets, were built in Italianate style from Portland stone, with four floors, measuring 112 feet wide and 61 feet high. At the southwest corner was an unusual high semi-circular portico with Doric columns and entablature, surmounted by a tower of Portland stone 109 feet high, within the tower was a staircase providing access to the upper floors
8.
Thames Street, London
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Thames Street, divided into Lower and Upper Thames Street, is a road in the City of London, the historic and financial centre of London. It forms part of the busy A3211 route from Tower Hill to Westminster, the London Bridge underpass marks the divide between Upper and Lower Thames Street, with Lower to the east and Upper to the west. Thames Street is mentioned in the diary of Samuel Pepys, the first mention of the road, however, is from 1013 when the Custom-house was founded on the street. During the reign of King Henry VIII, the contained the London residences of many courtiers, including that of William Compton. In the culture of the twentieth-century, the street is probably best remembered for its place in T. S, at 101 Lower Thames Street, remains of a Roman bath were excavated. They are preserved in the cellar of the building on the site. The London Fire Brigades fire investigation unit is based at Dowgate fire station on Upper Thames Street at the corner of Allhallows Lane, Lower Thames Street formed part of the marathon course of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. The womens Olympic marathon took place on 5 August and the mens on 12 August, the Paralympic marathons were held on 9 September. John Timbs, Thames-Street, Curiosities of London, London, J. C. Hotten, OCLC12878129
9.
James Bunstone Bunning
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James Bunstone Bunning was a British architect. He held the post of architect to the City of London from 1843 until his death, Bunning was born in London on 6 October 1802. He was trained in the office of his father, the surveyor Daniel James Bunning and he was then articled to George Smith. He exhibited at the Royal Academy between 1819 and 1848, giving his address as Bernard Street between 1819 and 1823, and Guilford Street after 1832. He was a fellow of the Institute of British Architects, Bunning was district surveyor for Bethnal Green, and, from around 1825 surveyor to the Foundling Hospital estates. He went on to hold the same post with the Haberdashers Company, the London and County Bank, the Thames Tunnel, the Victoria Life Office and the Chelsea waterworks. In 1834 he built a receiving house – a first-aid post for people rescued from the water – by the Serpentine in Hyde Park for the Royal Humane Society. He won the commission in a competition, entered under a pseudonym and he also won the competition to build the new City of London School on the site of Honey Lane Market in Cheapside. Begun in October 1835, it was a Gothic building more than 180 feet long, accommodating 400 pupils and he also entered the competitions to rebuild the Royal Exchange and the Houses of Parliament. In 1843, Bunning was appointed Clerk of the Citys Works to the City of London in 1843, the title of the post was changed to City Architect in 1847. He had previously made a design for remodelling the market on its site at Smithfield. In 1856 he built two law courts at the Guildhall, and in 1858 began the reconstruction of Newgate prison. In 1858 he built Rogers almshouses at Brixton and the Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Stone in Kent, much of his time as City architect was spent on work connected with the valuation, leasing and sale of the City estates. He also surveyed and planned many road improvements, including the building of New Cannon Street and his unexecuted projects included one for the widening of London Bridge. Another duty was to provide decorations for the annual Lord Mayors banquet and his last work was the decoration of London Bridge and other buildings for the ceremonial welcome of Princess Alexandra of Denmark to London. During this time his health broke down and he tendered his resignation from his post with the City of London, Bunning died at his home in Gloucester Terace, Regents Park, on 2 November 1863. A street in Islington is named after him, in 1826, he married a Miss Basan, who was of Italian origin
10.
Dewer
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A vacuum flask is an insulating storage vessel that greatly lengthens the time over which its contents remain hotter or cooler than the flasks surroundings. Invented by Sir James Dewar in 1892, the vacuum consists of two flasks, placed one within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two flasks is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum which significantly reduces heat transfer by conduction or convection, Vacuum flasks are used domestically to keep beverages hot or cold for extended periods of time and for many purposes in industry. The vacuum flask was designed and invented by Scottish scientist Sir James Dewar in 1892 as a result of his research in the field of cryogenics and is called a Dewar flask in his honour. He evacuated the air between the two creating a partial vacuum to keep the temperature of the contents stable. Through the need for this insulated container James Dewar created the vacuum flask, the flask was later developed using new materials such as glass and aluminum, however, Dewar refused to patent his invention. Prior to Dewars invention, German chemist and physician Adolf Ferdinand Weinhold invented his own version of a flask in 1881. Dewars design was transformed into a commercial item in 1904 as two German glassblowers discovered that it could be used to keep cold drinks cold and warm drinks warm. The name later became a trademark after the term thermos became the household name for such a liquid container. The vacuum flask went on to be used for different types of scientific experiments. Thermos remains a trademark in some countries but was declared a genericized trademark in the US in 1963 since it is colloquially synonymous with vacuum flasks in general. However, there are other vacuum flasks, after the German glassblowers determined the commercial uses for the Dewar flask, the technology was sold to the Thermos company who used it to mass-produce vacuum flasks for at-home use. Eventually other manufacturers produced similar products for consumer use, the vacuum flask consists of two flasks, placed one within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two flasks is partially evacuated of air, creating a partial-vacuum which reduces heat conduction or convection, most heat transfer occurs through the neck and opening of the flask, where there is no vacuum. Vacuum flasks are made of metal, borosilicate glass, foam or plastic and have their opening stoppered with cork or polyethylene plastic. Vacuum flasks are used as insulated shipping containers. Extremely large or long vacuum flasks sometimes cannot fully support the inner flask from the neck alone and these spacers act as a thermal bridge and partially reduce the insulating properties of the flask around the area where the spacer contacts the interior surface. Several technological applications, such as NMR and MRI machines, rely on the use of vacuum flasks
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