1.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older
2.
Pony
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Depending on context, a pony may be a horse that is under an approximate or exact height at the withers or a small horse with a specific conformation and temperament. The word pony derives from the old French poulenet, meaning foal, a young, immature horse, but this is not the meaning, unlike a horse foal. However, on occasion, people who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a foal, the ancestors of most modern ponies developed small stature because they lived on the margins of livable horse habitat. These smaller animals were domesticated and bred for various purposes all over the Northern Hemisphere, ponies were historically used for driving and freight transport, as childrens mounts, for recreational riding, and later as competitors and performers in their own right. During the Industrial Revolution, particularly in Great Britain, a significant number were used as pit ponies, ponies are generally considered intelligent and friendly, although sometimes they also are described as stubborn or cunning. Properly trained ponies are appropriate mounts for children who are learning to ride, larger ponies can be ridden by adults, as ponies are usually strong for their size. In modern use, many organizations define a pony as a horse that measures less than 14.2 hands at the withers. Different organizations that use a strict measurement model vary from 14 hands to nearly 14.3 hands, many breeds classify an animal as either horse or pony based on pedigree and phenotype, no matter its height. Some full-sized horses may be called ponies for various reasons of tradition or as a term of endearment, for many forms of competition, the official definition of a pony is a horse that measures less than 14.2 hands at the withers. However, the pony can be used in general for any small horse. Furthermore, some breeds may have individuals who mature under that height but are still called horses and are allowed to compete as horses. In Australia, horses that measure from 14 hands to 15 hands are known as a galloway, people who are unfamiliar with horses may confuse an adult pony with a young, immature horse. While foals that will grow up to be horse-sized may be no taller than some ponies in their first months of life, a pony can be ridden and put to work, while a foal is too young to be ridden or used as a working animal. Foals, whether they grow up to be horse or pony-sized, can be distinguished from adult horses by their long legs. Their heads and eyes also exhibit juvenile characteristics, furthermore, in most cases, nursing foals will be in very close proximity to a mare who is the mother of the foal. While ponies exhibit some neoteny with the wide foreheads and small size, ponies originally developed as a landrace adapted to a harsh natural environment, and were considered part of the draft subtype typical of Northern Europe. At one time, it was hypothesized that they may have descended from a wild subspecies of Equus ferus. The usefulness of the pony was noted by farmers who observed that a pony could outperform a draft horse on small farms, by the 20th century, many pony breeds had Arabian and other blood added to make a more refined pony suitable for riding
3.
Mule
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A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes, of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny, which is the offspring of a female donkey and a male horse. The size of a mule and work to which it is put depend largely on the breeding of the female parent. Mules can be lightweight, medium weight, or when produced from draft horse mares, Mules are more patient, hardy and long-lived than horses, and are less obstinate and more intelligent than donkeys. Mules also tend to be more independent than most domesticated equines other than the donkey, the median weight range for a mule is between about 370 and 460 kg. While a few mules can carry live weight up to 160 kg, in general, a mule can be packed with dead weight of up to 20% of its body weight, or approximately 90 kg. Although it depends on the animal, it has been reported that mules trained by the Army of Pakistan can carry up to 72 kilograms. The average equine in general can carry up to approximately 30% of its weight in live weight. A female mule that has estrus cycles and thus, in theory, could carry a fetus, is called a molly or Molly mule, pregnancy is rare, but can occasionally occur naturally as well as through embryo transfer. A male mule is called a horse mule, though often called a john mule. A young male mule is called a colt, and a young female is called a mule filly. With its short thick head, long ears, thin limbs, small narrow hooves, and short mane, in height and body, shape of neck and rump, uniformity of coat, and teeth, it appears horse-like. The mule comes in all sizes, shapes and conformations, there are mules that resemble huge draft horses, sturdy quarter horses, fine-boned racing horses, shaggy ponies and more. The mule is an example of hybrid vigor, charles Darwin wrote, The mule always appears to me a most surprising animal. The mule inherits from its sire the traits of intelligence, sure-footedness, toughness, endurance, disposition, from its dam it inherits speed, conformation, and agility. Mules exhibit a higher intelligence than their parent species. This is also believed to be the result of hybrid vigor, similar to how mules acquire greater height and their hooves are harder than horses, and they show a natural resistance to disease and insects. Many North American farmers with clay soil found mules superior as plow animals, a mule does not sound exactly like a donkey or a horse
4.
Donkey
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The donkey or ass is a domesticated member of the horse family, Equidae. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African wild ass, the donkey has been used as a working animal for at least 5000 years. There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in underdeveloped countries, working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence levels. Small numbers of donkeys are kept for breeding or as pets in developed countries, a male donkey or ass is called a jack, a female a jenny or jennet, a young donkey is a foal. Jack donkeys are used to mate with female horses to produce mules. Asses were first domesticated around 3000 BC, probably in Egypt or Mesopotamia and they continue to fill important roles in many places today. While domesticated species are increasing in numbers, the African wild ass is an endangered species, as beasts of burden and companions, asses and donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia. Traditionally, the name for the donkey is Equus asinus asinus based on the principle of priority used for scientific names of animals. This means that the scientific name for the donkey is Equus africanus asinus when it is considered a subspecies. At one time, the ass was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of donkey was in either 1784 or 1785, while the word ass has cognates in most other Indo-European languages, donkey is an etymologically obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. From the 18th century, donkey gradually replaced ass, and jenny replaced she-ass, by the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ass and arse had caused them to become homophones. Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on breed and management, the height at the withers ranges from 7.3 to 15.3 hands, and the weight from 80 to 480 kg. Working donkeys in the poorest countries have an expectancy of 12 to 15 years, in more prosperous countries. Donkeys are adapted to desert lands. Unlike wild and feral horses, wild donkeys in dry areas are solitary, each adult donkey establishes a home range, breeding over a large area may be dominated by one jack. Donkeys have large ears, which may pick up more distant sounds, donkeys can defend themselves by biting, striking with the front hooves or kicking with the hind legs. A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the period varies from 11 to 14 months
5.
Equidae
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Equidae is the taxonomic family of horses and related animals, including the extant horses, donkeys, and zebras, and many other species known only from fossils. All extant species are in the genus Equus, Equidae belongs to the order Perissodactyla, which includes the extant tapirs and rhinoceros, and several extinct families. The term equid refers to any member of family, including any equine. The oldest known fossils assigned to Equidae date from the early Eocene,54 million years ago and they used to be assigned to the genus Hyracotherium, but the type species of that genus now is regarded to be not a member of this family. The other species have split off into different genera. These early Equidae were fox-sized animals with three toes on the feet, and four on the front feet. They were herbivorous browsers on relatively soft plants, and already adapted for running, the complexity of their brains suggest that they already were alert and intelligent animals. Later species reduced the number of toes, and developed teeth more suited for grinding up grasses, the family became relatively diverse during the Miocene, with many new species appearing. By this time, equids were more truly horse-like, having developed the body shape of the modern animals. Many of these bore the main weight of their bodies on their central, third, toe, with the others becoming reduced. The sole surviving genus, Equus, had evolved by the early Pleistocene, order Perissodactyla † indicates extinct taxa
6.
Wagon
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A wagon is a heavy four-wheeled vehicle pulled by draught animals or on occasion by humans, used for transporting goods, commodities, agricultural materials, supplies and sometimes people. Wagons are immediately distinguished from carts and from lighter four-wheeled vehicles primarily for carrying people, wagons are usually pulled by animals such as horses, mules or oxen. They may be pulled by one animal or by several, often in pairs or teams, however, there are examples of human-propelled wagons, such as mining corfs. A wagon was called a wain and one who builds or repairs wagons is a wainwright. More specifically, a wain is a type of horse- or oxen-drawn, load-carrying vehicle, however, a two-wheeled haywain would be a hay cart, as opposed to a carriage. Wain is also a term for a chariot. Wain can also be a verb, to carry or deliver, a person who drives wagons is called a wagoner, a teamster, a bullocky, a muleskinner, or simply a driver. The exact name and terminology used is dependent on the design or shape of the wagon. If low and sideless may be called a dray, trolley or float, when traveling over long distances and periods, wagons may be covered with cloth to protect their contents from the elements, these are covered wagons. If it has a permanent top enclosing it, it may be called a van, many earlier designs required a very large turning radius, however, shrinking the width of the bed means decreasing the size of the load. As this is a problem that carts do not face, this factor, combined with their lighter weight, the general solutions to this problem involved several modifications to the front-axle assembly. The front axle assembly of a wagon consists of an axle, a pair of wheels, a round plate with a hole in its centre is located on the underside of the wagon. The plate on the wagon, in turn, sits on the plate on the axle between the wheels and this arrangement allows the axle and wheels to turn horizontally. The pin and hole arrangement could be reversed, the horse harness is attached to this assembly. This technique eventually led to further designs well-adapted to narrow areas, wagons have served numerous purposes, with numerous corresponding designs. As with motorized vehicles, some are designed to serve as functions as possible, while others are highly specialized. This section will discuss a broad overview of the classes of wagons, for details on specific types of wagons. Farm wagons are built for general usage in an agricultural or rural setting
7.
Carriage
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A carriage is a wheeled vehicle for people, usually horse-drawn, litters and sedan chairs are excluded, since they are wheelless vehicles. The carriage is especially designed for passenger use and for comfort or elegance. It may be light, smart and fast or heavy, large, Carriages normally have suspension using leaf springs, elliptical springs or leather strapping. A public passenger vehicle would not usually be called a carriage – terms for such include stagecoach, charabanc, working vehicles such as the wagon and cart share important parts of the history of the carriage, as does too the fast chariot. The word carriage is from Old Northern French cariage, to carry in a vehicle, a carriage is sometimes called a team, as in horse and team. A carriage with its horse is a rig, an elegant horse-drawn carriage with its retinue of servants is an equipage. A carriage together with the horses, harness and attendants is a turnout or setout, a procession of carriages is a cavalcade. Some horsecarts found in Celtic graves show hints that their platforms were suspended elastically, four-wheeled wagons were used in prehistoric Europe, and their form known from excavations suggests that the basic construction techniques of wheel and undercarriage were established then. The earliest recorded sort of carriage was the chariot, reaching Mesopotamia as early as 1900 BC, used typically for warfare by Egyptians, the near Easterners and Europeans, it was essentially a two-wheeled light basin carrying one or two passengers, drawn by one to two horses. It is likely that Roman carriages employed some form of suspension on chains or leather straps, in the kingdom of the Zhou Dynasty the Warring States were also known to have used carriages as transportation. With the decline of these civilizations these techniques almost disappeared, the medieval carriage was typically a four-wheeled wagon type, with a rounded top similar in appearance to the Conestoga Wagon familiar from the USA. Sharing the traditional form of wheels and undercarriage known since the Bronze Age, suspension is recorded in visual images and written accounts from the 14th century, and was in widespread use by the 15th century. Carriages were largely used by royalty, aristocrats, and could be decorated and gilded. These carriages were on four wheels often and were pulled by two to four depending on how they were decorated. Wood and iron were the requirements needed to build a carriage. Another form of carriage was the pageant wagon of the 14th century, historians debate on the structure and size of pageant wagons, however, they are generally miniature house-like structures that rest on four to six wheels depending on the size of the wagon. Historians also debate whether or not pageant wagons were built with pivotal axle systems, whether it was a four- or six-wheel pageant wagon, most historians maintain that pivotal axle systems were implemented on pageant wagons because many roads were often winding with some sharp turns. Six wheel pageant wagons also represent another innovation in carriages, they were one of the first carriages to use multiple pivotal axles, pivotal axles were used on the front set of wheels and the middle set of wheels
8.
