1.
Talking drum
–
The Talking drum is an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa, whose pitch can be regulated to mimic the tone and prosody of human speech. It has two connected by leather tension cords, which allow the player to modulate the pitch of the drum by squeezing the cords between their arm and body. A skilled player is able to play whole phrases, most talking drums sound like a human humming depending on the way you play. Similar hourglass-shaped drums are found in Asia, but they are not used to mimic speech, hourglass-shaped talking drums are some of the oldest instruments used by West African griots and their history can be traced back to the Yoruba people, the Ghana Empire and the Hausa people. The Yoruba people of south western Nigeria and Benin and the Dagomba of northern Ghana) have developed a sophisticated genre of griot music centering on the talking drum. Many variants of the talking drums evolved, with most of them having the same construction mentioned above, soon, many non-hourglass shapes showed up and were given special names, such as the Dunan, Sangban, Kenkeni, Fontomfrom and Ngoma drums. In Senegalese and Gambian history, the tama was one of the instruments used in the Serer peoples Woong tradition. The tama drum, has Serer religious connotations, in the Xaat tradition, the tama makes up the fourth musical drum ensemble. The Serer drums played include, Perngel, Lamb, Qiin, suicide is permitted in Serer religion only if it satisfies the Serer principle of Jom. The word Jom means honour in the Serer language, the pitch of the drum is varied to mimic the tone patterns of speech. This is done by varying the tension placed on the drumhead, the drum can thus capture the pitch, volume, and rhythm of human speech, though not the qualities of vowels or consonants. The use of talking drums as a form of communication was noticed by Europeans in the first half of the eighteenth century, detailed messages could be sent from one village to the next faster than could be carried by a person riding a horse. In the nineteenth century Roger T. Clarke, a missionary, realised that the signals represent the tones of the syllables of conventional phrases of a traditional and highly poetic character. Like Chinese, many African languages are tonal, that is, the problem was how to communicate complex messages without the use of vowels or consonants, simply using tone. An English emigrant to Africa, John F. Carrington, in his 1949 book The Talking Drums of Africa explained how African drummers were able to communicate complex messages over vast distances. Using low tones referred to as male and higher tones, the drummer communicates through the phrases and pauses. This process may take eight times longer than communicating a normal sentence but was effective for telling neighboring villages of possible attacks or ceremonies. He found that to each short word which was beaten on the drums was added an extra phrase, single words would be translated into phrases
Talking drum
–
Talking drum
Talking drum
–
Yoruba drummers: The nearest holds
omele ako and
batá, the other two hold dunduns.
Talking drum
–
Senegalese Tama player, Yamar Thiam of the Finnish group Galaxy, performing at the Imatra Big band Festival at Imatra, July 2005
2.
Drum kit
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A drum kit consists of a mix of drums and idiophones most significantly cymbals but also including the woodblock and cowbell. In the 2000s, some also include electronic instruments and both hybrid and entirely electronic kits are used. If some or all of them are replaced by electronic drums, the drum kit is usually played while seated on a drum stool or throne. The drum kit differs from instruments that can be used to produce pitched melodies or chords, even though drums are often placed musically alongside others that do, such as the piano or guitar. The drum kit is part of the rhythm section used in many types of popular and traditional music styles ranging from rock and pop to blues. Other standard instruments used in the section include the electric bass, electric guitar. Many drummers extend their kits from this pattern, adding more drums, more cymbals. Some performers, such as some rockabilly drummers, use small kits that omit elements from the basic setup, some drum kit players may have other roles in the band, such as providing backup vocals, or less commonly, lead vocals. Thus, in an early 1800s orchestra piece, if the called for bass drum, triangle and cymbals. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to them to play more than one instrument. In the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a set, the bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all played using hand-held drum sticks. Double-drumming was developed to one person to play the bass and snare with sticks. With this approach, the drum was usually played on beats one. This resulted in a swing and dance feel. The drum set was referred to as a trap set. By the 1870s, drummers were using an overhang pedal, most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal. Companies patented their pedal systems such as Dee Dee Chandler of New Orleans 1904–05, liberating the hands for the first time, this evolution saw the bass drum played with the foot of a standing percussionist. The bass drum became the central piece around which every other percussion instrument would later revolve and it was the golden age of drum building for many famous drum companies, with Ludwig introducing
Drum kit
Drum kit
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South-African jazz drummer
Louis Moholo playing a four-piece kit
Drum kit
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Dance band drummer Stan Farmer at Mark Foy's Empress Ballroom, Sydney, New South Wales, using a kit with bass drum pedal and low sock. Tom Lennon, 23 October 1935
Drum kit
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Drummer in a Memphis "juke joint" orchestra playing a kit with four non-tunable
toms. Marion Post Wolcott, October 1939
3.
Conga
–
The conga, also known as tumbadora, is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified three types, quinto, tres dos or tres golpes, and tumba or salidor. Most modern congas have a wooden or fiberglass shell. They are usually played in sets of two to four with the fingers and palms of the hand, typical congas stand approximately 75 centimetres from the bottom of the shell to the head. The drums may be played while seated, alternatively, the drums may be mounted on a rack or stand to permit the player to play while standing. While they originated in Cuba, their incorporation into the popular and folk music of countries has resulted in diversification of terminology for the instruments. In Cuba, congas are called tumbadoras, Conga players are called congueros, while rumberos refers to those who dance following the path of the players. The term conga was popularized in the 1930s, when Latin music swept the United States, Cuban son and New York jazz fused together to create what was then termed mambo, but later became known as salsa. In that same period, the popularity of the Conga Line helped to spread this new term, desi Arnaz also played a role in the popularization of conga drums. However, the drum he played was similar to the type of known as bokú used in his hometown. The word conga came from the rhythm la conga used during carnaval in Cuba, the drums used in carnaval could have been referred to as tambores de conga since they played the rhythm la conga, and thus translated into English as conga drums. There are five basic strokes, Open tone is played with the four fingers near the rim of the head, producing a clear resonant tone with a distinct pitch. Muffled or mute tone, like the tone, is made by striking the drum with the four fingers. Bass tone, played with the palm on the head. It produces a low muted sound, slap tone, the most difficult technique producing a loud clear popping sound. Touch tone, as implied by the name, this tone is produced by just touching the fingers or heel of the palm to the drum head. It is possible to alternate a touch of the palm with a touch of the fingers in a maneuver called heel-toe, the moose call or glissando is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva or sweat, and sometimes a little coat of beeswax is put on the surface of the head to help make the sound
Conga
–
A pair of congas
Conga
–
A pair of
Latin Percussion conga drums
Conga
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All modes of quinto in context. Quinto excerpt from “La polémica” by Los Muñequitos de Matanzas (1988).
