1.
Drug Delivery (journal)
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Drug Delivery is an academic journal that publishes research on all aspects of drug delivery – a core aspect of drug development. It is owned by Informa plc which is a United Kingdom-based publisher, alfred Stracher and Vladimir Torchilin are co-editors of Drug Delivery. Drug Delivery publishes 8 issues per year in print and online editions and is available on a subscription basis. Individual articles can be purchased on a pay-per-view basis, the full text of all articles is offered in PDF and PDF Plus formats. All back-issues of the journal are available online and are hosted on the publishers website, subscribers to the electronic edition of Drug Delivery receive access to the online archive, which dates back to 1991, as part of their subscription. Drug Delivery homepage of Drug Delivery
2.
Nasal spray
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Nasal sprays are used as local treatments for conditions such as nasal congestion and allergic rhinitis. In some situations, nasal delivery route is preferred because it provides an alternative to injection or pills. Substances can be assimilated extremely quickly and directly through the nose, many pharmaceutical drugs exist as nasal sprays for systemic administration. Other applications include hormone replacement therapy, treatment of Alzheimers disease, nasal sprays are seen as a more efficient way of transporting drugs with potential use in crossing the blood–brain barrier. Antihistamines work by competing for receptor sites to block the function of histamine and they can reduce inflammation and histamine production in the nasal passages, and have been shown to relieve nasal congestion, runny nose, itchy nose and sneezing. Side effects may include headaches, nausea and nose bleeds, ketorolac tromethamin is the first and only NSAID nasal spray which is an effective non-narcotic alternative for patients who require pain relief at the opioid level. Saline sprays are typically non medicated, a mist of saline solution containing sodium chloride is delivered to help moisturize dry or irritated nostrils. This is a form of nasal irrigation and they can also relieve nasal congestion and remove airborne irritants such as pollen and dust thereby providing sinus allergy relief. Three types of nasal sprays preparations of sodium chloride are available including hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic, isotonic solutions have the same salt concentration as the human body, whereas hypertonic solutions have a higher salt content and hypotonic solutions have a lower salt content. Isotonic saline nasal sprays are used in infants and children to wash out the thick mucus from the nose in case of allergic rhinitis. Hypertonic solutions may be useful at drawing moisture from the mucous membrane. Natural nasal sprays that include chemical complexes derived from plant sources such as ginger, capsaicin, there is however, no trial-verified evidence that they have a measurable effect on symptoms. Prolonged use of types of sprays can damage the delicate mucous membranes in the nose. This causes increased inflammation, a known as rhinitis medicamentosa or the rebound effect. As a result, decongestant nasal sprays are advised for use only, preferably 5 to 7 days at maximum. Some doctors advise to use them 3 days at maximum, a recent clinical trial has shown that a corticosteroid nasal spray, may be useful in reversing this condition. List of combination nasal sprays, Azelastine together with fluticasone propionate Xylometazoline together with cromoglicic acid
3.
