1.
Talking drum
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The Talking drum is an hourglass-shaped drum from West Africa, whose pitch can be regulated to mimic the tone and prosody of human speech. It has two connected by leather tension cords, which allow the player to modulate the pitch of the drum by squeezing the cords between their arm and body. A skilled player is able to play whole phrases, most talking drums sound like a human humming depending on the way you play. Similar hourglass-shaped drums are found in Asia, but they are not used to mimic speech, hourglass-shaped talking drums are some of the oldest instruments used by West African griots and their history can be traced back to the Yoruba people, the Ghana Empire and the Hausa people. The Yoruba people of south western Nigeria and Benin and the Dagomba of northern Ghana) have developed a sophisticated genre of griot music centering on the talking drum. Many variants of the talking drums evolved, with most of them having the same construction mentioned above, soon, many non-hourglass shapes showed up and were given special names, such as the Dunan, Sangban, Kenkeni, Fontomfrom and Ngoma drums. In Senegalese and Gambian history, the tama was one of the instruments used in the Serer peoples Woong tradition. The tama drum, has Serer religious connotations, in the Xaat tradition, the tama makes up the fourth musical drum ensemble. The Serer drums played include, Perngel, Lamb, Qiin, suicide is permitted in Serer religion only if it satisfies the Serer principle of Jom. The word Jom means honour in the Serer language, the pitch of the drum is varied to mimic the tone patterns of speech. This is done by varying the tension placed on the drumhead, the drum can thus capture the pitch, volume, and rhythm of human speech, though not the qualities of vowels or consonants. The use of talking drums as a form of communication was noticed by Europeans in the first half of the eighteenth century, detailed messages could be sent from one village to the next faster than could be carried by a person riding a horse. In the nineteenth century Roger T. Clarke, a missionary, realised that the signals represent the tones of the syllables of conventional phrases of a traditional and highly poetic character. Like Chinese, many African languages are tonal, that is, the problem was how to communicate complex messages without the use of vowels or consonants, simply using tone. An English emigrant to Africa, John F. Carrington, in his 1949 book The Talking Drums of Africa explained how African drummers were able to communicate complex messages over vast distances. Using low tones referred to as male and higher tones, the drummer communicates through the phrases and pauses. This process may take eight times longer than communicating a normal sentence but was effective for telling neighboring villages of possible attacks or ceremonies. He found that to each short word which was beaten on the drums was added an extra phrase, single words would be translated into phrases
2.
Drum kit
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A drum kit consists of a mix of drums and idiophones most significantly cymbals but also including the woodblock and cowbell. In the 2000s, some also include electronic instruments and both hybrid and entirely electronic kits are used. If some or all of them are replaced by electronic drums, the drum kit is usually played while seated on a drum stool or throne. The drum kit differs from instruments that can be used to produce pitched melodies or chords, even though drums are often placed musically alongside others that do, such as the piano or guitar. The drum kit is part of the rhythm section used in many types of popular and traditional music styles ranging from rock and pop to blues. Other standard instruments used in the section include the electric bass, electric guitar. Many drummers extend their kits from this pattern, adding more drums, more cymbals. Some performers, such as some rockabilly drummers, use small kits that omit elements from the basic setup, some drum kit players may have other roles in the band, such as providing backup vocals, or less commonly, lead vocals. Thus, in an early 1800s orchestra piece, if the called for bass drum, triangle and cymbals. In the 1840s, percussionists began to experiment with foot pedals as a way to them to play more than one instrument. In the 1860s, percussionists started combining multiple drums into a set, the bass drum, snare drum, cymbals, and other percussion instruments were all played using hand-held drum sticks. Double-drumming was developed to one person to play the bass and snare with sticks. With this approach, the drum was usually played on beats one. This resulted in a swing and dance feel. The drum set was referred to as a trap set. By the 1870s, drummers were using an overhang pedal, most drummers in the 1870s preferred to do double drumming without any pedal to play multiple drums, rather than use an overhang pedal. Companies patented their pedal systems such as Dee Dee Chandler of New Orleans 1904–05, liberating the hands for the first time, this evolution saw the bass drum played with the foot of a standing percussionist. The bass drum became the central piece around which every other percussion instrument would later revolve and it was the golden age of drum building for many famous drum companies, with Ludwig introducing
3.