Conga
–
Top: clave. Bottom: basic conga tumbao on one drum. S: slap, O: open tone, h: palm heel, t: finger tips.
4.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
Percussion instrument
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Yoruba drummers: One holds
omele ako and
batá, the other two hold
dunduns.
Percussion instrument
–
Orchestral percussion section with
timpani,
unpitched auxiliary percussion and pitched
tubular bells
Percussion instrument
–
Djembé and
balafon played by
Susu people of
Guinea
Percussion instrument
–
Concussion idiophones (
claves), and struck drums (
conga drum)
5.
Membranophones
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A membranophone is any musical instrument which produces sound primarily by way of a vibrating stretched membrane. It is one of the four divisions of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. In addition to drums, there is kind of membranophone, called the singing membranophone. These instruments modify a sound produced by something else, commonly the human voice, frame drums consist of a membrane stretched across a frame. Friction drums produce sound by rubbing a stick through a hole in a membrane stretched across a frame, mirlitons, Kazoos and Swazzles vibrate in sympathy with sounds travelling across a membrane. These are the only membranophones that are not truly drums, SIL International maintains a classification system based largely on shape, Cylindrical drums are straight-sided, and generally two-headed. A buzzing, percussive string is sometimes used, examples include the bass drum and the Iranian dohol. Conical drums are sloped on the sides, and are usually one-headed, examples include the Indian tabla and the Venezuelan chimbangueles. Barrel drums are normally one-headed, and may be open at the bottom, examples include the Dhak from eastern parts of India, bendre, made by the Mossi of Burkina Faso out of a large calabash, and the trong chau of Vietnam. Hourglass drums are hourglass-shaped and generally two-headed, the drumheads are laced onto the body, and the laces may be squeezed during performance to alter the drums pitch. Examples include folk drums in India and much of Africa, as well as talking drums. Goblet drums are one-headed and goblet shaped, and are open at the bottom. Examples include the Arab darabukka, and a range of instruments from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Africa, Southeastern Europe. Footed drums are single-headed and are held above the ground by feet, the space between the drum and the ground provides extra resonance. Examples include a range of East African and Polynesian drums, long drums are a diverse category, characterized by extreme length. Examples include the single-headed hollow tree trunk drums of Africa and the carved and dyed gufalo of the Nuna in Burkina Faso. Kettle drums are played in pairs, and have a vessel or pot body, are one-headed. Examples include the timpani and tabla, frame drums are composed of one or more membranes stretched across a frame
Membranophones
–
Mirlitons, as the kazoo in the picture, are a special class of membranophone, and is the only class that does not consist of true drums
Membranophones
–
A timpani is a kind of kettle drum
Membranophones
–
A cuica is a kind of friction drum
6.
Drumhead
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A drumhead or drum skin is a membrane stretched over one or both of the open ends of a drum. The drumhead is struck with sticks, mallets, or hands, so that it vibrates, originally, drumheads were made from animal hide and were first used in early human history, long before records began. In 1957, Remo Belli and Sam Muchnick together developed a polymer head leading to the development of the Remo drumhead company, despite the benefits of plastic heads, drummers in historical reenactment groups such as fife and drum use animal skin heads for historical accuracy. Another common material used for drumheads is aramid fiber, such as kevlar, kevlar heads are also used in marching percussion. The bolts, called tension rods, are screwed into threaded lugs attached to the shell, in order to tighten. A drum key is a four sided wrench used to screw the tension rods into the lugs, drummers muffle their drums using special drumheads. Some drumheads come pre-muffled such as Remo Powerstroke Pro, accessory Fetish A Complete List of Drum Head Manufacturers Resonant Drum Head Explained
Drumhead
–
Drumhead mounted on a drum
Drumhead
–
1 Holder clamp, 2 Rim, 3 Tension rod, 4 Lug, 5 Snare butt
7.
Drum stick
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A drumstick is a type of percussion mallet used particularly for playing snare drum, drum kit and some other percussion instruments, and particularly for playing unpitched percussion. Drumsticks generally have all of the characteristics, They are normally supplied and used in pairs. They are held in the hands, most often one in each hand and they may be used to play at least some sort of drum. They are normally used only for untuned percussion, the archetypical drumstick is turned from a single piece of wood, most commonly of hickory, less commonly of maple, and least commonly but still in significant numbers, of oak. Drumsticks of the form are also made from metal, carbon fibre. The tip or bead is the part most often used to strike the instrument, in the 1970s, an acetal tip was introduced, designed by Ken Drinan and Paul Kiersted. Tips of whatever material are of shapes, including acorn, barrel, oval, teardrop, pointed. The shoulder of the stick is the part that tapers towards the tip and it is often used for playing the bell of a cymbal. It can also be used to produce a cymbal crash when applied with a motion to the bow or edge of a cymbal. The shaft is the body of the stick, and is cylindrical for most applications including drum kit and it is used for playing cross stick and applied in a glancing motion to the rim of a cymbal for the loudest cymbal crashes. The butt is the end of the stick to the tip. Some rock and metal musicians use it rather than the tip, plain wooden drumsticks are most commonly described using a number to describe the weight and diameter of the stick followed by one or more letters to describe the tip. A 5A is a common wood tipped rock stick, heavier than a 7A, the numbers are most commonly odd but even numbers are used occasionally, in the range 2 to 9. The most general purpose stick is a 5A, however, there is no one stick for any particular style of music. There are two ways of holding drumsticks, Traditional grip, in which right and left hands use different grips. Matched grip, in which the two hand grips are mirror-image, Traditional grip was developed to conveniently play a snare drum while riding a horse, and was documented and popularised by Sanford A. Moeller in The Art of Snare Drumming. It was the grip for kit drummers in the first half of the twentieth century and remains popular. However the traditional grip has since made a comeback, and both types of grip are used and promoted by leading kit drummers and teachers
Drum stick
–
Traditional grip (for a right-handed drummer)
Drum stick
–
Traditional grip used by a
side drummer
Drum stick
–
Matched grip used by a
taiko drummer
8.