Cart
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A cart is a vehicle designed for transport, using two wheels and normally pulled by one or a pair of draught animals. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more people and it is different from a dray or wagon, which is a heavy transport vehicle with four wheels and typically two or more horses, or a carriage, which is used exclusively for transporting humans. Over time, the cart has come to mean nearly any small conveyance, from shopping carts to golf carts, without regard to number of wheels, load carried. The draught animals used for carts may be horses or ponies, mules, oxen, water buffalo or donkeys, carts have been mentioned in literature as far back as the second millennium B. C. The Indian sacred book Rigveda states that men and women are as equal as two wheels of a cart, hand-carts pushed by humans have been used around the world. In the 19th century, for instance, some Mormons travelling across the plains of the United States between 1856 and 1860 used handcarts, the history of the cart is closely tied to the history of the wheel. Larger carts may be drawn by animals, such as horses, mules and they have been in continuous use since the invention of the wheel, in the 4th millennium BC. Carts may be named for the animal that pulls them, such as horsecart or oxcart, in modern times, horsecarts are used in competition while draft horse showing. A dogcart, however, is usually a cart designed to carry hunting dogs, the term cart is also used for various kinds of lightweight, two-wheeled carriages, some of them sprung carts, especially those used as open pleasure or sporting vehicles. They could be drawn by a horse, pony or dog, the name survives today as a milkfloat. The seat is adjustable fore-and-aft to keep the vehicle balanced for two or four people, carts have many different shapes, but the basic idea of transporting material remains. Carts may have a pair of shafts, one each side of the draught animal that supports the forward-balanced load in the cart. The shafts are supported by a saddle on the horse, alternatively, the cart may have a single pole between a pair of animals. The draught traces attach to the axle of the vehicle or to the shafts, the traces are attached to a collar, to a yoke or to a harness on dogs or other light animals. Traces are made from a range of materials depending on the load, heavy draught traces are made from iron or steel chain. Lighter traces are often leather and sometimes rope, but plaited horse-hair. The dray is often associated with the transport of barrels, particularly of beer, of the cart types not animal-drawn, perhaps the most common example today is the shopping cart, which has also come to have a metaphorical meaning in relation to online purchases. Shopping carts first made their appearance in Oklahoma City in 1937, in golf, both manual push or pull and electric golf trolleys are designed to carry a golfers bag, clubs and other equipment
9.
Sled
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Most commonly sleds are used on snow or ice, however in certain cases they may be used on any surfaces, especially on ones with relatively low friction, such as sand or wet grass. They may be used to transport passengers, cargo, or both, shades of meaning differentiating the three terms often reflect regional variations depending on historical uses and prevailing climate. In Britain sledge is the term, and more common than sled. Toboggan is sometimes used synonymously with sledge but more often to refer to a type of sledge without runners. Sleigh refers to a moderate to large-sized, usually open-topped vehicle to carry passengers or goods, in Scandinavia particularly a sleigh may also be drawn by reindeer, as for Father Christmas. In American usage sled remains the term but often implies a smaller device. Sledge implies a heavier sled used for moving freight or massive objects, in Australia, where there is limited snow, sleigh and sledge are given equal preference in local parlance. The people of Ancient Egypt are thought to have used sledges extensively in the construction of their public works, sleds and sledges were found in the Oseberg Viking ship excavation. The sledge was also prized, because – unlike wheeled vehicles – it was exempt from tolls. Until the late 19th century, a closed winter sled, or vozok and it was a means of transport preferred by royals, bishops, and boyars of Muscovy. Several royal vozoks of historical importance have been preserved in the Kremlin Armoury, man-hauled sledges were the traditional means of transport on British exploring expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic regions in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Dog sleds were used by most others, such as Roald Amundsen, today some people use kites to tow exploration sleds in such climes. The word sled comes from Middle English sledde, which itself has the origins in Old Dutch word slee, the same word shares common ancestry with both sleigh and sledge. North Americas Horse Drawn Sleigh Rides
10.
Horse-drawn vehicle
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A horse-drawn vehicle is a mechanized piece of equipment pulled by one horse or by a team of horses. These vehicles typically had two or four wheels and were used to carry passengers and/or a load and they were once common worldwide, but they have mostly been replaced by automobiles and other forms of self-propelled transport. A two-wheeled horse-drawn vehicle is a cart, four-wheeled vehicles have many names – one for heavy loads is most commonly called a wagon. Very light carts and wagons can also be pulled by donkeys, other smaller animals are occasionally used, such as large dogs, llamas and goats. Heavy wagons, carts and agricultural implements can also be pulled by other large animals such as oxen, water buffalo, yaks or even camels. Vehicles pulled by one animal have two shafts which attach either side of the rearmost animal, Vehicles which are pulled by a pair have a pole which attaches between the wheel pair. Other arrangements are possible, for example three or more abreast, a wheel pair with a single lead animal, or a wheel pair with three lead animals abreast. Very heavy loads sometimes had a team behind to slow the vehicle down steep hills. Sometimes at a hill with frequent traffic such a team would be hired to passing wagons to help them up or down the hill. Two-wheeled vehicles are balanced by the distribution of weight of the load over the axle, four-wheeled vehicles remain level on their own, and so the shafts or pole are hinged vertically, allowing them to rise and fall with the movement of the animals. A four-wheeled vehicle is steered by the shafts or pole, which are attached to the front axle. Ambulance, much the purpose as the modern sense. Details of the varied but would be a lightly built and well-sprung, enclosed vehicle with provision for seated casualties. Barouche, an elegant, high-slung, open carriage with a seat in the rear of the body and a bench at the front for the driver. Berlin Brake Britzka Brougham Buckboard Bus, see omnibus Buggy, a light, open, four-wheeled carriage, joseph Hansom based the design of his public hire vehicle on the cabriolet so the name cab stuck to vehicles for public hire. Cabriolet Calash or Calèshe, see barouche, cape cart Cariole Carriage, in the late eighteenth century, roughly equivalent to the modern word vehicle. It later came to be restricted to vehicle and even to private. This last is the adopted by the linked article
11.
Horse harness
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A horse harness is a type of horse tack that allows a horse or other equine to be driven and to pull various horse-drawn vehicles such as a carriage, wagon or sleigh. Harnesses may also be used to hitch animals to other such as a plow or canal boat. There are two categories of horse harness, the breaststrap or breastcollar design, and the collar. For light work, such as horse show competition where light carts are used and it can only be used for lighter hauling, since it places the weight of the load on the sternum of the horse and the nearby windpipe. This is not the heaviest skeletal area, also heavy loads can constrict the windpipe, by contrast, the collar and hames harness places the weight of the load onto the horses shoulders, and without any restriction on the air supply. For heavy hauling, the harness must include a collar to allow the animal to use its full weight. Harness components designed for other animals are not suitable for horses, putting harness on a horse is called harnessing or harnessing up. Attaching the harness to the load is called putting to or hitching, the order of putting on harness components varies by discipline, but when a horse collar is used, it is usually put on first. Parts of the include, A collar to allow the horse to push against the harness with its shoulders. Two main alternative arrangements, A horse collar, a padded loop fitting closely around the horses neck, pointed at the top to fit the crest of the neck. Used for heavier pulling, especially when used without a swingletree or whippletree, a padded strap running around the chest from side to side. Used for light work, or for heavier work it is used together with a swingletree evenly on each step without rubbing. Two metal or wooden strips which take the force of the pull. A strap around the horses haunches allowing it to set back and slow a vehicle, used for a single horse, a pair, or in a larger team, only for the wheelers. The leaders in a team do not have breeching, as they are in front of the shafts or pole, breeching may also be omitted in fine harness, or when the cart is very light or has efficient brakes on the wheels. The straps or chains which take the pull from the breastcollar or hames to the load, a small supportive piece of the harness that lies on the horses back, not the same as a riding saddle. A strap that goes firmly around the girth of the horse to attach the harness saddle, a strap that goes more loosely under the belly of the horse, outside the girth. Prevents the shafts rising up, especially on a two-wheeled vehicle, a strap going through the harness saddle to join the belly band either side
12.
Harness racing
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Harness racing is a form of horse racing in which the horses race at a specific gait. They usually pull a cart called a sulky, although in Europe racing under saddle is also conducted. Orlov trotters race separately in Russia, the light cold-blooded Coldblood trotters and Finnhorses race separately in Finland, Norway and Sweden. Today, most harness races are won by Standardbreds who post times of 2 minutes or less, the horses have proportionally shorter legs than Thoroughbreds, and longer bodies. Standardbreds generally have a placid disposition, due to the admixture of non-Thoroughbred blood in the breed. The founding sire of todays Standardbred horse was Messenger, a gray Thoroughbred brought to America in 1788 and purchased by Henry Astor, from Messenger came a great-grandson, Hambletonian 10, who gained a wide following for his racing prowess. However, it is his line for which he is most remembered. The lineage of virtually all North American Standardbred race horses can be traced from four of Hambletonian 10 sons, races can be conducted in two differing gaits – trotting and pacing. The difference is that a trotter moves its legs forward in diagonal pairs, in continental Europe, races are conducted exclusively among trotters, whereas in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States races are also held for pacers. Pacing races constitute 80% to 90% of the harness races conducted in North America, Pacing horses are faster and less likely to break stride. One of the reasons pacers are less likely to break stride is that they often wear hobbles, the belief that hobbles are used to create this gait is a common misunderstanding. The pace is a natural gait for many horses, and hobbles are an aid in supporting the gait at top speed, most harness races start from behind a motorized starting gate. The horses line up behind a slow-moving, hinged gate mounted on a motor vehicle, at the line, the wings of the gate are folded up and the vehicle accelerates away from the horses. This enables handicaps to be placed on horses with several tapes, many European – and some Australian and New Zealand – races use a standing start. The sulky is a light, two-wheeled cart equipped with bicycle wheels, the driver carries a light whip chiefly used to signal the horse by tapping and to make noise by striking the sulky shaft. There are strict rules as to how and how much the whip may be used, in some jurisdictions, for exercising or training, the drivers use what is known as a jog cart, which is a sulky that is heavier and bulkier than a racing unit. The Prix dAmérique is considered to be the number-one trotting race in the world and it is held annually at the gigantic Vincennes hippodrome in eastern Paris late in January. The purse for the race in 2016 is 1 million euros, the horses are entered in the race based on life-time earnings, unless they have qualified by performing well in the preceding six qualifying races
13.