Conga
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The conga, also known as tumbadora, is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified three types, quinto, tres dos or tres golpes, and tumba or salidor. Most modern congas have a wooden or fiberglass shell. They are usually played in sets of two to four with the fingers and palms of the hand, typical congas stand approximately 75 centimetres from the bottom of the shell to the head. The drums may be played while seated, alternatively, the drums may be mounted on a rack or stand to permit the player to play while standing. While they originated in Cuba, their incorporation into the popular and folk music of countries has resulted in diversification of terminology for the instruments. In Cuba, congas are called tumbadoras, Conga players are called congueros, while rumberos refers to those who dance following the path of the players. The term conga was popularized in the 1930s, when Latin music swept the United States, Cuban son and New York jazz fused together to create what was then termed mambo, but later became known as salsa. In that same period, the popularity of the Conga Line helped to spread this new term, desi Arnaz also played a role in the popularization of conga drums. However, the drum he played was similar to the type of known as bokú used in his hometown. The word conga came from the rhythm la conga used during carnaval in Cuba, the drums used in carnaval could have been referred to as tambores de conga since they played the rhythm la conga, and thus translated into English as conga drums. There are five basic strokes, Open tone is played with the four fingers near the rim of the head, producing a clear resonant tone with a distinct pitch. Muffled or mute tone, like the tone, is made by striking the drum with the four fingers. Bass tone, played with the palm on the head. It produces a low muted sound, slap tone, the most difficult technique producing a loud clear popping sound. Touch tone, as implied by the name, this tone is produced by just touching the fingers or heel of the palm to the drum head. It is possible to alternate a touch of the palm with a touch of the fingers in a maneuver called heel-toe, the moose call or glissando is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva or sweat, and sometimes a little coat of beeswax is put on the surface of the head to help make the sound
4.
Percussion instrument
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A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater, struck, scraped or rubbed by hand, or struck against another similar instrument. The percussion family is believed to include the oldest musical instruments, the percussion section of an orchestra most commonly contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals, triangle and tambourine. However, the section can also contain non-percussive instruments, such as whistles and sirens, percussive techniques can also be applied to the human body, as in body percussion. On the other hand, keyboard instruments, such as the celesta, are not normally part of the percussion section, Percussion instruments may play not only rhythm, but also melody and harmony. Percussion is commonly referred to as the backbone or the heartbeat of an ensemble, often working in close collaboration with bass instruments. In jazz and other popular ensembles, the pianist, bassist, drummer. Most classical pieces written for full orchestra since the time of Haydn and Mozart are orchestrated to place emphasis on the strings, woodwinds, however, often at least one pair of timpani is included, though they rarely play continuously. Rather, they serve to provide additional accents when needed, in the 18th and 19th centuries, other percussion instruments have been used, again generally sparingly. The use of percussion instruments became more frequent in the 20th century classical music, in almost every style of music, percussion plays a pivotal role. In classic jazz, one almost immediately thinks of the rhythm of the hi-hats or the ride cymbal when the word swing is spoken. Because of the diversity of instruments, it is not uncommon to find large musical ensembles composed entirely of percussion. Rhythm, melody, and harmony are all represented in these ensembles, music for pitched percussion instruments can be notated on a staff with the same treble and bass clefs used by many non-percussive instruments. Music for percussive instruments without a pitch can be notated with a specialist rhythm or percussion-clef. The word percussion has evolved from Latin terms, percussio, as a noun in contemporary English it is described in Wiktionary as the collision of two bodies to produce a sound. Hornbostel–Sachs has no high-level section for percussion, Most percussion instruments are classified as idiophones and membranophones.1 Concussion idiophones or clappers, played in pairs and beaten against each other, such as zills and clapsticks. 111.2 Percussion idiophones, includes many percussion instruments played with the hand or by a mallet, such as the hang, gongs and the xylophone. 21 Struck drums, includes most types of drum, such as the timpani, snare drum, (Included in most drum sets or 412. Stringed instruments played with such as the hammered dulcimer
5.