Sound
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In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement, through a transmission medium such as air or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves, humans can hear sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and below 20 Hz is infrasound, other animals have different hearing ranges. Acoustics is the science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician, an audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound. Auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described in, sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium, as the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, at an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave and this is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases. During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium, the behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things, A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium, if the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated, for many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible. When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, the mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter, gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves and it requires a medium to propagate
Sound
–
A
drum produces sound via a vibrating membrane.
Sound
–
Audio engineers in R&D design audio equipment
Sound
–
U.S. Navy
F/A-18 approaching the sound barrier. The white halo is formed by condensed water droplets thought to result from a drop in air pressure around the aircraft (see
Prandtl-Glauert Singularity).
Sound
–
Human ear
9.
Thumb roll
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The tambourine is a musical instrument in the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called zils. Classically the term denotes an instrument with a drumhead, though some variants may not have a head at all. Tambourines are often used with regular percussion sets and they can be mounted, for example on a stand as part of a drum kit, or they can be held in the hands and played by tapping or hitting the instrument. Tambourines come in shapes with the most common being circular. It is found in forms of music, Turkish folk music, Greek folk music, Italian folk music, classical music, Persian music, samba, gospel music, pop music. Tambourines originated in Egypt, where they were known as the kof to the Hebrews, from the Middle Persian word tambūr lute, drum. There are several ways to achieve a tambourine roll, the easiest method is to rapidly rotate the hand holding the tambourine back and forth, pivoting at the wrist. An advanced playing technique is known as the thumb roll, the finger or thumb is moved over the skin or rim of the tambourine, producing a fast roll from the jingles on the instrument. This takes more skill and experience to master, the thumb or middle finger of the hand not holding the tambourine is run around the head of the instrument approximately one centimeter from the rim with some pressure applied. If performed correctly, the thumb should bounce along the head rapidly, usually, the end of the roll is articulated using the heel of the hand or another finger. In the 2000s, the roll may be performed with the use of wax or resin applied to the outside of the drum head. This resin allows the thumb or finger to bounce more rapidly and forcefully across the head producing an even sound, a continuous roll can be achieved by moving the thumb in a figure of 8 pattern around the head. By drummers – Drummers such as Larry Mullen, Jr. of U2 mount a tambourine above the cymbals of their hi-hat stand, tambourines in rock music are most often headless, a ring with jangles but no drum skin. The Rhythm Tech crescent-shaped tambourine and its derivatives are popular, the original Rhythm Tech tambourine is displayed in the Museum of Modern Art. Jack Ashfords distinctive tambourine playing was a dominant part of the section on Motown records. The tambourine was featured in Green Tambourine, a song with which The Lemon Pipers. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was among the earliest western composers to include the tambourine in his compositions, gustav Holsts seven-movement orchestral suite The Planets also features the tambourine in several places throughout the suite, especially in the Jupiter movement. Originated in Galicia or Portugal, the pandeiro was brought to Brazil by the Portuguese settlers and it is a hand percussion instrument consisting of a single tension-headed drum with jingles in the frame
Thumb roll
–
Tambourine
Thumb roll
–
Ancient Greek
black-figure pottery depicting a girl playing the tambourine.
Bourgas Archaeology Museum.
Thumb roll
–
Woman holding a mirror and a tambourine facing a winged genie with a ribbon and a branch with leaves.
Ancient Greek red-figure oinochoe, ca. 320 BC, from
Magna Graecia. (Notice the coloured decorative woven stripes hanging on the tambourine, which can still be seen today on "tamburello", the tambourine of Southern Italy.)
Thumb roll
–
Maenad playing a
tympanum. Detail from the Triumph of Dionysus, on a Roman mosaic from Tunisia (3rd century AD)
10.
Djembe
–
A djembe or jembe is a rope-tuned skin-covered goblet drum played with bare hands, originally from West Africa. According to the Bambara people in Mali, the name of the djembe comes from the saying Anke djé, anke bé which translates to everyone together in peace. In the Bambara language, djé is the verb for gather, the djembe has a body carved of hardwood and a drumhead made of untreated rawhide, most commonly made from goatskin. Excluding rings, djembes have a diameter of 30–38 cm. The majority have a diameter in the 13 to 14 inch range, the weight of a djembe ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg and depends on size and shell material. A medium-size djembe carved from one of the traditional woods weighs around 9 kg, the djembe can produce a wide variety of sounds, making it a most versatile drum. The drum is very loud, allowing it to be heard clearly as a solo instrument over a large percussion ensemble, the Malinké people say that a skilled drummer is one who can make the djembe talk, meaning that the player can tell an emotional story. Traditionally, the djembe is played only by men, as are the dunun that always accompany the djembe, conversely, other percussion instruments that are commonly played as part of an ensemble, such as the shekere, karignan, and kese kese, are usually played by women. Even today, it is rare to see women play djembe or dunun in West Africa, there is general agreement that the origin of the djembe is associated with the Mandinka caste of blacksmiths, known as Numu. The wide dispersion of the drum throughout West Africa may be due to Numu migrations during the first millennium AD. Despite the association of the djembe with the Numu, there are no restrictions on who may become a djembefola. This is in contrast to instruments whose use is reserved for members of the caste, such as the balafon, kora. Anyone who plays djembe is a djembefola—the term does not imply a level of skill. However, due to the lack of records in West African countries. It seems likely that the history of the djembe reaches back for at least several centuries, the goblet shape of the djembe suggests that it originally may have been created from a mortar. There are a number of different creation myths for the djembe, the djembe first came to the attention of audiences outside West Africa with the efforts of Fodéba Keïta, who, in 1952, founded Les Ballets Africains. Tourés policies alienated Guinea from the West and he followed the Eastern Bloc model of using the countrys culture and music for promotional means. He and Fodéba Keïta, who had become a friend of Touré, saw the ballets as a way to secularize traditional customs
Djembe
–
Lenke wood djembe from Mali
Djembe
–
Les Ballets Africains in
Bonn,
Germany, 1962
Djembe
–
Djembefola DVD cover
Djembe
–
The Visitor theatrical release poster
11.