Pharmaceutical
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A pharmaceutical drug is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy is an important part of the field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement. Drugs are classified in various ways, one of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs from over-the-counter drugs. Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, an elaborate and widely used classification system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, Drug discovery and drug development are complex and expensive endeavors undertaken by pharmaceutical companies, academic scientists, and governments. Governments generally regulate what drugs can be marketed, how drugs are marketed, controversies have arisen over drug pricing and disposal of used drugs. In the US, a drug is, A substance recognized by an official pharmacopoeia or formulary, a substance intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease. A substance intended to affect the structure or any function of the body, a substance intended for use as a component of a medicine but not a device or a component, part or accessory of a device. Pharmaceutical or a drug is classified on the basis of their origin, Drug from natural origin, Herbal or plant or mineral origin, some drug substances are of marine origin. Drug from chemical as well as origin, Derived from partial herbal and partial chemical synthesis Chemical. Drug derived from animal origin, For example, hormones, Drug derived from microbial origin, Antibiotics Drug derived by biotechnology genetic-engineering, hybridoma technique for example Drug derived from radioactive substances. An elaborate and widely used system is the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System. The World Health Organization keeps a list of essential medicines, the main classes of painkillers are NSAIDs, opioids and Local anesthetics. For consciousness Some anesthetics include Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates, the main categories of drugs for musculoskeletal disorders are, NSAIDs, muscle relaxants, neuromuscular drugs, and anticholinesterases. Euthanasia is not permitted by law in countries, and consequently medicines will not be licensed for this use in those countries. Administration is the process by which a patient takes a medicine, there are three major categories of drug administration, enteral, parenteral, and other. It can be performed in various forms such as pills, tablets. There are many variations in the routes of administration, including intravenous and they can be administered all at once as a bolus, at frequent intervals or continuously
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Pharmacokinetics
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Pharmacokinetics, sometimes abbreviated as PK, is a branch of pharmacology dedicated to determining the fate of substances administered to a living organism. The substances of interest include any chemical xenobiotic such as, pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, food additives, cosmetic ingredients, etc. It attempts to analyze chemical metabolism and to discover the fate of a chemical from the moment that it is administered up to the point at which it is eliminated from the body. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how an organism affects a drug, both together influence dosing, benefit, and adverse effects, as seen in PK/PD models. Pharmacokinetic properties of chemicals are affected by the route of administration and these may affect the absorption rate. Models have been developed to simplify conceptualization of the processes that take place in the interaction between an organism and a chemical substance. The various compartments that the model is divided into are commonly referred to as the ADME scheme, absorption - the process of a substance entering the blood circulation. Distribution - the dispersion or dissemination of substances throughout the fluids, metabolism – the recognition by the organism that a foreign substance is present and the irreversible transformation of parent compounds into daughter metabolites. Excretion - the removal of the substances from the body, in rare cases, some drugs irreversibly accumulate in body tissue. The two phases of metabolism and excretion can also be grouped together under the title elimination, the study of these distinct phases involves the use and manipulation of basic concepts in order to understand the process dynamics. All these concepts can be represented through mathematical formulas that have a graphical representation. The model outputs for a drug can be used in industry or in the application of pharmacokinetic concepts. Clinical pharmacokinetics provides many performance guidelines for effective and efficient use of drugs for human-health professionals, in practice, it is generally considered that steady state is reached when a time of 4 to 5 times the half-life for a drug after regular dosing is started. Noncompartmental methods estimate the exposure to a drug by estimating the area under the curve of a concentration-time graph, compartmental methods estimate the concentration-time graph using kinetic models. Noncompartmental methods are more versatile in that they do not assume any specific compartmental model. The final outcome of the transformations that a drug undergoes in an organism, a number of functional models have been developed in order to simplify the study of pharmacokinetics. These models are based on a consideration of an organism as a number of related compartments, the simplest idea is to think of an organism as only one homogenous compartment. However, these models do not always reflect the real situation within an organism
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Topical medication