Membranophone
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A membranophone is any musical instrument which produces sound primarily by way of a vibrating stretched membrane. It is one of the four divisions of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. In addition to drums, there is kind of membranophone, called the singing membranophone. These instruments modify a sound produced by something else, commonly the human voice, frame drums consist of a membrane stretched across a frame. Friction drums produce sound by rubbing a stick through a hole in a membrane stretched across a frame, mirlitons, Kazoos and Swazzles vibrate in sympathy with sounds travelling across a membrane. These are the only membranophones that are not truly drums, SIL International maintains a classification system based largely on shape, Cylindrical drums are straight-sided, and generally two-headed. A buzzing, percussive string is sometimes used, examples include the bass drum and the Iranian dohol. Conical drums are sloped on the sides, and are usually one-headed, examples include the Indian tabla and the Venezuelan chimbangueles. Barrel drums are normally one-headed, and may be open at the bottom, examples include the Dhak from eastern parts of India, bendre, made by the Mossi of Burkina Faso out of a large calabash, and the trong chau of Vietnam. Hourglass drums are hourglass-shaped and generally two-headed, the drumheads are laced onto the body, and the laces may be squeezed during performance to alter the drums pitch. Examples include folk drums in India and much of Africa, as well as talking drums. Goblet drums are one-headed and goblet shaped, and are open at the bottom. Examples include the Arab darabukka, and a range of instruments from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Africa, Southeastern Europe. Footed drums are single-headed and are held above the ground by feet, the space between the drum and the ground provides extra resonance. Examples include a range of East African and Polynesian drums, long drums are a diverse category, characterized by extreme length. Examples include the single-headed hollow tree trunk drums of Africa and the carved and dyed gufalo of the Nuna in Burkina Faso. Kettle drums are played in pairs, and have a vessel or pot body, are one-headed. Examples include the timpani and tabla, frame drums are composed of one or more membranes stretched across a frame
6.
Drumhead
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A drumhead or drum skin is a membrane stretched over one or both of the open ends of a drum. The drumhead is struck with sticks, mallets, or hands, so that it vibrates, originally, drumheads were made from animal hide and were first used in early human history, long before records began. In 1957, Remo Belli and Sam Muchnick together developed a polymer head leading to the development of the Remo drumhead company, despite the benefits of plastic heads, drummers in historical reenactment groups such as fife and drum use animal skin heads for historical accuracy. Another common material used for drumheads is aramid fiber, such as kevlar, kevlar heads are also used in marching percussion. The bolts, called tension rods, are screwed into threaded lugs attached to the shell, in order to tighten. A drum key is a four sided wrench used to screw the tension rods into the lugs, drummers muffle their drums using special drumheads. Some drumheads come pre-muffled such as Remo Powerstroke Pro, accessory Fetish A Complete List of Drum Head Manufacturers Resonant Drum Head Explained
7.
Drum stick
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A drumstick is a type of percussion mallet used particularly for playing snare drum, drum kit and some other percussion instruments, and particularly for playing unpitched percussion. Drumsticks generally have all of the characteristics, They are normally supplied and used in pairs. They are held in the hands, most often one in each hand and they may be used to play at least some sort of drum. They are normally used only for untuned percussion, the archetypical drumstick is turned from a single piece of wood, most commonly of hickory, less commonly of maple, and least commonly but still in significant numbers, of oak. Drumsticks of the form are also made from metal, carbon fibre. The tip or bead is the part most often used to strike the instrument, in the 1970s, an acetal tip was introduced, designed by Ken Drinan and Paul Kiersted. Tips of whatever material are of shapes, including acorn, barrel, oval, teardrop, pointed. The shoulder of the stick is the part that tapers towards the tip and it is often used for playing the bell of a cymbal. It can also be used to produce a cymbal crash when applied with a motion to the bow or edge of a cymbal. The shaft is the body of the stick, and is cylindrical for most applications including drum kit and it is used for playing cross stick and applied in a glancing motion to the rim of a cymbal for the loudest cymbal crashes. The butt is the end of the stick to the tip. Some rock and metal musicians use it rather than the tip, plain wooden drumsticks are most commonly described using a number to describe the weight and diameter of the stick followed by one or more letters to describe the tip. A 5A is a common wood tipped rock stick, heavier than a 7A, the numbers are most commonly odd but even numbers are used occasionally, in the range 2 to 9. The most general purpose stick is a 5A, however, there is no one stick for any particular style of music. There are two ways of holding drumsticks, Traditional grip, in which right and left hands use different grips. Matched grip, in which the two hand grips are mirror-image, Traditional grip was developed to conveniently play a snare drum while riding a horse, and was documented and popularised by Sanford A. Moeller in The Art of Snare Drumming. It was the grip for kit drummers in the first half of the twentieth century and remains popular. However the traditional grip has since made a comeback, and both types of grip are used and promoted by leading kit drummers and teachers
8.