Bongo drums
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Bongos are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed drums of different sizes. In Spanish the larger drum is called the hembra and the smaller the macho, the origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from Central African drum models, also a Santería influence from Yoruba culture in the symbolic twin drum is assumed. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in Eastern Cuba makes such an influence probable, moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in the Cuban son music genre, including changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum went parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Although the bongos are defined as African in concept, but Cuban in invention - e. g. by author Ned Sublette - some Moorish or European aspects may also have shaped the bongos over time. Etymologically, Sublette traces the origin of the bongo to a multi-purpose word of Bantu origin. The bongo came to western Cuba at the turn of the 20th century, as son inspired Cuban big band music gained international popularity, the Cuban bongo was exported all over the world. It is today one of the most common hand drums, bongo drums produce relatively high-pitched sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the knees with the larger drum on the right when right-handed. It is most often played by hand and is associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or ostinato of eighth-notes known as the martillo or hammer. They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers, the glissando used with bongó de monte is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head, when used in art music compositions they are usually struck with drum sticks. These drums can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras, bongo drummers are known as bongoseros. The following drummers are important figures in the history of the instrument
Bongo drums
–
A pair of bongos
12.
Timpani
–
Timpani, or kettledrums, are musical instruments in the percussion family. A type of drum, they consist of a skin called a head stretched over a large bowl traditionally made of copper and they are played by striking the head with a specialized drum stick called a timpani stick or timpani mallet. Timpani evolved from military drums to become a staple of the orchestra by the last third of the 18th century. Today, they are used in many types of ensembles, including concert bands, marching bands, orchestras. Timpani is an Italian plural, the singular of which is timpano and they are also often incorrectly termed timpanis. A musician who plays the timpani is a timpanist, alternative spellings with y in place of either or both is—tympani, tympany, or timpany—are occasionally encountered in older English texts. Although the word timpani has been adopted in the English language. The German word for timpani is Pauken, the French and Spanish is timbales, the Ashanti pair of talking drums are known as atumpan. The tympanum is defined in the Etymologiae of St. Isidore of Seville, est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est, unde, et margaritum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad virgulam percutitur. The tympanum is skin or hide stretched over a wooden vessel which extends out. It is said by the symphonias to resemble a sieve, but has also likened to half a pearl. It is struck with a wand, beating time for the symphonia, the reference comparing the tympanum to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny the Elder. The basic timpani drum consists of a drumhead stretched across the opening of a bowl made of copper or, in less expensive models, fiberglass. In the Sachs–Hornbostel classification, the timpani are thus considered membranophones, the heads tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Most timpani have six to eight tension rods, the shape of the bowl contributes to the quality of the drum. For example, hemispheric bowls produce brighter tones while parabolic bowls produce darker tones, another factor that affects the timbre of the drum is the quality of the bowls surface. Copper bowls may have a smooth, machined surface or a surface with many small dents hammered into it
Timpani
–
A timpanist at work
Timpani
Timpani
–
Walter Light pedal and chain timpani set up in three different combinations.
Timpani
–
A pedal on a Dresden timpano – the clutch (seen here on the left) must be disengaged to change the pitch of the drum.
13.
Cymbal
–
A cymbal is a common percussion instrument. Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys, the majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note. Cymbals are used in ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands. Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, a player of cymbals is known as a cymbalist. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum, which is the latinisation of the Greek word κύμβαλον kymbalon, cymbal, which in turn derives from κύμβη kymbē, cup, bowl. In orchestral scores, cymbals may be indicated by the French cymbales, German Becken, Schellbecken, Tellern, or Tschinellen, Italian piatti or cinelli, many of these derive from the word for plates. Cymbals have existed since ancient times, representations of cymbals may be found in reliefs and paintings from Hittite Anatolia, Larsa, Babylon, Assyria, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and ancient Rome. References to cymbals also appear throughout the Bible, through many Psalms, cymbals may have been introduced to China from Central Asia in the 3rd or 4th century AD. Cymbals were employed by Turkish janissaries in the 14th century or earlier, by the 17th century, such cymbals were used in European music, and more commonly played in military bands and orchestras by the mid 18th century. Since the 19th century, some composers have called for larger roles for cymbals in musical works, and a variety of shapes, techniques. The anatomy of the plays a large part in the sound it creates. A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal, which is used to mount the cymbal on a stand or for tying straps through. The bell, dome, or cup is the section immediately surrounding the hole. The bell produces a higher pinging pitch than the rest of the cymbal, the bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. The bow is sometimes described in two areas, the ride and crash area, the ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. The edge or rim is the circumference of the cymbal. Cymbals are measured by their diameter either in inches or centimeters, the size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain. The weight describes how thick the cymbal is, Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play
Cymbal
–
Cymbal
Cymbal
–
Ancient Greek bronze cymbal, 5th century BC,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Cymbal
–
A pair of bronze cymbals from the Chinese
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Cymbal
–
A type of crash cymbals used in Assam, India. It is similar to Khartal. This instrument is used in Assamese dances called Bihu.
14.
Popular music
–
Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated
Popular music
–
The 19th century singer
Jenny Lind depicted performing
La sonnambula
15.
Jazz
–
Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in Blues and Ragtime. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a form of musical expression. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience, intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of Americas original art forms. As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments. In the early 1980s, a form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin, the question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a term dating back to 1860 meaning pep. The use of the word in a context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a context in New Orleans was in a November 14,1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands. In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying, When Broadway picked it up. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. Jazz has proved to be difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, in the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz. As Duke Ellington, one of jazzs most famous figures, said, although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements
Jazz
–
Louis Armstrong (1901–1971) is considered one of the pivotal musicians in jazz for his contributions as a trumpet player, composer and singer.
Jazz
–
Double bassist
Reggie Workman, saxophone player
Pharoah Sanders, and drummer
Idris Muhammad performing in 1978
Jazz
–
Albert Gleizes, 1915, Composition pour Jazz, gouache on cardboard, mounted on Masonite, 73 x 73 cm,
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Jazz
–
In the late 18th-century painting
The Old Plantation, African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.