Farm
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A farm is an area of land that is devoted primarily to agricultural processes with the primary objective of producing food and other crops, it is the basic facility in food production. It includes ranches, feedlots, orchards, plantations and estates, smallholdings and hobby farms, in modern times the term has been extended so as to include such industrial operations as wind farms and fish farms, both of which can operate on land or sea. Farming originated independently in different parts of the world, as hunter gatherer societies transitioned to food production rather than, food capture. It may have started about 12,000 years ago with the domestication of livestock in the Fertile Crescent in western Asia, modern farms in developed countries are highly mechanized. In Europe, traditional farms are giving way to larger production units. In Australia, some farms are large because the land is unable to support a high stocking density of livestock because of climatic conditions. In less developed countries, small farms are the norm, the word is from the medieval Latin noun firma, also the source of the French word ferme, meaning a fixed agreement, contract, from the classical Latin adjective firmus meaning strong, stout, firm. Farming has been innovated at multiple different points and places in human history and it was the worlds first historically verifiable revolution in agriculture. Subsequent step-changes in human farming practices were provoked by the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century, farming spread from the Middle East to Europe and by 4,000 BC people that lived in the central part of Europe were using oxen to pull plows and wagons. A farm may operate under a system or with a variety of cereal or arable crops. Specialist farms are often denoted as such, thus a dairy farm, fish farm, some farms may not use the word at all, hence vineyard, orchard, market garden or truck farm. Some farms may be denoted by their location, such as a hill farm. Many other terms are used to describe farms to denote their methods of production, as in collective, corporate, intensive, organic or vertical. There are many breeds of cattle that can be milked some of the best producing ones include Holstein, Norwegian Red, Kostroma, Brown Swiss, in most Western countries, a centralized dairy facility processes milk and dairy products, such as cream, butter, and cheese. In the United States, these dairies are usually local companies, dairy farms generally sell male calves for veal meat, as dairy breeds are not normally satisfactory for commercial beef production. Many dairy farms also grow their own feed, typically including corn, alfalfa and this is fed directly to the cows, or stored as silage for use during the winter season. Additional dietary supplements are added to the feed to milk production. Poultry farms are devoted to raising chickens, turkeys, ducks, a pig farm is one that specializes in raising pigs or hogs for bacon, ham and other pork products and may be free range, intensive, or both
14.
Horse show
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A horse show is a judged exhibition of horses and ponies. Many different horse breeds and equestrian disciplines hold competitions worldwide, from local to the international levels, most horse shows run from one to three days, sometimes longer for major, all-breed events or national and international championships in a given discipline or breed. At the other end of the spectrum, Pony Club is an international movement that teaches young people riding skills suitable for eventing. To help develop positive experience and good sportsmanship, Pony Clubs also sponsor horse shows open only to people under the age of 18. Various nations also have their own programs for developing young equestrians, Horse shows in Australia are governed by Equestrian Australia, Show Horse Council of Australia and different breed societies. Much of the development of the show horse discipline was developed over the last 40 years by Fran Cleland through her involvement with the Equestrian Federation of Australias Victorian branch, the governing body for Equestrian activities in Canada is Equine Canada. In the United Kingdom there is a difference between horse competitions such as dressage or eventing and horse shows. Horse shows provide an opportunity for riders and owners to exhibit their animals without taking part in any of the Olympic disciplines, classes are divided into ridden and in-hand sections and there are many different classes for different horses and ponies. For example, there are classes for Mountain and moorland pony breeds, show hunters, show hacks, equitation, and various show pony classes. Many clubs hold riding club classes, where a horse or pony must perform a short show, most shows also include show jumping and working hunter sections. The British Horse Society oversees many shows at national, regional and local level as does the Pony Club, the British Show Pony Society, breed societies, particularly those that look after the Welsh pony and the Arabian horse also organise their own shows. At local, unaffiliated level, riding clubs across Britain organise regular shows, the newly formed Showing Council is working towards officially overseeing all horse shows. The Olympic equestrian disciplines are overseen by the British Equestrian Federation, however, there are several subdivisions within the federation. Dressage competitions are held separately from regular shows, and are overseen by British Dressage. Show jumping competitions are overseen by the British Showjumping Association, while one-day and three-day eventing are overseen by British Eventing, the United States Equestrian Federation is the American national body for equestrian sport and as such is also the recognized entity overseeing the Olympic-level United States Equestrian Team. It also organizes and sponsors horse shows for many horse breeds who wish to utilize the testing, judge certification. In addition, it sanctions events in disciplines and lower-level competitive areas that are not internationally recognized, such as show hunter, however, there are still some multi-day, all-breed events that feature multiple breeds and disciplines. There are a range of equestrian events available and specific offerings range widely by nation
15.
Combined driving
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Combined driving is an equestrian sport involving carriage driving. In this discipline, the driver sits on a vehicle drawn by a single horse, the sport has three phases, dressage, cross-country marathon and obstacle cone driving, and is most similar to the mounted equestrian sport of eventing. It is one of the ten international equestrian sport horse disciplines recognized by the Fédération Equestre Internationale, the FEI classification system denotes driving competitions as Concours dAttelage, which may be either National or International. A National Event is limited to competitors of that nation, who take part according to the regulations of their National Federation. Foreign athletes may take part by invitation, an International Event must be organised under the FEI Statutes, General Regulations and Sport Rules, and may be open to competitors of all NFs. CAIs are primarily for individual athletes, however, at World Championships, competitions for national teams of three or four members run concurrently with the individual competition. There are two categories of international competitions – CAI-A and CAI-B, the CAI-A category denotes a higher level of organisation and facilities provided. Normally, it is assumed that a CA classified competition is for horses, if pony classes are involved, the letter P is added to the classification. Numbers denote the arrangement of horses in the class, World championships are denoted as Championnat du Monde Attelage. There are three World Championships for horses – Singles, Pairs and Four-in-Hand and these are held every two years, with Single Horse and Four-in-Hand Championships in an even-numbered year and Horse Pairs every odd year. In addition, a World Combined Pony Championships are held every odd-numbered year, FEI World Cup Driving, is a series of competitions for four-in-hand horse teams. Introduced in 2001, it provides a style of competition which takes place in an indoor arena. The course combines marathon and cone driving obstacles, five or six drivers, each with a team of four horses take turns to drive the course against the clock. World Cup Driving events are classified as CAI-W and take place throughout the winter months, competitions for drivers with disabilities are classified as CPEAI and the championships are held in every odd-numbered year. At the National level the sport is governed by each countrys National Federation, sometimes through a body, which will have rules based on the FEI Rulebook. Most countries hold their own National Championships, most people will start driving by joining a local organisation or club, who organise training sessions and one- or two-day competitions. Keen drivers can qualify to take part in events from which they may put themselves forward to be selected to represent their country at international competitions or World Championships. Because a driver needs a groom, its possible to take part as such
16.
International Federation for Equestrian Sports
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The International Federation for Equestrian Sports is the international governing body of equestrian sports. The FEI headquarters are in Lausanne, Switzerland, an FEI code of conduct protects the welfare of the horses from physical abuse or doping. Jumping, Dressage and Eventing have been a part of the Olympics since 1912, para-Equestrian Dressage has been part of the Paralympic games since 1996. The FEI has organized the FEI World Equestrian Games every four years since 1990, the idea of the World Equestrian Games came into being in the mid-1980s and was strongly supported by HRH Prince Philip, who was then FEI President. The WEG encompasses the World Championship titles in all the FEI global disciplines, the FEI World Cup is an indoor series and takes place throughout the world with qualifying leagues leading to a final in each of the disciplines. The FEI World Cup series began with Show jumping in 1978 and has since extended to the disciplines of Dressage. Today, there are 134 National Equestrian Federations affiliated with the FEI, there have been 13 different presidents of the organization. Major Jhkr Karl F. Quarles van Ufford is the individual to have served twice. Nowadays, a President can serve for a maximum of two terms, since 2014, the President of the FEI is Ingmar De Vos from Belgium. Official website FEI TV, Official Video Website Official Facebook Page
17.
Horse training
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Horse training refers to a variety of practices that teach horses to perform certain behaviors when asked to do so by humans. Horses are trained to be manageable by humans for care as well as for equestrian activities from horse racing to therapeutic horseback riding for people with disabilities. Historically, horses were trained for warfare, farm work, sport and transport, today, most horse training is geared toward making horses useful for a variety of recreational and sporting equestrian pursuits. Horses are also trained for specialized jobs from movie stunt work to police and crowd control activities, circus entertainment, there is tremendous controversy over various methods of horse training and even some of the words used to describe these methods. Some techniques are considered cruel, other methods are considered gentler, however, it is beyond the scope of this article to go into the details of various training methodology, so general, basic principles are described below. The see also section of this article links to more specific information about various schools. The range of training techniques and training goals is large, horses, like other animals, differ in brain structure from humans and thus do not have the same type of thinking and reasoning ability as human beings. Thus, the human has the responsibility to think about how to use the psychology of the horse to lead the animal into an understanding of the goals of the human trainer. Horses are social animals and, when properly handled, can learn to follow. Horses, as animals, have an inborn fight or flight instinct that has to be adapted to human needs. Horses need to be taught to rely upon humans to determine when fear or flight is a response to new stimuli. Like most animals, a horse will more easily adapt to human expectations than an older one. Regardless of the goal of training, most horses go through a series of steps on their way to being finished animals for a given discipline. Most young domesticated horses are handled at birth or within the first few days of life, though some are handled for the first time when they are weaned from their mothers. Within a few hours of birth, a foal being imprinted will have a human touch it all over, pick up its feet, and introduce it to human touch and voice. Others may leave a foal alone for its first few hours or days, however, even people who do not advocate imprinting often still place value on handling a foal a great deal while it is still nursing and too small to easily overpower a human. By doing so, the foal ideally will learn that humans will not harm it, while a foal is far too young to be ridden, it is still able to learn skills it will need later in life. The young horse needs to be calm for basic grooming, as well as veterinary care such as vaccinations, a foal needs regular hoof care and can be taught to stand while having its feet picked up and trimmed by a farrier
18.