Sound
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In physics, sound is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of pressure and displacement, through a transmission medium such as air or water. In physiology and psychology, sound is the reception of such waves, humans can hear sound waves with frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound above 20 kHz is ultrasound and below 20 Hz is infrasound, other animals have different hearing ranges. Acoustics is the science that deals with the study of mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound. A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician, an audio engineer, on the other hand, is concerned with the recording, manipulation, mixing, and reproduction of sound. Auditory sensation evoked by the oscillation described in, sound can propagate through a medium such as air, water and solids as longitudinal waves and also as a transverse wave in solids. The sound waves are generated by a source, such as the vibrating diaphragm of a stereo speaker. The sound source creates vibrations in the surrounding medium, as the source continues to vibrate the medium, the vibrations propagate away from the source at the speed of sound, thus forming the sound wave. At a fixed distance from the source, the pressure, velocity, at an instant in time, the pressure, velocity, and displacement vary in space. Note that the particles of the medium do not travel with the sound wave and this is intuitively obvious for a solid, and the same is true for liquids and gases. During propagation, waves can be reflected, refracted, or attenuated by the medium, the behavior of sound propagation is generally affected by three things, A complex relationship between the density and pressure of the medium. This relationship, affected by temperature, determines the speed of sound within the medium, if the medium is moving, this movement may increase or decrease the absolute speed of the sound wave depending on the direction of the movement. For example, sound moving through wind will have its speed of propagation increased by the speed of the if the sound and wind are moving in the same direction. If the sound and wind are moving in opposite directions, the speed of the wave will be decreased by the speed of the wind. Medium viscosity determines the rate at which sound is attenuated, for many media, such as air or water, attenuation due to viscosity is negligible. When sound is moving through a medium that does not have constant physical properties, the mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter, gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium, sound cannot travel through a vacuum. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves and it requires a medium to propagate
9.
Tambourine
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The tambourine is a musical instrument in the percussion family consisting of a frame, often of wood or plastic, with pairs of small metal jingles, called zils. Classically the term denotes an instrument with a drumhead, though some variants may not have a head at all. Tambourines are often used with regular percussion sets and they can be mounted, for example on a stand as part of a drum kit, or they can be held in the hands and played by tapping or hitting the instrument. Tambourines come in shapes with the most common being circular. It is found in forms of music, Turkish folk music, Greek folk music, Italian folk music, classical music, Persian music, samba, gospel music, pop music. Tambourines originated in Egypt, where they were known as the kof to the Hebrews, from the Middle Persian word tambūr lute, drum. There are several ways to achieve a tambourine roll, the easiest method is to rapidly rotate the hand holding the tambourine back and forth, pivoting at the wrist. An advanced playing technique is known as the thumb roll, the finger or thumb is moved over the skin or rim of the tambourine, producing a fast roll from the jingles on the instrument. This takes more skill and experience to master, the thumb or middle finger of the hand not holding the tambourine is run around the head of the instrument approximately one centimeter from the rim with some pressure applied. If performed correctly, the thumb should bounce along the head rapidly, usually, the end of the roll is articulated using the heel of the hand or another finger. In the 2000s, the roll may be performed with the use of wax or resin applied to the outside of the drum head. This resin allows the thumb or finger to bounce more rapidly and forcefully across the head producing an even sound, a continuous roll can be achieved by moving the thumb in a figure of 8 pattern around the head. By drummers – Drummers such as Larry Mullen, Jr. of U2 mount a tambourine above the cymbals of their hi-hat stand, tambourines in rock music are most often headless, a ring with jangles but no drum skin. The Rhythm Tech crescent-shaped tambourine and its derivatives are popular, the original Rhythm Tech tambourine is displayed in the Museum of Modern Art. Jack Ashfords distinctive tambourine playing was a dominant part of the section on Motown records. The tambourine was featured in Green Tambourine, a song with which The Lemon Pipers. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was among the earliest western composers to include the tambourine in his compositions, gustav Holsts seven-movement orchestral suite The Planets also features the tambourine in several places throughout the suite, especially in the Jupiter movement. Originated in Galicia or Portugal, the pandeiro was brought to Brazil by the Portuguese settlers and it is a hand percussion instrument consisting of a single tension-headed drum with jingles in the frame
10.