16.
Cymbals
–
A cymbal is a common percussion instrument. Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys, the majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note. Cymbals are used in ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands. Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, a player of cymbals is known as a cymbalist. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum, which is the latinisation of the Greek word κύμβαλον kymbalon, cymbal, which in turn derives from κύμβη kymbē, cup, bowl. In orchestral scores, cymbals may be indicated by the French cymbales, German Becken, Schellbecken, Tellern, or Tschinellen, Italian piatti or cinelli, many of these derive from the word for plates. Cymbals have existed since ancient times, representations of cymbals may be found in reliefs and paintings from Hittite Anatolia, Larsa, Babylon, Assyria, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and ancient Rome. References to cymbals also appear throughout the Bible, through many Psalms, cymbals may have been introduced to China from Central Asia in the 3rd or 4th century AD. Cymbals were employed by Turkish janissaries in the 14th century or earlier, by the 17th century, such cymbals were used in European music, and more commonly played in military bands and orchestras by the mid 18th century. Since the 19th century, some composers have called for larger roles for cymbals in musical works, and a variety of shapes, techniques. The anatomy of the plays a large part in the sound it creates. A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal, which is used to mount the cymbal on a stand or for tying straps through. The bell, dome, or cup is the section immediately surrounding the hole. The bell produces a higher pinging pitch than the rest of the cymbal, the bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. The bow is sometimes described in two areas, the ride and crash area, the ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. The edge or rim is the circumference of the cymbal. Cymbals are measured by their diameter either in inches or centimeters, the size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain. The weight describes how thick the cymbal is, Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play
Cymbals
–
Cymbal
Cymbals
–
Ancient Greek bronze cymbal, 5th century BC,
National Archaeological Museum, Athens
Cymbals
–
A pair of bronze cymbals from the Chinese
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Cymbals
–
A type of crash cymbals used in Assam, India. It is similar to Khartal. This instrument is used in Assamese dances called Bihu.
17.
Rock music
–
It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
Rock music
–
Red Hot Chili Peppers in 2006, showing a quartet lineup for a rock band (from left to right: bassist, lead vocalist, drummer, and guitarist).
Rock music
–
Elvis Presley in a promotion shot for
Jailhouse Rock in 1957
Rock music
–
Chubby Checker in 2005
Rock music
–
The Beach Boys performing in 1964
18.
Drummer
–
The term percussionist applies to a musician who performs struck musical instruments of numerous diverse shapes, sizes and applications. Most contemporary western ensembles bands for rock, pop, jazz, most drummers of this particular designation work within the context of a larger contingent that may also include, keyboard or guitar, auxiliary percussion and bass. Said ensembles may also include melodic based mallet percussion including, vibraphone, the rhythm section, being the core metronomic foundation with which other melodic instruments, including voices, may present the harmonic/melodic portion of the material. In popular music, the function of the drummer is to keep time or provide a steady tempo. There are many tools that a drummer can use for either timekeeping or soloing and these include cymbals, snare, toms, auxiliary percussion and many others. Also there are single, double, and triple bass pedals for the bass drum, before motorized transport became widespread, drummers played a key role in military conflicts. Military drummers provided drum cadences that set a marching pace. In some armies drums also assisted in combat by keeping cadence for firing and loading drills with muzzle loading guns, military drummers were also employed on the parade field, when troops passed in review, and in various ceremonies including ominous drum rolls accompanying disciplinary punishments. Children also served as drummer boys well into the century, though less commonly than is popularly assumed, due to the nature of the job. In modern times, drummers are not employed in battle, typically buglers and drummers mass under a sergeant-drummer and during marches alternately perform with the regiment or battalion ensembles. Military-based musical percussion traditions were not limited exclusively to the western world, in the Ottoman Empire, the size of a military band reflected the rank of its commander in chief, the largest band was reserved for the Sultan. It included various percussion instruments, often adopted in European military music, the pitched bass drum is still known in some languages as the Turkish Drum. The drumline is a type of marching ensemble descended from drummers, and can be arranged as a performance of a drum. Their uniforms will often have a style and a fancy hat. In recent times, it is common to see drummers in parades wearing costumes with an African, Asian, Latin, Native American, or tribal look. Various indigenous cultures use the drum to create a sense of unity with others especially during recreational events, the drum also helps in prayers and meditations. List of drummers Drum beat Drum machine Drum tracks Pipe band This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Drummer
–
Hand drummers in
Berkeley, California, about 1966.
Drummer
–
A marching drum line warming up, 2011
Drummer
–
Turkmenistan Independence Day, 2011
Drummer
–
Drummer of the French
Chasseurs alpins
19.
Burundi
–
It is also considered part of Central Africa. The southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom, until the beginning of the twentieth century, after the First World War and Germanys defeat, it ceded the territory to Belgium. Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi, despite common misconceptions, Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common rule until the time of European colonisation. The European intervention exacerbated social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, and contributed to political unrest in the region. Bouts of ethnic cleansing and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s left the country undeveloped, Burundis political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the head of state and head of government, there are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi. On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution, six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assemblys seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a government in 2000. In October 2016, Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court, Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013. The population density of around 315 people per kilometre is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, the official languages of Burundi are French and Kirundi, although Swahili can be found spoken along the Tanzanian border. One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi has an equatorial climate, Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the East African Rift. The country lies on a plateau in the centre of Africa. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 2,685 m, lies to the southeast of the capital, there are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwest, Ruvubu National Park to the northeast. Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations, Burundis lands are mostly agricultural or pasture. Settlement by rural populations has led to deforestation, soil erosion, deforestation of the entire country is almost completely due to overpopulation, with a mere 600 km2 remaining and an ongoing loss of about 9% per annum. In addition to poverty, Burundians often have to deal with corruption, weak infrastructure, poor access to health and education services, Burundi is densely populated and has had substantial emigration as young people seek opportunities elsewhere
Burundi
–
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.
Burundi
–
Flag
Burundi
–
View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.
Burundi
–
Pierre Nkurunziza, President of Burundi.
20.