Plough
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A plough or plow is a tool or farm implement used in farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting to loosen or turn the soil. Ploughs were traditionally drawn by working animals such as horses or cattle, a plough may be made of wood, iron, or steel frame with an attached blade or stick used to cut the earth. It has been an instrument for most of recorded history. The plough represents one of the major agricultural inventions in human history, as the plough is drawn through the soil it creates long trenches of fertile soil called furrows. In modern use, a field is typically left to dry out. Ploughing and cultivating a soil homogenises and modifies the upper 12 to 25 cm of the soil to form a plough layer, in many soils, the majority of fine plant feeder roots can be found in the topsoil or plough layer. Ploughs were initially human-powered, but the process became more efficient once animals were pressed into service. The first animal-powered ploughs were undoubtedly pulled by oxen, and later in areas by horses and mules. In industrialised countries, the first mechanical means of pulling a plough were steam-powered, modern competitions take place for ploughing enthusiasts like the National Ploughing Championships in Ireland. By not ploughing, beneficial fungi and microbial life can develop that will bring air into the soil, retain water. A healthy soil full of active fungi and microbial life, combined with a crop, suppresses weeds and pests naturally. Thus the intensive use of water-, oil- and energy hungry irrigation, fertilisers, cultivated land becomes more fertile and productive over time, while tilled land tends to go down in productivity over time due to erosion and the removal of nutrients with every harvest. Proponents of permaculture claim that it is the way of farming that can be maintained when fossil fuel runs out. The term plough or plow, as used today, was not common until 1700, the modern word plough comes from Old Norse plógr, and therefore Germanic, but it appears relatively late, and is thought to be a loanword from one of the north Italic languages. Words with the same root appeared with related meanings, in Raetic plaumorati wheeled heavy plough, and in Latin plaustrum farm cart, plōstrum, plōstellum cart, and plōxenum, plōximum cart box. The word must have referred to the wheeled heavy plough. Orel tentatively attaches plough to a PIE stem *blōkó-, which gave Armenian peɫem to dig and Welsh bwlch crack, on modern ploughs and some older ploughs, the mouldboard is separate from the share and runner, so these parts can be replaced without replacing the mouldboard. Abrasion eventually destroys all parts of a plough that come into contact with the soil, digging sticks, hoes, and mattocks were not invented in any one place, and hoe-cultivation must have been common everywhere agriculture was practiced
19.
Horse-drawn boat
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Not to be confused with the modern towboat. A horse-drawn boat or tow-boat is a boat operating on a canal. The Romans are known to have used mules to haul boats on their waterways in the UK, Boat horses were the prime movers of the Industrial Revolution, and they remained at work until the middle of the 20th century. A horse, towing a boat with a rope from the towpath, in the early days of the Canal Age, from about 1740, all boats and barges were towed by horse, mule, hinny, pony or sometimes a pair of donkeys. Many of the buildings and structures had been designed with horse power in mind. Horse-drawn boats were used well into the 1960s on UK canals for commercial transport, the Horseboating Society has the primary aims of preserving and promoting Horseboating on the canals of the United Kingdom. There are horseboat operators at Foxton, Godalming, Tiverton, Ashton-under-Lyne, Newbury, Maria is Britains oldest surviving wooden narrowboat, built in 1854 by Jinks Boatyard in Marple, and was never converted to have an engine. From 1854 to 1897, Maria was used to carry railway track ballast for the Manchester, Sheffield and she was then used as a maintenance boat until 1962, lay abandoned for nine years until being salvaged in 1972 and converted to a passenger boat in 1978. In 2000 she was restored to original operating condition. Maria is currently owned by Ashton Packet Boat Company, in 2006 she was the first boat to have been legged through Standedge Tunnel in 60 years. A UK Government minister and a local Member of Parliament took turns at legging Maria through the highest, longest, and deepest canal tunnel in the UK
20.
Logging
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Logging is the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks or skeleton cars. In forestry, the logging is sometimes used in a narrow sense concerning the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest. However, in usage, the term may be used to indicate a range of forestry or silviculture activities. Illegal logging refers to what in forestry might be called timber theft by the timber mafia and it can also refer to the harvesting, transportation, purchase, or sale of timber in violation of laws. Clearcut logging is not necessarily considered a type of logging but a harvesting or silviculture method, in the forest products industry logging companies may be referred to as logging contractors, with the smaller, non-union crews referred to as gyppo loggers. Cutting trees with the highest value and leaving those with lower value and it is sometimes called selective logging, and confused with selection cutting, the practice of managing stands by harvesting a proportion of trees. Logging usually refers to above-ground forestry logging, submerged forests exist on land that has been flooded by damming to create reservoirs. Such trees are logged using underwater logging or by the lowering of the reservoirs in question, ootsa Lake and Williston Lake in British Columbia, Canada are notable examples where timber recovery has been needed to remove inundated forests. Clearcutting, or clearfelling, is a method of harvesting that removes all the standing trees in a selected area. Silviculture objectives for clearcutting, and a focus on forestry distinguish it from deforestation, other methods include shelterwood cutting, group selective, single selective, seed-tree cutting, patch cut, and retention cutting. The above operations can be carried out by different methods, of which the three are considered industrial methods, Trees are felled and then delimbed and topped at the stump. The log is then transported to the landing, where it is bucked and loaded on a truck and this leaves the slash in the cut area, where it must be further treated if wild land fires are of concern. This ability is due to the advancement in the style felling head that can be used, the trees are then delimbed, topped, and bucked at the landing. This method requires that slash be treated at the landing, in areas with access to cogeneration facilities, the slash can be chipped and used for the production of electricity or heat. Full-tree harvesting also refers to utilization of the tree including branches. Cut-to-length logging is the process of felling, delimbing, bucking, harvesters fell the tree, delimb, and buck it, and place the resulting logs in bunks to be brought to the landing by a skidder or forwarder. This method is available for trees up to 900 mm in diameter. Harvesters are employed effectively in level to steep terrain
21.
British monarch
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The monarchy of the United Kingdom, commonly referred to as the British monarchy, is the constitutional monarchy of the United Kingdom, its dependencies and its overseas territories. The monarchs title is King or Queen, the current monarch and head of state, Queen Elizabeth II, ascended the throne on the death of her father, King George VI, on 6 February 1952. The monarch and his or her immediate family undertake various official, ceremonial, diplomatic, as the monarchy is constitutional, the monarch is limited to non-partisan functions such as bestowing honours and appointing the Prime Minister. The monarch is, by tradition, commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces, from 1603, when the Scottish monarch King James VI inherited the English throne as James I, both the English and Scottish kingdoms were ruled by a single sovereign. From 1649 to 1660, the tradition of monarchy was broken by the republican Commonwealth of England, the Act of Settlement 1701 excluded Roman Catholics, or those who married Catholics, from succession to the English throne. In 1707, the kingdoms of England and Scotland were merged to create the Kingdom of Great Britain, and in 1801, the British monarch became nominal head of the vast British Empire, which covered a quarter of the worlds surface at its greatest extent in 1921. After the Second World War, the vast majority of British colonies and territories became independent, George VI and his successor, Elizabeth II, adopted the title Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the free association of its independent member states. The United Kingdom and fifteen other Commonwealth monarchies that share the person as their monarch are called Commonwealth realms. In the uncodified Constitution of the United Kingdom, the Monarch is the Head of State, oaths of allegiance are made to the Queen and her lawful successors. God Save the Queen is the British national anthem, and the monarch appears on postage stamps, coins, the Monarch takes little direct part in Government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majestys Government, which comprises Ministers, primarily the Prime Minister and the Cabinet and they have the direction of the Armed Forces of the Crown, the Civil Service and other Crown Servants such as the Diplomatic and Secret Services. Judicial power is vested in the Judiciary, who by constitution, the Church of England, of which the Monarch is the head, has its own legislative, judicial and executive structures. Powers independent of government are legally granted to public bodies by statute or Statutory Instrument such as an Order in Council. The Sovereigns role as a monarch is largely limited to non-partisan functions. This role has been recognised since the 19th century, the constitutional writer Walter Bagehot identified the monarchy in 1867 as the dignified part rather than the efficient part of government. Whenever necessary, the Monarch is responsible for appointing a new Prime Minister, the Prime Minister takes office by attending the Monarch in private audience, and after kissing hands that appointment is immediately effective without any other formality or instrument. Since 1945, there have only been two hung parliaments, the first followed the February 1974 general election when Harold Wilson was appointed Prime Minister after Edward Heath resigned following his failure to form a coalition. Although Wilsons Labour Party did not have a majority, they were the largest party, the second followed the May 2010 general election, in which the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats agreed to form the first coalition government since World War II
22.
Trooping the Colour
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Trooping the Colour is a ceremony performed by regiments of the British and Commonwealth armies. It has been a tradition of British infantry regiments since the 17th century, on battlefields, a regiments colours, or flags, were used as rallying points. Consequently, regiments would have their ensigns slowly march with their colours between the ranks to enable soldiers to recognise their regiments colours. Since 1748, Trooping the Colour has also marked the birthday of the British sovereign. It is held in London annually on a Saturday in June on Horse Guards Parade by St. Jamess Park, among the audience are the Royal Family, invited guests, ticket holders and the general public. The ceremony is broadcast live by the BBC within the UK and is shown in Germany. The Queen travels down The Mall from Buckingham Palace in a procession with a sovereigns escort of Household Cavalry. After receiving a royal salute, she inspects her troops of the Household Division, each year, one of the foot-guards regiments is selected to troop its colour through the ranks of guards. Then the entire Household Division assembly conducts a march past the Queen, parading with its guns, the Kings Troop takes precedence as the mounted troops perform a walk-march and trot-past. Returning to Buckingham Palace, the Queen watches a further march-past from outside the gates, following a 41-gun salute by the Kings Troop in Green Park, she leads the Royal Family on to the palace balcony for a Royal Air Force flypast. A regiments colours embody its spirit and service, as well as its fallen soldiers, the loss of a colour, or the capture of an enemy colour, were respectively considered the greatest shame, or the greatest glory on a battlefield. Consequently, regimental colours are venerated by officers and soldiers of all ranks, only battalions of infantry regiments of the line carry colours, the Royal Artillerys colours, for example, are its guns. Rifle regiments did not form a line and thus never carried colours and their battle honours are carried on their drums. The exception to this is the Honourable Artillery Company, which has both a stand of colours and guns and this was done before and after every battle. This ceremony has been retained through time and is largely ceremonial. In the United Kingdom, Trooping the Colour is also known as the Queens Birthday Parade and it has marked the official birthday of the sovereign since 1748, and has occurred annually since 1820. From the reign of King Edward VII, the sovereign has taken the salute in person and it was Edward VII who moved Trooping the Colour to its June date, because of the vagaries of British weather. Trooping the Colour allows the troops of the Household Division to pay a tribute to the sovereign with great pomp
23.