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A topical medication is a medication that is applied to a particular place on or in the body, as opposed to systemically. Most often this means application to surfaces such as the skin or mucous membranes to treat ailments via a large range of classes including creams, foams, gels, lotions. Many topical medications are epicutaneous, meaning that they are applied directly to the skin, as a route of administration, the topical route is contrasted with the enteral route, the intravenous route, and others. A topical effect, in the sense, may refer to a local, rather than systemic. However, many topically administered drugs have effects, because they reach the circulation after being absorbed by the tissues. Topical medications differ from other types of drugs because mishandling them can lead to certain complications in a patient or administrator of the drug. Some hydrophobic chemicals, such as hormones, can be absorbed into the body after being applied to the skin in the form of a cream, gel. Transdermal patches have become a means of administering some drugs for birth control, hormone replacement therapy. One example of an antibiotic that may be applied topically is chloramphenicol, a medications potency often is changed with its base. For example, some topical steroids will be classified one or two strengths higher when moving from cream to ointment, as a rule of thumb, an ointment base is more occlusive and will drive the medication into the skin more rapidly than a solution or cream base. The manufacturer of each product has total control over the content of the base of a medication. Although containing the active ingredients, one manufacturers cream might be more acidic than the next. For example, a formulation of miconazole antifungal cream might irritate the skin less than an athlete foot formulation of miconazole cream. These variations can, on occasion, result in different clinical outcomes, no comparative potency labeling exists to ensure equal efficacy between brands of topical steroids. Studies have confirmed that the potency of some topical steroid products may differ according to manufacturer or brand, however, in a simple base like an ointment, much less variation between manufacturers is common. In dermatology, the base of a medication is often as important as the medication itself. It is extremely important to receive a medication in the correct base, a pharmacist should not substitute an ointment for a cream, or vice versa, as the potency of the medication can change. As a result, what the manufacturers marketing department chooses to list on the label of a medication might be completely different from what the form would normally be called
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Nasal administration
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Nasal administration is a route of administration in which drugs are insufflated through the nose. It can be a form of either administration or systemic administration. Nasal sprays are locally acting drugs such as decongestants for cold and allergy treatment, examples of systemically active drugs available as nasal sprays are migraine drugs, nicotine replacement, and hormone treatments. The nasal cavity is covered by a thin mucosa which is well vascularised, therefore, a drug molecule can be transferred quickly across the single epithelial cell layer directly to the systemic blood circulation without first-pass hepatic and intestinal metabolism. The effect is reached within 5 min for smaller drug molecules. Drugs which are poorly absorbed orally can also be given by this route, nasal administration is primarily suitable for potent drugs since only a limited volume can be sprayed into the nasal cavity. Drugs for continuous and frequent administration may be suitable because of the risk of harmful long-term effects on the nasal epithelium. Nasal administration has also associated with a high variability in the amount of drug absorbed. However, the variability in the amount absorbed after nasal administration should be comparable to that after oral administration, nasal sprays for local effect are quite common. Steroids, antiasthma medications such as salbutamol, ipratropium, montelukast, the recent developments in intranasal drug delivery systems are prodigious. Peptide drugs are available as nasal sprays, in this case to avoid drug degradation after oral administration. The peptide analogue desmopressin is, for example, available for both nasal and oral administration, for the treatment of diabetes insipidus, the bioavailability of the commercial tablet is 0. 1% while that of the nasal spray is 3-5% according to the SPC. Syntocinon nasal spray containing oxytocin is used to increase duration and strength of contractions during labour, gnRH analogues like nafarelin and busurelin are used for the treatment of anovulatory infertility, hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, delayed puberty and cryptorchidism. Other potential drug candidates for nasal administration include anaesthetics, antihistamines, antiemetics, intranasal midazolam is found to be highly effective in acute episodes of seizures in children. Recently, the part of the nasal cavity, as high as the cribriform plate, has been proposed for drug delivery to the brain. The nasal drug administration of naloxone was found to be as effective as the intravenous route, the prevention of abnormal nasal blood vessel growth and even the delivery of medications and drug antidotes such as hydroxocobalamin are being developed via intranasal medications. More recently interest is developing on delivery of a number of peptides, intranasal insulin is being investigated for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimers disease. The live attenuated influenza vaccine sold under the brand names FluMist or Fluenz is delivered intranasally, flumist is a Quadrivalent Vaccine which contains four vaccine virus strains, an A/H1N1 strain, an A/H3N2 strain and two B strains
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Peptide