Karyenda
–
The karyenda is a traditional African drum. It was the symbol of Burundi and its mwami and had semi-divine status. The mwami was said to interpret the beatings of the karyenda into rules for the kingdom, when Burundi gained independence from Belgium in 1962, the karyenda was the symbol on the national flag and its coat of arms from 1962-1966. It was replaced after the republic was established, traditionally the most important folk songs and dances were performed to extol the virtues of the kingship. One big festival was the annual umuganuro, which was a display of pomp, festivities. Since the fall of the monarchy in 1966, and particularly after a massacre of Hutus in 1972, the second most important drum was the rukinzo. It accompanied the mwami wherever he went, the drums, despite all upheavals, have remained popular and are still revered. The old families who were wardens of the drums have tried to keep the ancient traditions alive, some have an international outreach, such as the Royal Drummers of Burundi, or L. Ndoricimpa and C. Guillet, who recorded Les tambours du Burundi in 1983, as sacred objects, the drums were much more than simple musical instruments. They were used in rituals, such as the umuganuro, or for special circumstances, major events for the king, such as royal coronations, funerals, and weddings were announced through the drums. The beating of the drums also signalled certain rites, such as when the rose in the morning or retired in the evening. Drums had various names, such as dispenser of peace or lady of the land, the Royal Order of Karyenda and the Royal Order of Rukinzo were founded by King Mwambutsa IV of Burundi on July 1,1962. The Order of Karyanda was the order of the kingdom and was divided into five classes. The drums were kept in drum sanctuaries. These were a network of high places, as well as centres of political. The sanctuaries were guarded mainly by Hutu families, who were the ones the king allowed to manufacture, play. They were called abatimbo, which is Rundi for drummers who hit hard, a sacred drum was enthroned in each sanctuary and guarded by attendants. There were also ingendanyi, and a set of drums that were played with the main drums, some of the main sanctuaries for the drums were, Gishora Hill, near Gitega, Higiro Hill, also near Gitega, Magamba Hill, and Banga
Karyenda
–
Drums from
Gitega, Burundi
21.
Cylinder (geometry)
–
In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
Cylinder (geometry)
–
Tycho Brahe Planetarium building, Copenhagen, its roof being an example of a cylindric section
Cylinder (geometry)
–
A right circular cylinder with radius r and height h.
Cylinder (geometry)
–
In
projective geometry, a cylinder is simply a cone whose
apex is at infinity, which corresponds visually to a cylinder in perspective appearing to be a cone towards the sky.
22.
Bowl (vessel)
–
A bowl is a round, open-top container used in many cultures to serve hot and cold food. Bowls are also used for drinking, as in the case of caffè latte, bowls used for storing non-food items range from small bowls used for holding tips at a coffee shop to large bowls used for storing DVDs or CDs. Bowls are typically small and shallow, as in the case of bowls used for single servings of soup or cereal, some bowls, such as punch bowls, serving bowls, fruit bowls and salad bowls are larger and often intended to serve many people. Modern bowls can be made of ceramic, metal, wood, plastic and their appearance can range from very simple designs of a single color to designs sophisticated artwork. Bowls have existed for thousands of years, very early bowls have been found in China, Ancient Greece, Crete and in certain Native American cultures. In classical Greece, small bowls, including phiales and pateras, some Mediterranean examples from the Bronze Age manifest elaborate decoration and sophistication of design. For example, the bridge spouted vessel design appeared in Minoan at Phaistos, in the 4th century BCE, evidence exists that the Uruk culture of ancient Mesopotamia mass-produced beveled rim bowls of standardized sizes. Moreover, in Chinese pottery, there are elaborately painted bowls. As of 2009, the oldest found is 18,000 years old, a bowl is also a standard unit of measure, as defined by the American Institute of Measurements. One bowl is the equivalent of 3.75 cups or 887.2059 ml, bridge spouted vessel Buffet Dishware List of eating utensils C. Michael Hogan Phaistos fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian,2007 Vincas P. Steponaitis. Ceramics, Chronology, and Community Patterns, An Archaeological Study at Moundville, history of Ancient Pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman, pp 140, 191–192. The Phiale of Achyris - On the website of the Archeological Institute of America, the Phiale is dated from 300 BC and is made of gold, includes pictures
Bowl (vessel)
–
Simple
ceramic bowl with blue glazed trim
Bowl (vessel)
–
Abgoosht in bowls in
Mourning of Muharram as religious vow.
Bowl (vessel)
–
Painted
pottery bowl, c. 10th century AD, from
Chaco Canyon, USA
Bowl (vessel)
–
Transparent
glass bowl of fruit. Wall painting in the
Roman Villa Boscoreale,
Italy (1st century AD)
23.
Tar (drum)
–
A Tar is a single-headed frame drum of Turkish origin, but is commonly played in North Africa and the Middle East. This instrument has been depicted in images from Turkish shrines that date to 6000 BC, making the Tar one of the most ancient musical instruments. The tar is held mainly with one hand, although the playing hand can also play and it has an open tone, and is often either played for accompaniment to other instruments or in tar ensembles. Frame drums are common throughout the world, there are tar, bendir, bodhran, deff, duff, and many others. Many Native American cultures use the drum in ceremony and celebration. These drums seem simple, but are capable of great nuance, riq Daf Mazhar Bendir Davul Ardah Brief of Tar
Tar (drum)
–
Ta'r (left), Egypt, picture p.366 in
Edward William Lane. An Account of the Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians (5th ed.).
Tar (drum)
24.
Bongo drum
–
Bongos are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed drums of different sizes. In Spanish the larger drum is called the hembra and the smaller the macho, the origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from Central African drum models, also a Santería influence from Yoruba culture in the symbolic twin drum is assumed. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in Eastern Cuba makes such an influence probable, moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in the Cuban son music genre, including changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum went parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Although the bongos are defined as African in concept, but Cuban in invention - e. g. by author Ned Sublette - some Moorish or European aspects may also have shaped the bongos over time. Etymologically, Sublette traces the origin of the bongo to a multi-purpose word of Bantu origin. The bongo came to western Cuba at the turn of the 20th century, as son inspired Cuban big band music gained international popularity, the Cuban bongo was exported all over the world. It is today one of the most common hand drums, bongo drums produce relatively high-pitched sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the knees with the larger drum on the right when right-handed. It is most often played by hand and is associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or ostinato of eighth-notes known as the martillo or hammer. They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers, the glissando used with bongó de monte is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head, when used in art music compositions they are usually struck with drum sticks. These drums can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras, bongo drummers are known as bongoseros. The following drummers are important figures in the history of the instrument
Bongo drum
–
A pair of bongos
25.