Sulky
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A sulky is a lightweight cart having two wheels and a seat for the driver only but usually without a body, generally pulled by horses or dogs, and is used for harness races. A sulky for horses is a lightweight two-wheeled, single-seat cart that is used as a form of transport in many parts of the world. A special development of this is now used in most forms of racing in Argentina, Australia, Canada. In 1990 the asymmetric sulky was introduced into North America, winning seven of its first nine starts at Freehold, today the great majority of sulky manufacturers in North America are producing asymmetric sulkies. An additional sulky type is the team-to-pole or pairs sulky, a single seat sulky designed for draft by two horses abreast. These may also be split into two types, Traditional pole and yoke with draft by traces, dorsal hitch with draft direct from the saddle to the yoke and, via the pole, to the sulky. Of the two, the dorsal hitch pairs sulky is the most recent, holding all current world speed records over the mile to July 31,2005. There are two types of sulkies used in harness racing, jog Carts, used only for training, are bigger and bulkier than a racing cart. These may sometimes be known as Roadcarts, the shafts may be wood, aluminum, steel or stainless steel. They have bigger seats which requires less athleticism to sit upon, the most modern styles provide full independent suspension by hydraulic dampers and progressive rate coil springs. These give both a smoother ride and higher speed than traditional types, race Bikes are the only style allowed to be used in races or qualifying heats. They are more compact and aerodynamic than a jog cart, have seats that reduce weight. Shafts may be of carbon fibre, aluminum, titanium, stainless steel or, less often, wood. Speed Carts have a design to race bikes in a single seat and stirrups for the driver. Some may have a form of suspension built into the seat. These are usually made of steel and are heavier than race bikes, when it rains, or the track has excessive moisture, trainers and drivers are required to put plastic mud flaps on the back of the wheels. All race bikes must comply with the relevant procedures and standards in order to be approved, in no way can a race bike have any component that will directly interfere with another horse or driver. Smaller sulkies are also used for dogs, both for racing and as transportation, the dog driving sulkies can be divided into two main types, Conventional two-shaft carts attaching to harness on either side of the dog or dogs
24.
Draft horse
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Draft horses and draft crossbreds are versatile breeds used today for a multitude of purposes, including farming, draft horse showing, logging, recreation, and other uses. They are also used for crossbreeding, especially to light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred. While most draft horses are used for driving, they can be ridden, Draft horses are recognizable by their tall stature and extremely muscular build. In general, they tend to have an upright shoulder, producing more upright movement. They tend to have broad, short backs with powerful hindquarters, additionally, the draft breeds usually have heavy bone, and a good deal of feathering on their lower legs. Many have a profile or Roman nose. Draft breeds range from approximately 16 to 19 hands high and from 1,400 to 2,000 lb, Draft horses crossbred on light riding horses adds height and weight to the ensuing offspring, and may increase the power and scope of the animals movement. The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire named Mammoth and he stood 21.2 hands high, and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms. At over 19 hands, a Shire gelding named Goliath was the Guinness Book of World Records record holder for the worlds tallest horse until his death in 2001, humans domesticated horses and needed them to perform a variety of duties. One type of horse-powered work was the hauling of heavy loads, plowing fields, a heavy, calm, patient, well-muscled animal was desired for this work. Conversely, a light, more energetic horse was needed for riding, thus, to the extent possible, a certain amount of selective breeding was used to develop different types of horse for different types of work. The reality was that the high-spirited, quick-moving Destrier was closer to the size, build, there also were working farm horses of more phlegmatic temperaments used for pulling military wagons or performing ordinary farm work also provided bloodlines of the modern draft horse. Records indicate that even medieval drafts were not as large as those today, of the modern draft breeds, the Percheron probably has the closest ties to the medieval war horse. By the 19th century, horses weighing more than 1,600 pounds that also moved at a quick pace were in demand. Even in the 20th century, draft horses were used for practical work, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of draft horses were imported from Western Europe into the United States. Percherons came from France, Belgians from Belgium, Shires from England, many American draft registries were founded in the late 19th century. The Percheron, with 40,000 broodmares registered as of 1915, was America’s most numerous draft breed at the turn of the 20th century. A breed developed exclusively in the U. S. was the American Cream Draft, many were sold to slaughter for horsemeat and a number of breeds went into significant decline
25.
Horse pulling
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There are different weight classes and strict rules to avoid animal cruelty. The Belgian horse is the breed most frequently seen, but other breeds are also used. There are also competitions for ponies, where they pull significant weight relative to their size, related sports are tractor pulling and Canine Weight pulling. However, horses pull less weight than tractors, but much more than dogs, the sport of horse pulling originated when horses were still used for daily farm work. Farmers would challenge one another to see whose horse or team could pull the most weight, since then, horse pulling has evolved into an organized sport with teams of equine athletes. Horses that are used for horse pulling are generally not used for work on the farm, instead, they are worked regularly to keep their muscles and tendons strong and limber to prevent them from being hurt during competitions. The dynamometer was first thought of after the end of World War 1, professor E. V. Collins, of Iowa State College, worked between the years of 1923-1926 to find a way to test the efficiency of plowing horses. He built several machines that were designed to test the power of horses in different soil conditions. One machine that was created was called the Dynamometer and this machine was specially created to test the maximum pulling power of teams of horses. Arrangements were made for horse pulling competitions to be held at fairs, the dynamometer has changeable weights that are set on a vertical track. When a teams of horses were hooked to the machine, they would pull, there are several types of dynamometers including the Hensley-Humbert, Lance, Midwest, New York, Reed, Smith, and Tostenson. A starting load of 1500 pounds is set into the dynamometer, each team entered in the competition is hitched to the machine and they would pull it for a short distance. If the team can not pull the weight, they are removed from the competition, the competition continues on in this way until only one team of horses remains. Rules and regulations are in place to protect the safety of the horses during competitions, the Eastern Draft Horse Association, being the largest horse pulling organization in the United States, works to ensure safety during competitions by enforcing rules and regulations. Each competition has its own rules in addition to the Eastern Draft Horse Associations rules
26.
Draft horse showing
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Draft horse showing refers to horse shows exclusively for horses of the draft horse breeds. Worldwide, some horse shows also feature riding classes. Draft horse shows are different from draft horse pulling competitions, where teams of horses compete to determine who can pull the most weight, exhibitors of these classes must follow a pattern for each class in which they participate. The pattern is the same for every class, the hitches enter the arena one at a time, following one another. They travel to the right, along the rail in a counter-clockwise direction, a hitch is a unit consisting of the exhibitor, his or her horse and vehicle, being a cart or wagon. The judge is observing each hitch from the middle of the ring where he or she is standing, all of the hitches make a few laps in this counter-clockwise direction and then reverse. A lap is completed when a hitch travels the way around the arena next to the rail. When the reverse is made, the hitches diagonally cut the ring in half in order to go the opposite direction and this allows the judge to see the other side of each hitch. A couple more laps are made going in this clockwise direction, while making these laps on the rail, the horses are trotting and usually asked to walk for a few steps only once during the entire class. Next, all of the line up, coming to a complete stop in the middle of the ring. The judge then looks at each hitch individually and has them back up and this requires the driver of each hitch to direct his or her horse to back either the cart or wagon a few feet, stop, and then step forward to the original position. Finally, the judge places all of the hitches in the order of his or her preference, considered an unsafe hitch by many drivers, since the tendency for the lead horse to turn around and face the wheel horse. These classes evaluate the conformation of the animals, the cost of a draft horse depends on the level of competition at which an exhibitor would like to compete. A draft horse shown as a hobby and competing only at local or county fairs would start at approximately $1,000, a harness exhibitor uses appropriate equipment for driving, beginning with a truck and trailer to haul the draft horses to the show. A show harness, a wagon, and a show cart must be purchased as well. These three items are used in the arena while a hitch is performing. Another set of harness and a practice wagon is used at home for training. Along with the equipment, decorations that are put up at the draft horse shows
27.
Antique
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An antique is a collectable item, at least 100 years old. It is collected or desirable because of its age, beauty, rarity, condition, utility, personal emotional connection and it is an object that represents a previous era or time period in human society. It is common practice to define antique as applying to objects at least 100 years old, antiques are usually objects that show some degree of craftsmanship—or a certain attention to design, such as a desk or an early automobile. They are bought at shops, estate sales, auction houses, online auctions. Antique dealers often belong to trade associations, many of which belong to CINOA. Motor vehicles are an exception to the 100-year rule, the customary definition of antique requires that an item be at least 100 years old and in original condition. In the United States, the 1930 Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act defined antiques as,1830 was the approximate beginning of mass production in the United States. These definitions were intended to allow people of that time to distinguish between genuine antique pieces, vintage items, and collectible objects, commonly refers to the remains of ancient art and everyday items from antiquity, which themselves are often archaeological artifacts. An antiquarian is a person who collects and studies antiquities or things of the past, traditionally, Chinese antiques are marked by a red seal, known as a chop, placed there by an owner. Experts can identify previous owners of an antique by reading the chops, the pre-revolution Chinese government tried to assist collectors of Chinese antiques by requiring their Department of Antiquities to provide a governmental chop on the bottom of a Chinese antique. This chop is visible as a piece of red sealing wax that bears the government chop to verify the date of the antique, the government of the Peoples Republic of China has its own definitions of what it considers antique. As of the Cultural Revolution and Chinas opening trade to other countries, antiquing is the act of shopping, identifying, negotiating, or bargaining for antiques. People buy items for use, gifts, or profit. Sources for antiquing include garage sales and yard sales, estate sales, resort towns, antique districts, collectives, note that antiquing also means the craft of making an object appear antique through distressing or applying an antique-looking paint applications. Often, individuals get confused between these handmade distressed vintage or modern items and true antiques, if you can not tell the difference between the two, you may find yourself paying a high amount of money for something that has little value in the antiquing industry. Antique furniture is an area of antiques because furniture has obvious practical uses as well as collector value. Many collectors use pieces in their homes, and care for them with the hope that they hold their value or appreciate and this is in contrast to buying new furniture, which typically depreciates from the moment of purchase. Antique furniture includes dining tables, chairs, bureaus, chests etc, the most common woods are mahogany, oak, pine, walnut, and rosewood
28.