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Peptides are biologically occurring short chains of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. The covalent chemical bonds are formed when the group of one amino acid reacts with the amine group of another. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond, followed by tripeptides, tetrapeptides. A polypeptide is a long, continuous, and unbranched peptide chain, hence, peptides fall under the broad chemical classes of biological oligomers and polymers, alongside nucleic acids, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, etc. Peptides are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, all peptides except cyclic peptides have an N-terminal and C-terminal residue at the end of the peptide. Ribosomal peptides Ribosomal peptides are synthesized by translation of mRNA and they are often subjected to proteolysis to generate the mature form. These function, typically in higher organisms, as hormones and signaling molecules, some organisms produce peptides as antibiotics, such as microcins. Since they are translated, the amino acid residues involved are restricted to those utilized by the ribosome, however, these peptides frequently have posttranslational modifications such as phosphorylation, hydroxylation, sulfonation, palmitoylation, glycosylation and disulfide formation. In general, they are linear, although lariat structures have been observed, more exotic manipulations do occur, such as racemization of L-amino acids to D-amino acids in platypus venom. Nonribosomal peptides Nonribosomal peptides are assembled by enzymes that are specific to each peptide, the most common non-ribosomal peptide is glutathione, which is a component of the antioxidant defenses of most aerobic organisms. Other nonribosomal peptides are most common in organisms, plants. These complexes are often out in a similar fashion. These peptides are often cyclic and can have highly complex cyclic structures, since the system is closely related to the machinery for building fatty acids and polyketides, hybrid compounds are often found. The presence of oxazoles or thiazoles often indicates that the compound was synthesized in this fashion, Peptones See also Tryptone Peptones are derived from animal milk or meat digested by proteolysis. In addition to containing small peptides, the material includes fats, metals, salts, vitamins. Peptones are used in nutrient media for growing bacteria and fungi, Peptide fragments Peptide fragments refer to fragments of proteins that are used to identify or quantify the source protein. Peptides received prominence in molecular biology for several reasons, the first is that peptides allow the creation of peptide antibodies in animals without the need of purifying the protein of interest. This involves synthesizing antigenic peptides of sections of the protein of interest and these will then be used to make antibodies in a rabbit or mouse against the protein
8.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
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Antibody
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An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a molecule of the harmful agent, called an antigen. Each tip of the Y of an antibody contains a paratope that is specific for one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or a cell for attack by other parts of the immune system. Depending on the antigen, the binding may impede the process causing the disease or may activate macrophages to destroy the foreign substance. The ability of an antibody to communicate with the components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region. The production of antibodies is the function of the humoral immune system. Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the immune system. In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms. Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily and they constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two heavy chains and two small light chains. There are several different types of heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments that may be attached to the antigen-binding fragments. The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes, each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor, thus allowing the antigen-antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds. The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the present at conserved sites within its Fc region. The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. For example, IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation, igEs Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen, for example house dust mite particles, while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε. The allergen-IgE-FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma and this region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen and this enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen-binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens
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Vaccine
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A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe. Vaccines can be prophylactic, or therapeutic, the administration of vaccines is called vaccination. The effectiveness of vaccination has been studied and verified, for example, the influenza vaccine, the HPV vaccine. The World Health Organization reports that licensed vaccines are available to prevent or contribute to the prevention. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae, the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the. Variolae vaccinae. known. the Cow Pox. In 1881, to honor Jenner, Louis Pasteur proposed that the terms should be extended to cover the new protective inoculations then being developed, vaccines have historically been the most effective means to fight and eradicate infectious diseases. Limitations to their effectiveness, nevertheless, exist, sometimes, protection fails because the hosts immune system simply does not respond adequately or at all. Lack of response commonly results from factors such as diabetes, steroid use. Adjuvants commonly are used to boost immune response, particularly for older people, the efficacy or performance of the vaccine is dependent on a number of factors, the disease itself the strain of vaccine whether the vaccination schedule has been properly observed. Idiosyncratic response to vaccination, some individuals are non-responders to certain vaccines, assorted factors such as ethnicity, age, or genetic predisposition. If a vaccinated individual does develop the disease vaccinated against, the disease is likely to be