Ashiko
–
The ashiko is a drum, shaped like a tapered cylinder with the head on the wide end, and the narrow end open. It is made of hardwood and generally has a goatskin hide and it is played with the hands, and tuned by ropes. Ashiko drums – or variants thereof – are traditionally found in West Africa, the origins of the ashiko drum are traced to the Yoruba culture in present-day Nigeria and Benin, West Africa. The word “ashiko” is also traced to a word in the Yoruba language meaning either “drum” or time-frame or “freedom”, the drum has a long tradition in Yoruba culture, where the drum functioned in community celebrations, as well as a “talking drum”. Traditional ashikos were/are hand carved from a lug of wood and were not straight cones. In Cuba specifically, “ashiko-like” drums can be identified in the known as “bocú” in Eastern Cuba. Drums similarly shaped to the ashiko - including the cone form - can also be found in Afro-Colombian music, as well as in Afro-Brazilian music. The latter, from the Bahia region, tends to have however synthetic heads and is, unlike the ashiko, tuned by pegs. The African/Nigerian ashiko as such first got disseminated and popularized in some circles in the USA in the 1930s, some call the ashiko a male counterpart to the djembe, though this is contradicted by references to the relatively matriarchal Yoruba culture. It is a drum in itself and not a counterpart or derivative, there is, besides this, a geographical difference, as the djembe’s origins are associated with the Mali empire, and the ashiko’s as said with Yorubaland. Some percussionists argue that the ashiko knows more middle tones when compared to the djembe, modern ashiko drums produced in the West are often made of vertical staves. Like other drums they can be purchased with the standard 8,10, ashikos tuned by lugs and metal tacks are nowadays also produced. Some manufacturers use cow hide to make the ashiko resemble an Afro-Cuban conga
Ashiko
–
Ashiko
26.
Goblet drum
–
The goblet drum is a single head membranophone with a goblet shaped body used mostly in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, and Eastern Europe. The African djembe-wassolou is also a goblet membranophone and this article focuses on the Eastern and North-African goblet drum. The origin of the Egyptian Arabic term darabukka probably lies in the Arabic word darab, goblet drums were seen in Babylonia and Sumer dates from as early as 1100 BCE. On Celebes one large form serves as an instrument, set on the floor when performed. There are two types of goblet drums. The Egyptian style has rounded edges around the head, whereas the Turkish style exposes the edge of the head, the exposed edge allows closer access to the head so finger-snapping techniques can be done, but the hard edge discourages the rapid rolls possible with the Egyptian style. The goblet drum may be played while held under one arm or by placing it sideways upon the lap while seated, some drums are also made with strap mounts so the drum may be slung over the shoulder, to facilitate playing while standing or dancing. It produces a resonant, low-sustain sound while played lightly with the fingertips, some players move their fists in and out of the bell to alter the tone. There are a variety of rhythms that form the basis of the folkloric and modern music, there are three main sounds produced by the goblet drum. The first is called the doum and it is the deeper bass sound produced by striking the head near the center with the length of the fingers and palm and taking off the hand for an open sound. The second is called the tek and is the sound produced by hitting near the edge of the head with the fingertips. A tek struck with the hand is also known as a ka. The third is the closed sound pa, resting rapidly the hand on the head to not permit an open sound, additionally, there are more complex techniques including snaps, slaps, pops and rolls that are used to ornament the basic rhythm. Hand clapping and hitting the sides of the drum can be used in addition to drumhead sounds, another technique commonly used in Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Egypt is to tap with the fingers of one hand and with a thin stick in the other. In Turkey the stick is called the çubuk, which means wand, the Romani of most of the countries associated with the goblet drum use this technique. Ashiko Djembe Duhulla Taarija Tonbak Toubeleki
Goblet drum
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A goblet drum
Goblet drum
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Darabukkeh from
Egypt, 1825~35. From Lane 1836, p. 363
Goblet drum
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Derbekkeh from
Jerusalem, 1859. From Thomson 1859, p. 580.
Goblet drum
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Egyptian tabla
27.
Timbales
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Timbales or pailas are shallow single-headed drums with metal casing. They are shallower than single-headed tom-toms, and usually tuned much higher, the shells are referred to as cáscara, which is also the name of a rhythmic pattern common in salsa music that is played on the shells of the timbales. The shells are made of metal, but some manufacturers offer shells of maple. The heads are light, and tuned fairly high for their size, the term timbal or timbales has been used in Cuba for two quite different types of drum. Timbales is the Spanish word for timpani, an instrument that was imported into Cuba in the 19th century and these were the same general type of drum used in military bands, perhaps slung either side of a horse, and in classical orchestras. These were, and are, played with mallets, the timpani were replaced by pailas criollas, which were originally designed to be used by street bands. Pailas are always hit with straight batons that have no additional head, hits are made on the top and on the metal sides. In a modern band the timbalero may also have a set to switch to for certain numbers. Since the term timbales is used to refer to both timpani and pailas criollas, it is ambiguous when referring to bands playing the danzón in the 1900–1930 period, if one does not have a photograph it is difficult to know which drum a band used. In French, timbales is also the word for timpani, thus the French refer to Cuban timbales as timbales latines, in Brazil, the term timbal refers to an unrelated drum. Timbalitos or pailitas are small timbales with diameters of 6″, 8″, the timbalitos are used to play the part of the bongos with sticks and are not used to play the traditional timbales part. Papaíto and Manny Oquendo were masters at playing the part on timbalitos. Timbalitos are sometimes incorporated into expanded timbales set-ups, or incorporated into drum kits, the basic timbales part for danzón is called the baqueteo. In the example below, the slashed noteheads indicate muted drum strokes, the danzón was the first written music to be based on the organizing principle of sub-Saharan African rhythm, known in Cuba as clave. During the mambo era of the 1940s, cowbells were mounted on the drums, the cowbells, or wood block may be mounted slightly above and between the two timbales a little further from the player. The following four timbale bell patterns are based on the folkloric rumba cáscara part and they are written in 3-2 clave sequence. In the 1970s José Luis Quintana Changuito developed the technique of simultaneously playing timbale, the example below shows the combined bell patterns. Due to the timbalero Tito Puente, it is now acceptable for a player – especially a band leader, Puente was frequently seen in concerts, and on posters and album covers, with seven or eight timbales in one set
Timbales
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Arturo Sandoval on timbales at the
Hard Rock Cafe,
Times Square.