Four-in-hand (carriage)
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A four-in-hand is a carriage drawn by a team of four horses having the reins rigged in such a way that it can be driven by a single driver. The stagecoach and the tally-ho are usually four-in-hand coaches, before the four-in-hand rigging was developed, two drivers were needed to handle four horses. However, with a four-in-hand, the driver could handle all four horses by holding all the reins in one hand. The four-in-hand knot used to tie neckwear may have developed from a used in the rigging of the reins. Today Four-in-hand driving is the top discipline of combined driving in sports, one of its major events is the FEI World Cup Driving series
29.
Fine harness
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Fine harness is a type of driving competition seen at horse shows, that feature light, refined horses with high action. Popular breeds in this event include the American Saddlebred, Morgan, Arabian, Dutch Harness Horse, some breeds of pony are also shown in the fine harness style. These include the Hackney Pony, Welsh pony, and the American-type Shetland Pony, the harness used is a light, breastplate type without a horse collar. The cart used is generally a light, four-wheeled design
30.
Roadster (horse)
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Roadster is a type of driving competition for horses and ponies where the horse and exhibitor appear in equipment similar to that used in harness racing. It is derived from the use of certain horses hitched to light carts that traveled quickly from one place to another, often racing on ordinary dirt roads. The term is used to describe the horse used for such competition. Horses pull a sulky and drivers wear racing silks. However, the exhibitors do not race, instead, they perform in an arena at horse shows at trotting gaits that include a slow jog, a medium speed road gait, and a rapid and long-strided but controlled trot referred to as showing at speed. Animals are evaluated on performance and manners and this type of class is particularly popular in Shetland pony and Morgan horse breed shows
31.
Jockey
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A jockey is someone who rides horses in horse racing or steeplechase racing, primarily as a profession. The word also applies to camel riders in camel racing, the word is by origin a diminutive of jock, the Northern English or Scots colloquial equivalent of the first name John, which is also used generically for boy, or fellow, at least since 1529. A familiar instance of the use of the word as a name is in Jockey of Norfolk in Shakespeares Richard III. v.3,304, the current usage which means a person who rides a horse in races was first seen in 1670. Another possible origin is the Gaelic word eachaidhe, a horseman, the Irish name Eochaid is related to each, horse, and is usually translated as horse rider. This is phonetically similar to jockey Jockeys must be light to ride at the weights which are assigned to their mounts. There are horse carrying weight limits, that are set by racing authorities, the Kentucky Derby, for example, has a weight limit of 126 lb including the jockeys equipment. The weight of a jockey usually ranges from 108 to 118 lb, despite their light weight, they must be able to control a horse that is moving at 40 mph and weighs 1,200 lb. Though there is no limit for jockeys, they are usually fairly short due to the weight limits. Jockeys typically stand around 4 ft 10 in to 5 ft 6 in, Jockeys are normally self employed, nominated by horse trainers to ride their horses in races, for a fee and a percentage of the purse winnings. In Australia, employment of apprentice jockeys is in terms of indenture to a master, Jockeys often cease their riding careers to take up other employment in racing, usually as trainers. In this way the system serves to induct young people into racing employment. Jockeys usually start out when they are young, riding work in the morning for trainers and it is normally necessary for an apprentice jockey to ride a minimum of about 20 barrier trials successfully before being permitted to ride in races. An apprentice jockey is known as a bug boy because the asterisk that follows the name in the program looks like a bug, all jockeys must be licensed and usually are not permitted to bet on a race. An apprentice jockey has a master, who is a horse trainer and this allowance is adjusted according to the number of winners that the apprentice has ridden. After a four-year indentured apprenticeship, the apprentice becomes a jockey and usually develops relationships with trainers. Sometimes senior jockeys are paid a retainer by an owner gives the owner the right to insist the jockey ride their horses in races. Racing modeled on the English Jockey Club spread throughout the world with colonial expansion, the colors worn by jockeys in races are the registered colors of the owner or trainer who employs them. The practice of riders wearing colors probably stems from medieval times when jousts were held between knights, however, the origins of racing colors of various patterns may have been influenced by racing held in Italian city communities since medieval times
32.
Teamster
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A teamster, in modern American English, is a truck driver, or a member of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, a labor union in the United States and Canada. Originally, the term referred to a person who drove a team of draft animals, usually a wagon drawn by oxen, horses. This term was common by the time of the Mexican–American War, in other places, a teamster was known as a carter, referring to the bullock cart. Another name for the occupation was bullwhacker, related to driving oxen, a teamster might also drive pack animals, such as a muletrain, in which case he was also known as a muleteer or muleskinner. Today this person may be called an outfitter or packer, in Australian English, a teamster was also known as a bullocker or bullocky. Missoula, Montana, ISBN 0-87842-127-0 Gebhards, Stacy V
33.
Troika (driving)
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A troika is a traditional Russian harness driving combination, using three horses abreast, usually pulling a sleigh. It differs from most other three-horse combinations in that the horses are harnessed abreast, the middle horse is usually harnessed in a horse collar and shaft bow, the side horses are usually in breastcollar harness. The troika is traditionally driven so that the horse trots and the side horses canter, the right-hand horse will be on the right lead. The troika is often claimed to be the only harness combination with different gaits of the horses. The term troika is used to refer to any three-horse team harnessed abreast. At full speed a troika can reach 45–50 kilometres per hour, the troika was developed in Russia during the 17th century, first being used for speedy delivering of mail and then having become common by the late 18th century. It was used for travelling in stages where teams of tired horses could be exchanged for fresh animals to transport loads over long distances. Prior to this time, only groups of three or more people could use three horses, and a person or two people had the right to only drive a single horse or a pair. During the Russian Empire, the classes would use a troika driven by a livery-clad postilion. Decorated troikas were popular in religious celebrations and weddings. The troika was a part of urban and rural culture. The horses usually driven in a troika were generally plain and rather small, however, the wealthy preferred to use the elegant Orlov Trotter. The first troika competitions were held in the Moscow hippodrome in 1840, the troika was also exhibited at the 1911 Festival of Empire in London. Troika has become an icon of Russia, especially after it was featured in a scene of Nikolay Gogols novel Dead Souls. The documents on ownership of the dead serfs whose death was not registered by population censuses. The irony of the troika-bird of Russia carrying the swindler Chichikov has been discussed in Vasily Shukshins short story Started Skidding, combined driving Driving Horse harness Horse-drawn vehicle Trigarium Types of carriages Zhirinovskys ass Russian troika at zooclub. ru Jingle bells at damascus. ru
34.
Tandem
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Tandem is an arrangement in which a team of machines, animals or people are lined up one behind another, all facing in the same direction. The tandem harness allows additional animals to provide pulling power for a designed for a single animal. The English word tandem derives with a play from the Latin adverb tandem. Tandem seating may be used on a bicycle where it is alternative to sociable seating. Tandem can also be used generally to refer to any group of persons or objects working together. The Messerschmitt KR200 was an example of a small automobile that used tandem seating. A tandem arrangement may also be used for cars parked in a residential garage, in heavy trucks tandem refers to two closely spaced axles. Legally defined by the distance between the axles, mechanically there are many configurations, either or both axles may be powered, and often interact with each other. The two seating configurations for trainer, night and all-weather interceptor or attack aircraft are pilot and instructor side by side or in tandem, usually, the pilot is in front and the instructor behind. Attack aircraft and all-weather interceptors often use a crew member to operate avionics such as radar. Bombers such as the Convair B-58 Hustler seated three crew members in tandem, a common engineering adaptation is to lengthen the cockpit or fuselage to create a trainer with tandem seating from a single-seater aircraft. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing XB-52 bombers used fighter-style tandem seating, the Grumman A-6 Intruder, General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark, Sukhoi Su-24 or the Sukhoi Su-34 are examples of combat aircraft that use this configuration. For training aircraft, it has the advantage that pilot and instructor can see each others actions, allowing the pilot to learn from the instructor, the tandem configuration has the advantage of being closer to the normal working environment that a fast jet pilot is likely to encounter. In some cases, such as the Northrop Grumman EA-6B Prowler, three Men In a Carriage Drawn by a Tandem Horse Team. Tandem Horse Teams Museum Victoria official site, illustration
35.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
36.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
37.
Ox-wagon
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An ox-wagon or bullock wagon is a four-wheeled vehicle pulled by oxen. It was a form of transport, especially in Southern Africa but also in New Zealand. Ox-wagons were also used in the United States, the first recorded use of an ox-wagon was around 1670, but they continue to be used in some areas up to modern times. Ox-wagons are typically drawn by teams of oxen, harnessed in pairs. The wagon itself is made of various kinds of wood, with the rims of the wheels being covered with tyres of iron, the back wheels are usually substantially larger than the front ones and rigidly connected to the tray of the vehicle. The front wheels are usually greater in diameter than the clearance under the tray of the vehicle so that the steering axle could not turn far under the tray. It also allowed a more robust connection between the hauling traces of the oxen and the rear axle of the wagon that is necessary for heavy haulage. Most of the area was covered in canvas supported by wooden arches. Bullock wagons were important in the history of Australia. Olaf Ruhen, in his book Bullock Teams remarks on how bullock teams shaped, bullocks were preferred by many explorers and teamsters because they were cheaper, quieter, tougher and more easily maintained than horses therefore making them more popular for draught work. In early days the flexible two-wheeled dray, with a centre pole, the four-wheeled dray or box wagon came into use after about 1860 for loads of 6 to 8 tons and was drawn by 16 to 18 bullocks. A bullock team was led by a pair of well trained leaders who responded to verbal commands as they did not have reins or a bridle, the bullock team driver was called a bullocky, bullock puncher or teamster. Many Australian country towns owe their origin to the bullock teams and these shanties were spaced at about 12-mile intervals, which was the usual distance for a team to travel in a day. The Voortrekkers used the wagons during the Great Trek north and north-east from the Cape Colony in the 1830s and 1840s, often the wagons where employed as a mobile fortification called a laager, such as was the case at the Battle of Blood River. After the discovery of gold in the Barberton area in 1881, james Percy FitzPatrick worked on those ox-wagons and described them in his famous 1907 book Jock of the Bushveld. In South Africa, the ox-wagon was adopted as an Afrikaner cultural icon, the ossewa is mentioned in the first verse of Die Stem, the Afrikaans poem which became South Africas national anthem from 1957 to 1994. When a pro-German Afrikaner nationalist organisation formed in 1939, to oppose South Africas entry into World War II on the British side, it called itself the Ossewabrandwag
38.