less virulent than in unvaccinated victims, in 1958, there were 763,094 cases of measles in the United States,552 deaths resulted. After the introduction of new vaccines, the number of cases dropped to fewer than 150 per year, in early 2008, there were 64 suspected cases of measles. Vaccines have contributed to the eradication of smallpox, one of the most contagious, other diseases such as rubella, polio, measles, mumps, chickenpox, and typhoid are nowhere near as common as they were a hundred years ago. As long as the vast majority of people are vaccinated, it is more difficult for an outbreak of disease to occur. This effect is called herd immunity, polio, which is transmitted only between humans, is targeted by an extensive eradication campaign that has seen endemic polio restricted to only parts of three countries. However, the difficulty of reaching all children as well as cultural misunderstandings have caused the anticipated eradication date to be missed several times, vaccination given during childhood is generally safe
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Gene
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A gene is a locus of DNA which is made up of nucleotides and is the molecular unit of heredity. The transmission of genes to an offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. These genes make up different DNA sequences called genotypes, genotypes along with environmental and developmental factors determine what the phenotypes will be. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes as well as gene–environment interactions, genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotypical traits, usage of the term having a gene typically refers to containing a different allele of the same, shared gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles, the concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel, from 1857 to 1864, in Brno, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas, although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype and phenotype, charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, from Greek pan and genesis / genos. Darwin used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction, de Vries called these units pangenes, after Darwins 1868 pangenesis theory. In 1909 the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen shortened the name to gene, advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid was shown to be the repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination, collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics, in 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene, the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing, an automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project. The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the evolutionary synthesis
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Injection (medicine)
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An injection follows a parenteral route of administration, that is, administration via a route other than through the digestive tract. Since the process involves a small puncture wound to the body. Rodents used for research are often administered intracerebral, intracerebroventricular, or intraportal injections as well, long-acting forms of subcutaneous/intramuscular injections are available for various drugs, and are called depot injections. Injections are among the most common health care procedures, with at least 16 billion administered in developing, 95% of injections are administered in curative care, 3% are for immunization, and the rest for other purposes, such as blood transfusions. In some instances the term injection is used synonymously with inoculation even by different workers in the same hospital and this should not cause confusion, the focus is on what is being injected/inoculated, not the terminology of the procedure. In an intramuscular injection, the medication is delivered directly into a muscle, many vaccines are administered intramuscularly, as are codeine, metoclopramide, and many other medications. Many drugs injected intramuscularly are absorbed into the muscle fairly quickly, injections to the buttocks are known to reach the bloodstream quickly due to the large amount of muscular tissue and corresponding blood supply. Such injection allows the compound to be released in a consistent way over a long period. Depot injections are usually either solid or oil-based, depot injections may be available as certain forms of a drug, such as decanoate salts or esters. Examples of depot injections include Depo Provera and haloperidol decanoate, prostate cancer patients receiving hormone therapy usually get depot injections as a treatment or therapy. Zoladex is an example of a medication delivered by depot for prostate cancer treatment or therapy, naltrexone may be administered in a monthly depot injection to control opiod abuse, in this case, the depot injection improves compliance by replacing daily pill administration. The advantages of using a long-acting depot injection include increased medication compliance due to reduction in the frequency of dosing, a significant disadvantage is that the drug is not immediately reversible, since it is slowly released. In psychiatric nursing, a short acting depot, zuclopenthixol acetate, the pharmaceutical injection type of infiltration involves loading a volume of tissue with the drug, filling the interstitial space. Local anesthetics are often infiltrated into the dermis and hypodermis, various animals, and some plants, have been injecting for various reasons long before humans began doing so in a process commonly called stinging. Some examples include, Snakes, wasps, scorpions, venom, to kill prey, some bees, venom, to defend themselves and their nests. Stinging nettles, venom, to try to avoid being eaten, stingrays, venom, defense mechanism when provoked. The pain of an injection may be lessened by prior application of ice or topical anesthetic, recent studies suggest that forced coughing during an injection stimulates a transient rise in blood pressure which inhibits the perception of pain. Sometimes, as with an amniocentesis, an anesthetic is given
13.