Timbales
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Basic baqueteo timbales part.
Timbales
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Four different timbale bell patterns.
28.
Resonance
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In physics, resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating system or external force drives another system to oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific preferential frequency. Frequencies at which the amplitude is a relative maximum are known as the systems resonant frequencies or resonance frequencies. At resonant frequencies, small periodic driving forces have the ability to produce large amplitude oscillations, Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two or more different storage modes. However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping, when damping is small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is a frequency of unforced vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies, resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency, or pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many frequencies. Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is exploited in many manmade devices and it is the mechanism by which virtually all sine waves and vibrations are generated. Many sounds we hear, such as when hard objects of metal, glass, light and other short wavelength electromagnetic radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, such as electrons in atoms. A familiar example is a swing, which acts as a pendulum. Pushing a person in a swing in time with the interval of the swing makes the swing go higher and higher. This is because the energy the swing absorbs is maximized when the match the swings natural oscillations. It may cause violent swaying motions and even catastrophic failure in improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings, trains, avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building, tower, and bridge construction project. As a countermeasure, shock mounts can be installed to absorb resonant frequencies, the Taipei 101 building relies on a 660-tonne pendulum —a tuned mass damper—to cancel resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to resonate at a frequency that does not typically occur, buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. Clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a wheel, pendulum. The cadence of runners has been hypothesized to be energetically favorable due to resonance between the energy stored in the lower limb and the mass of the runner. Acoustic resonance is a branch of mechanical resonance that is concerned with the mechanical vibrations across the range of human hearing. Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in failure of the object at resonance. The classic example of this is breaking a glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass
Resonance
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Pushing a person in a
swing is a common example of resonance. The loaded swing, a
pendulum, has a
natural frequency of oscillation, its resonant frequency, and resists being pushed at a faster or slower rate.
Resonance
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NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK. In its strong 21.2-
tesla field, the proton resonance is at 900 MHz.
29.
Slit drum
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A slit drum is a hollow percussion instrument. In spite of the name, it is not a drum but an idiophone. Most slit drums have one slit, though two and three slits occur, if the resultant tongues are different width or thicknesses, the drum will produce two different pitches. It is used throughout Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, in Africa such drums, strategically situated for optimal acoustic transmission, have been used for long-distance communication. The ends of a drum are closed so that the shell becomes the resonating chamber for the sound vibrations created when the tongues are struck. The resonating chamber increases the volume of the produced by the tongue. The people of Vanuatu cut a log with totem type carvings on the outer surface. This hollowed out log gives the deep resonance of drums when hit on the outside with sticks, planet Drum, A Celebration of Percussion and Rhythm. ISBN9780062504142, ISBN9780062503978, ISBN9780062504623
Slit drum
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Bamileke drummers in Cameroon's
West Province.
Slit drum
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Chromatically Tuned Log Drums, range C3-C4
Slit drum
Slit drum
30.
Steel drum
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Steelpans is a musical instrument originating from Trinidad and Tobago. Steel pan musicians are called pannists, the modern pan is a chromatically pitched percussion instrument made from 55 gallon industrial drums that formerly contained chemicals. Steel pans are the instruments made to play in the Pythagorian musical cycle of fourths and fifths. The pan is struck using a pair of straight sticks tipped with rubber, some musicians use four pansticks, holding two in each hand. This skill and performance have been shown to have grown out of Trinidad. The pan is the instrument of Trinidad and Tobago. The celebration of carnivale had arrived with the French, slaves, who could not take part in carnival, formed their own, parallel celebration called canboulay. Stick-fighting and African percussion music were banned in 1880, in response to the Canboulay Riots and they were replaced by bamboo sticks beaten together, which were themselves banned in turn. In 1937 they reappeared in Laventille, transformed as an orchestra of frying pans, dustbin lids and these steelpans are now a major part of the Trinidadian music scene and are a popular section of the Canboulay music contests. In 1941, the United States Navy arrived on Trinidad, the pannists, who were associated with lawlessness and violence, helped to popularize steelpan music among the soldiers, which began its international popularization. The first instruments developed in the evolution of steelpan were Tamboo-Bamboos and these were hit onto the ground and with other sticks in order to produce sound. Tamboo-Bamboo bands included percussion of a bottle and spoon, by the mid-1930s, bits of metal percussion were being used in the tamboo bamboo bands, the first probably being either the automobile brake hub iron or the biscuit drum boom. The former replaced the gin bottle-and-spoon, and the latter the bass bamboo that was pounded on the ground, by the late 1930s their occasional all-steel bands were seen at carnival, and by 1940 it had become the preferred carnival accompaniment of young underprivileged men. The 55-gallon oil drum was used to make steelpans from around 1947, the Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra, formed to attend the Festival of Britain in 1951, was the first steelband whose instruments were all made from oil drums. Members of TASPO included Ellie Mannette and Winston Spree Simon and they were featured on an album with him. Steelpans are built using sheet metal with a thickness between 0.8 and 1.5 mm. Historically, steelpans have been built from used oil barrels. Nowadays, many instrument makers do not rely on used steel containers and get the resonance bodies manufactured according to their preferences, in a first step, the sheet metal is stretched into a bowl shape. This process is usually done with hammers, manually or with the help of air pressure, the note pattern is then marked onto the surface, and the notes of different sizes are shaped and molded into the surface
Steel drum
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Steel pan
Steel drum
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Tuning a steelpan with a
strobe tuner – Herman Guppy
Steel drum
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A musician playing the double tenor steelpan
Steel drum
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Solo steel pannist performing with backing tracks
. PMID 19805199. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909756106.
"Drum". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). 1911.
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