Twenty-mule team
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For information on the cleaning product, please see Twenty-Mule-Team Borax. For the film starring Wallace Beery, see 20 Mule Team, twenty-mule teams were teams of eighteen mules and two horses attached to large wagons that ferried borax out of Death Valley from 1883 to 1889. They traveled from mines across the Mojave Desert to the nearest railroad spur,165 miles away in Mojave, the routes were from the Harmony and Amargosa Borax Works to Daggett, California, and later Mojave, California. After Harmony and Amargosa shut down in 1888, the teams route was moved to the mines at Borate,3 miles east of Calico. There they worked from 1891 until 1898 when they were replaced by the Borate, the wagons were among the largest ever pulled by draft animals, designed to carry 10 short tons of borax ore at a time. The twenty-mule-team wagons were designed to carry 10 short tons of ore at a time. The rear wheels measured seven feet high, with tires made of one-inch-thick iron. The wagon beds measured 16 feet long and were 6 feet deep, constructed of oak, they weighed 7,800 pounds empty, when loaded with ore. The first wagon was the trailer, the second was the tender or the action. With the mules, the caravan stretched over 180 feet, no wagon ever broke down in transit on the desert due to their construction. A1, 200-U. S. -gallon water tank was added to supply the mules with water en route, There were water barrels on the wagons for the teamster and the swamper. Water supplies were refilled at springs along the way, as it was not possible to carry water for the entire trip. The tank water was used at dry camps and water stops, the June 1940 issue of Desert Magazine confirms that the primary water tank was 1200 U. S. gallons. This detail is given in The History Behind the Scale Model. An efficient system of dispersing feed and water along the road was put in use, Teams outbound from Mojave, pulling empty wagons, hauled their own feed and supplies, which were dropped off at successive camps as the outfit traveled. The supplies would be on hand to use when a wagon came back the other way. There was one stretch of road where a 500-gallon wagon was added to water to a dry camp for the team that would be coming from the opposite direction. The arriving team would use the water and take the empty back to the spring on their haul the next day
39.
California
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California is the most populous state in the United States and the third most extensive by area. Located on the western coast of the U. S, California is bordered by the other U. S. states of Oregon, Nevada, and Arizona and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California. Los Angeles is Californias most populous city, and the second largest after New York City. The Los Angeles Area and the San Francisco Bay Area are the nations second- and fifth-most populous urban regions, California also has the nations most populous county, Los Angeles County, and its largest county by area, San Bernardino County. The Central Valley, an agricultural area, dominates the states center. What is now California was first settled by various Native American tribes before being explored by a number of European expeditions during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Spanish Empire then claimed it as part of Alta California in their New Spain colony. The area became a part of Mexico in 1821 following its war for independence. The western portion of Alta California then was organized as the State of California, the California Gold Rush starting in 1848 led to dramatic social and demographic changes, with large-scale emigration from the east and abroad with an accompanying economic boom. If it were a country, California would be the 6th largest economy in the world, fifty-eight percent of the states economy is centered on finance, government, real estate services, technology, and professional, scientific and technical business services. Although it accounts for only 1.5 percent of the states economy, the story of Calafia is recorded in a 1510 work The Adventures of Esplandián, written as a sequel to Amadis de Gaula by Spanish adventure writer Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo. The kingdom of Queen Calafia, according to Montalvo, was said to be a land inhabited by griffins and other strange beasts. This conventional wisdom that California was an island, with maps drawn to reflect this belief, shortened forms of the states name include CA, Cal. Calif. and US-CA. Settled by successive waves of arrivals during the last 10,000 years, various estimates of the native population range from 100,000 to 300,000. The Indigenous peoples of California included more than 70 distinct groups of Native Americans, ranging from large, settled populations living on the coast to groups in the interior. California groups also were diverse in their organization with bands, tribes, villages. Trade, intermarriage and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups, the first European effort to explore the coast as far north as the Russian River was a Spanish sailing expedition, led by Portuguese captain Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, in 1542. Some 37 years later English explorer Francis Drake also explored and claimed a portion of the California coast in 1579. Spanish traders made unintended visits with the Manila galleons on their trips from the Philippines beginning in 1565
40.
Horse artillery
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Horse artillery was a type of light, fast-moving, and fast-firing artillery which provided highly mobile fire support, especially to cavalry units. Horse artillery units existed in armies in Europe, the Americas and this was in contrast to the rest of the field artillery, in which the pieces were heavier and the crew marched on foot, or in some cases rode on the guns or caissons. Once in position, horse artillery crews were trained to quickly dismount, deploy or unlimber their guns, then rapidly fire grapeshot, shells or round shot at the enemy. They could then just as rapidly limber-up, remount, and be ready to move to a new position, Horse artillery was highly versatile and often supported friendly cavalry units by disrupting enemy infantry formations such as infantry squares with rapid concentrated fire. This would leave the enemy vulnerable to cavalry charges. Their mobility also enabled them to outmaneuver enemy foot artillery units, a full battery could have a combined front of riders over 50 men strong. If the horse artillery was mistaken for cavalry, the enemy might receive an unpleasant surprise when the towed batteries wheeled around, highly proficient batteries could do so in less than a minute. Essentially a hybrid of cavalry and artillery, irregular horse artillery units were first used by Sweden in the 17th century during the Thirty Years War by Lennart Torstenson. Gustavus Adolphus had previously tried intermixing infantry units with cavalry, others tried to combine firepower with mobility by using novel cavalry tactics such as the caracole, but these slowed the cavalry down and proved largely ineffective. The best solutions involved creating hybrid units of mounted infantry, most notably dragoons, Frederick understood that the greatest threat to massed infantry was concentrated artillery fire. He realized that small and relatively light guns could severely disrupt or destroy infantry units if they could be brought in close enough. But since even light foot artillery travelled at the speed of a marching soldier, through relentless drill and discipline Frederick emphasized mobility and speed in all phases of their operations. The unit consisted of a battery of six 6-pound cannons with 48 men, the battery was wiped out and reformed twice in that same year at the Battle of Kunersdorf and the Battle of Maxen. French artilleryman, engineer and general Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval had served with the mission to Prussia. After that war he made numerous improvements to French cannons which made them lighter, faster. These improvements proved an advantage to horse artillery as well. Later, the British army officer Henry Shrapnel invented a new type of ammunition that was put to effective use by horse artillery units. The popularity of the new type of unit caught on quickly with other armies, austria organized a limited amount of cavalry artillery in 1778 where most of the gun crew rode specially designed, padded gun carriages called Wursts, rather than on separate horses, into battle
41.
Breeching (tack)
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Breeching is a strap around the haunches of a draft, pack or riding animal. Both under saddle and in harness, breeching engages when an animal slows down or travels downhill and is used to brake or stabilize a load. When a horse, mule, or other animal is in harness, harness breeching helps the animal to slow or control the movement of a vehicle. Animal-drawn vehicles have either a pair of shafts or a pole projecting forwards for about the length of one animal. An animal between shafts wears harness breeching, which attaches forward to the shafts, as the animal slows, the vehicle runs forward, and the shafts pull the breeching forward against the haunches of the animal, which can thus slow the vehicle. A vehicle with a pole has a pair of either side of it – their breeching works in a similar way. In a larger team, the leaders are in front of the shafts or pole and thus slow the vehicle, nevertheless. Breeching may be omitted where the animal does not need to provide substantial braking, breeching may also be omitted if the vehicle has efficient brakes on the wheels – examples include larger carriages and modern vehicles with disk brakes. Historically, additional animals were used to brake very heavy vehicles on steep downhills. This is still done when logging in very steep terrain, breeching is not normally used for oxen in yokes, where braking is provided by pulling back on the yoke or girth. On a light vehicle with shafts, false breeching is sometimes fitted to the vehicle, a horizontal strap is attached between the shafts of the vehicle, just behind the animal. When the animal slows or goes downhill, the vehicle forward, pushing the false breeching against the haunches of the animal. False breeching is generally limited to use with well-trained, steady animals and it is sometimes used to help show off the animals haunches, which would be partly covered by harness breeching. On both pack and riding stock, if breeching is used then generally a breastplate is used as well, breeching may be used to stabilize the pack saddle of a packhorse or other pack animal, by keeping the saddle from sliding forward, especially on downhill tracks. Pack horse breeching may be supplemented with a crupper to provide additional stability, breeching is occasionally used in a similar manner as that of a pack saddle, especially when riding mules. Mules often have lower withers and flatter backs than horses, making it likely that the saddle will slide forward when going downhill with a rider, however, a crupper is more commonly used on riding animals in general. An animal is trained in harness with breeching before being hitched to a vehicle
42.
Santa Claus's reindeer
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In traditional festive legend, Santa Clauss reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The commonly cited names of the reindeer are Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Donner and they are based on those used in the 1823 poem A Visit from St. Nicholas, arguably the basis of the reindeers popularity. The enduring popularity of the Christmas song Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer has led to Rudolph often joining the list. In traditional lore, Santa Clauss sleigh is led by eight reindeer, Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Dunder, the names Dunder and Blixem derive from Dutch words for thunder and lightning, respectively. The first reference to Santas sleigh being pulled by a reindeer appears in Old Santeclaus with Much Delight, the names of the author and the illustrator are not known. The poem, with eight colored lithographic illustrations, was published by William B, gilley as a small paperback book entitled The Childrens Friend, A New-Years Present, to the Little Ones from Five to Twelve. The 1823 poem by Clement C. Moore A Visit from St. Nicholas is largely credited for the contemporary Christmas lore that includes eight named reindeer. More rapid than eagles his coursers they came, And he whistled, and shouted, Moore version of the poem, including the German spelling of Donder and Blitzen, rather than the original 1823 version using the Dutch spelling, Dunder and Blixem. Both phrases translate as Thunder and Lightning in English, though German for thunder is now spelled Donner, Rudolphs story was originally written in verse by Robert L. May for the Montgomery Ward chain of department stores in 1939, according to this story, Rudolphs glowing red nose made him a social outcast among the other reindeer. Santa Claus worldwide flight one year was imperiled by severe fog, visiting Rudolphs house to deliver his presents, Santa observed Rudolphs glowing red nose in the darkened bedroom and decided to use him as a makeshift lamp to guide his sleigh. Rudolph accepted Santas request to lead the sleigh for the rest of the night, Rudolphs story is a popular Christmas story that has been retold in numerous forms, most notably a popular song, a stop motion television special and an animated feature film. The television special departed significantly from Robert L. Mays original story, depicting Rudolph as Donners son, in 1998, a film titled Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, The Movie was released that depicted Rudolph as Blitzens son. The comic strip Over the Hedge, added a character named Ralph, the Infrared Nosed Reindeer, the feature film, Rudolph and Frostys Christmas in July, features an antagonist reindeer named Scratcher. The feature film, Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, The Movie, introduces Mitzi as Rudolphs mother and it also features two other reindeer Rudolphs love interest Zoey and his cousin and rival Arrow, the latter of whom is Cupids son. The animated movie Annabelles Wish tells the story of a calf who dreams to fly after meeting Santa. Many years later in her old age she is granted her wish, chet is a young reindeer in training who is introduced in the 2002 feature film, The Santa Clause 2. In the film Blizzard, the character is Blitzens daughter
43.