Immunization
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Immunization, or immunisation, is the process by which an individuals immune system becomes fortified against an agent. This is a function of the immune system. Therefore, by exposing an animal to an immunogen in a way, its body can learn to protect itself. The most important elements of the system that are improved by immunization are the T cells, B cells. Memory B cells and memory T cells are responsible for a response to a second encounter with a foreign molecule. Passive immunization is direct introduction of elements into the body. Immunization is done through various techniques, most commonly vaccination, vaccines against microorganisms that cause diseases can prepare the bodys immune system, thus helping to fight or prevent an infection. The fact that mutations can cause cells to produce proteins or other molecules that are known to the body forms the theoretical basis for therapeutic cancer vaccines. Other molecules can be used for immunization as well, for example in experimental vaccines against nicotine or the hormone ghrelin in experiments to create an obesity vaccine. Immunizations are often stated as less risky and an easier way to become immune to a particular disease than risking a milder form of the disease itself. They are important for both adults and children in that they can protect us from the many diseases out there, immunization not only protects children against deadly diseases but also helps in developing childrens immune systems. Through the use of immunizations, some infections and diseases have almost completely been eradicated throughout the United States, thanks to dedicated health care professionals and the parents of children who vaccinated on schedule, polio has been eliminated in the U. S. since 1979. Polio is still found in parts of the world so certain people could still be at risk of getting it. This includes those people who have never had the vaccine, those who didnt receive all doses of the vaccine, active immunization/vaccination has been named one of the Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century. Before the introduction of vaccines, people could become immune to an infectious disease by contracting the disease. Smallpox was prevented in this way by inoculation, which produced an effect than the natural disease. It was introduced into England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu in 1721, in 1798 Edward Jenner introduced inoculation with cowpox, a much safer procedure. This procedure, referred to as vaccination, gradually replaced smallpox inoculation and this can cause confusion if care is not taken to specify which vaccine is used e. g. measles vaccine or influenza vaccine
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Targeted drug delivery
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This means of delivery is largely founded on nanomedicine, which plans to employ nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery in order to combat the downfalls of conventional drug delivery. These nanoparticles would be loaded with drugs and targeted to specific parts of the body there is solely diseased tissue. The goal of a drug delivery system is to prolong, localize. The conventional drug delivery system is the absorption of the drug across a biological membrane, the disadvantage of the system is high cost, which makes productivity more difficult and the reduced ability to adjust the dosages. Targeted drug delivery systems have developed to optimize regenerative techniques. The system is based on a method that delivers an amount of a therapeutic agent for a prolonged period of time to a targeted diseased area within the body. This helps maintain the plasma and tissue drug levels in the body. The drug delivery system is integrated and requires various disciplines, such as chemists, biologists. In traditional drug delivery systems such as oral ingestion or intravascular injection, for most therapeutic agents, only a small portion of the medication reaches the organ to be affected, such as in chemotherapy where roughly 99% of the drugs administered do not reach the tumor site. Targeted drug delivery seeks to concentrate the medication in the tissues of interest while reducing the concentration of the medication in the remaining tissues. For example, by avoiding the hosts defense mechanisms and inhibiting non-specific distribution in the liver and spleen, targeted delivery is believed to improve efficacy while reducing side-effects. Advances in the field of targeted drug delivery to cardiac tissue will be a component to regenerate cardiac tissue. This ability for nanoparticles to concentrate in areas of solely diseased tissue is accomplished through one or both means of targeting, passive or active. In passive targeting, the success is directly related to circulation time. This is achieved by cloaking the nanoparticle with some sort of coating, several substances can achieve this, with one of them being polyethylene glycol. By adding PEG to the surface of the nanoparticle, it is rendered hydrophilic, the result of this bond is a film of hydration around the nanoparticle which makes the substance antiphagocytic. To work in conjunction with this mechanism of targeting, nanoparticles that are between 10 and 100 nanometers in size have been found to circulate systemically for longer periods of time. Active targeting of drug-loaded nanoparticles enhances the effects of passive targeting to make the more specific to a target site
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