Hyksos
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The Hyksos were a people of mixed origins from Western Asia, who settled in the eastern Nile Delta, some time before 1650 BC. The arrival of the Hyksos led to the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt, in the context of Ancient Egypt, the term Asiatic – which is often used of the Hyksos – may refer to any people native to areas east of Egypt. Immigration by Canaanite populations preceded the Hyksos, canaanites first appeared in Egypt towards the end of the 12th Dynasty c.1800 BC, and either around that time or c.1720 BC, established an independent realm in the eastern Nile Delta. The Canaanite rulers of the Delta, regrouped in the Fourteenth Dynasty, coexisted with the Egyptian Thirteenth Dynasty, the power of the 13th and 14th Dynasties progressively waned, perhaps due to famine and plague. In about 1650 BC, both dynasties were invaded by the Hyksos, who formed the Fifteenth Dynasty. The collapse of the Thirteenth Dynasty created a vacuum in the south, which may have led to the rise of the Sixteenth Dynasty, based in Thebes. The Hyksos eventually conquered both, albeit for only a time in the case of Thebes. From then on, the 17th Dynasty took control of Thebes and reigned for some time in peaceful coexistence with the Hyksos kings, eventually, Seqenenre Tao, Kamose and Ahmose waged war against the Hyksos and expelled Khamudi, their last king, from Egypt c.1550 BC. The Hyksos practiced horse burials, and their deity, their native storm god, Baal, became associated with the Egyptian storm and desert god. The Hyksos were a people of mixed Asiatic origin with mainly Semitic-speaking components, although some scholars have suggested that the Hyksos contained a Hurrian component, most other scholars have dismissed this possibility. The Hyksos brought several innovations to Egypt, as well as cultural infusions such as new musical instruments. The changes introduced include new techniques of working and pottery, new breeds of animals. In warfare, they introduced the horse and chariot, the bow, improved battle axes. Because of these advances, Hyksos rule became decisive for Egypt’s later empire in the Middle East. There are various hypotheses as to the Hyksos ethnic identity, most archaeologists describe the Hyksos as multi-ethnic, to include all of the peoples who occupied the Nile Delta. The origin of the term Hyksos derives from the Egyptian expression hekau khaswet, the German Egyptologist Wolfgang Helck once argued that the Hyksos were part of massive and widespread Hurrian and Indo-Aryan migrations into the Near East. According to Helck, the Hyksos were Hurrians and part of a Hurrian empire that, most scholars have rejected this theory, and Helck himself abandoned this hypothesis in a 1993 article. The Hyksos were likely Semites who came from the Eastern Mediterranean, khyans name has generally been interpreted as Amorite Hayanu which the Egyptian form represents perfectly, and this is in all likelihood the correct interpretation
44.
Domestication of the horse
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A number of hypotheses exist on many of the key issues regarding the domestication of the horse. Although horses appeared in Paleolithic cave art as early as 30,000 BCE, how and when horses became domesticated is disputed. The clearest evidence of use of the horse as a means of transport is from chariot burials dated c.2000 BCE. Regardless of the date of domestication, use of horses spread rapidly across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work. The date of the domestication of the horse depends to some degree upon the definition of domestication, some zoologists define domestication as human control over breeding, which can be detected in ancient skeletal samples by changes in the size and variability of ancient horse populations. Other researchers look at evidence, including skeletal and dental evidence of working activity, weapons, art, and spiritual artifacts. There is also evidence that horses were kept as meat animals prior to being trained as working animals, attempts to date domestication by genetic study or analysis of physical remains rests on the assumption that there was a separation of the genotypes of domesticated and wild populations. Further, all modern horse populations retain the ability to revert to a state, and all feral horses are of domestic types. Regardless of the date of domestication, use of horses spread rapidly across Eurasia for transportation, agricultural work. A2005 study analyzed the mitochondrial DNA of a range of equids, from 53. A more detailed analysis of the true horses grouped them into two major clades, one of these clades, which seemed to have been restricted to North America, is now extinct. The other clade was broadly distributed from North America to central Europe and it became extinct in Beringia around 14,200 years ago, and in the rest of the Americas around 10,000 years ago. This clade survived in Eurasia, however, and it is from these horses which all domestic horses appear to have descended and these horses showed little phylogeographic structure, probably reflecting their high degree of mobility and adaptability. Therefore, the horse today is classified as Equus ferus caballus. No genetic originals of native wild horses currently exist, other than the never-domesticated Przewalskis Horse, the Przewalski has 66 chromosomes, however, as opposed to 64 among modern domesticated horses, and their Mitochondrial DNA forms a distinct cluster. The horses of the Ice Age were hunted for meat in Europe and across the Eurasian steppes, numerous kill sites exist and many cave paintings in Europe indicate what they looked like. However, more recent study indicates that there was only one wild species and this prototype may have contributed to the development of the warmblood horses of northern Europe, as well as older heavy horses such as the Ardennais. The Oriental subspecies, a taller, slim, refined and agile animal arising in Western Asia, adapted to hot and it is thought to be the progenitor of the modern Arabian horse and Akhal-Teke
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Chariot
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A chariot is a type of carriage driven by a charioteer using primarily horses to provide rapid motive power. Chariots were used by armies as transport or mobile platforms, for hunting or for racing. The word chariot comes from the Latin carrus, itself a loanword from Gaulish, a chariot of war or one used in military parades was called a car. In ancient Rome and some other ancient Mediterranean civilizations, a required two horses, a triga three, and a quadriga four. The critical invention that allowed the construction of light, horse-drawn chariots was the spoked wheel, the earliest spoke-wheeled chariots date to ca.2000 BCE. The use of chariots peaked around 1300 BCE, Chariots had lost their military importance by the 1st century CE, but chariot races continued to be popular in Constantinople until the 6th century. The domestication of the horse was an important step toward civilization, an increasing amount of evidence supports the hypothesis that horses were domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes approximately 4000-3500 BCE. The invention of the used in transportation most likely took place in Europe. Evidence of wheeled vehicles appears from the mid 4th millennium BCE near-simultaneously in the Northern Caucasus, the earliest vehicles may have been ox carts. Starokorsunskaya kurgan in the Kuban region of Russia contains a grave of the Maikop Culture. The two solid wooden wheels from this kurgan have been dated to the half of the fourth millennium. Soon thereafter the number of burials in this Northern Caucasus region multiplied. As David Anthony writes in his book The Horse, the Wheel and Language, in Eastern Europe and it is a clay pot excavated in a Funnelbeaker settlement in Swietokrzyskie Voivodeship in Poland. The oldest securely dated real wheel-axle combination in Eastern Europe is the Ljubljana Marshes Wheel, horses were introduced to Transcaucasia at the time of the Kura-Araxes culture, beginning about 3300 BCE. Prior to that, horse bones were not found, during the Kura-Araxes period, horses seem to become rather widespread, with signs of domestication. It is widely believed that wheeled transport was invented in Mesopotamia, nevertheless, recent archaeological evidence seems to indicate otherwise, pointing to Neolithic Europe. At the same time, in Mesopotamia, some intriguing early pictograms of a sled that rests on wooden rollers or wheels have been found and they date from about the same time as the early wheel discoveries in Europe and may indicate knowledge of the wheel. The earliest depiction of vehicles in the context of warfare is on the Standard of Ur in southern Mesopotamia, the hybrids were used by the Eblaite, early Sumerian, Akkadian and Ur III armies
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Horse collar
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A horse collar is a part of a horse harness that is used to distribute the load around a horses neck and shoulders when pulling a wagon or plough. The collar often supports and pads a pair of curved metal or wooden pieces, called hames, the collar allows the horse to use its full strength when pulling, essentially enabling the animal to push forward with its hindquarters into the collar. If wearing a yoke or a breastcollar, the horse had to pull with its less-powerful shoulders, the collar had another advantage over the yoke as it reduced pressure on the horses windpipe. From the time of the invention of the collar, horses became more valuable for plowing and pulling. When the horse was harnessed in the collar, the horse could apply 50% more power to a task in a time period than could an ox. Additionally, horses generally have greater endurance than oxen, and thus can work more hours each day, the importance and value of horses as a resource for improving agricultural production increased accordingly. The horse collar was very important to the development of areas of the world. Wherever oxen were used and could be replaced with horses, the use of horses boosted economies and this allowed people more free time to take on specialized activities, and consequently to the development of early industry, education, and the arts in the rise of market-based towns. A horse collar is oval rather than circular and it is by not very flexible. It is an appliance that conforms well to the shape of the horses body. It is constructed so that at all points of contact with the body of the horse it avoids the air passage, by protecting the airway of the horse it became possible for the animal to use its full force to pull a load. Long before the collar harness, there was the less efficient throat-girth harness. This, it was claimed, could be found in ancient civilizations. This type of collar was used in ancient Chaldea, both Sumeria and Assyria, ancient Egypt during the New Kingdom, Shang Dynasty China, Minoan Crete, Classical Greece. These straps pressed against the horses sterno-cephalicus muscle and trachea which restricted its breathing and reducing the power of the horse. Thus, the harder a horse pulled, the more strongly it choked off its own breathing, however, in 1972, Spruytte published Ancient Harness Systems which established that there were at least three ancient traction systems shown in art, none of which choked the horses. The shoulder traction and breast traction artwork had been mis-seen and mis-drawn as a composite that matched neither and this he demonstrated by building reproduction chariots and harness, and running them with suitable teams. This had to be borrowed ponies as horses were too large for the surviving Egyptian chariot he used as a model, the throat-girth design was not improved until the Chinese breast-strap or breastcollar harness developed during the Warring States era in China
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Anthropology
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Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