Djembe
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A djembe or jembe is a rope-tuned skin-covered goblet drum played with bare hands, originally from West Africa. According to the Bambara people in Mali, the name of the djembe comes from the saying Anke djé, anke bé which translates to everyone together in peace. In the Bambara language, djé is the verb for gather, the djembe has a body carved of hardwood and a drumhead made of untreated rawhide, most commonly made from goatskin. Excluding rings, djembes have a diameter of 30–38 cm. The majority have a diameter in the 13 to 14 inch range, the weight of a djembe ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg and depends on size and shell material. A medium-size djembe carved from one of the traditional woods weighs around 9 kg, the djembe can produce a wide variety of sounds, making it a most versatile drum. The drum is very loud, allowing it to be heard clearly as a solo instrument over a large percussion ensemble, the Malinké people say that a skilled drummer is one who can make the djembe talk, meaning that the player can tell an emotional story. Traditionally, the djembe is played only by men, as are the dunun that always accompany the djembe, conversely, other percussion instruments that are commonly played as part of an ensemble, such as the shekere, karignan, and kese kese, are usually played by women. Even today, it is rare to see women play djembe or dunun in West Africa, there is general agreement that the origin of the djembe is associated with the Mandinka caste of blacksmiths, known as Numu. The wide dispersion of the drum throughout West Africa may be due to Numu migrations during the first millennium AD. Despite the association of the djembe with the Numu, there are no restrictions on who may become a djembefola. This is in contrast to instruments whose use is reserved for members of the caste, such as the balafon, kora. Anyone who plays djembe is a djembefola—the term does not imply a level of skill. However, due to the lack of records in West African countries. It seems likely that the history of the djembe reaches back for at least several centuries, the goblet shape of the djembe suggests that it originally may have been created from a mortar. There are a number of different creation myths for the djembe, the djembe first came to the attention of audiences outside West Africa with the efforts of Fodéba Keïta, who, in 1952, founded Les Ballets Africains. Tourés policies alienated Guinea from the West and he followed the Eastern Bloc model of using the countrys culture and music for promotional means. He and Fodéba Keïta, who had become a friend of Touré, saw the ballets as a way to secularize traditional customs
11.
Timpani
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Timpani, or kettledrums, are musical instruments in the percussion family. A type of drum, they consist of a skin called a head stretched over a large bowl traditionally made of copper and they are played by striking the head with a specialized drum stick called a timpani stick or timpani mallet. Timpani evolved from military drums to become a staple of the orchestra by the last third of the 18th century. Today, they are used in many types of ensembles, including concert bands, marching bands, orchestras. Timpani is an Italian plural, the singular of which is timpano and they are also often incorrectly termed timpanis. A musician who plays the timpani is a timpanist, alternative spellings with y in place of either or both is—tympani, tympany, or timpany—are occasionally encountered in older English texts. Although the word timpani has been adopted in the English language. The German word for timpani is Pauken, the French and Spanish is timbales, the Ashanti pair of talking drums are known as atumpan. The tympanum is defined in the Etymologiae of St. Isidore of Seville, est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est, unde, et margaritum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad virgulam percutitur. The tympanum is skin or hide stretched over a wooden vessel which extends out. It is said by the symphonias to resemble a sieve, but has also likened to half a pearl. It is struck with a wand, beating time for the symphonia, the reference comparing the tympanum to half a pearl is borrowed from Pliny the Elder. The basic timpani drum consists of a drumhead stretched across the opening of a bowl made of copper or, in less expensive models, fiberglass. In the Sachs–Hornbostel classification, the timpani are thus considered membranophones, the heads tension can be adjusted by loosening or tightening the rods. Most timpani have six to eight tension rods, the shape of the bowl contributes to the quality of the drum. For example, hemispheric bowls produce brighter tones while parabolic bowls produce darker tones, another factor that affects the timbre of the drum is the quality of the bowls surface. Copper bowls may have a smooth, machined surface or a surface with many small dents hammered into it
12.
Cymbal
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A cymbal is a common percussion instrument. Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys, the majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note. Cymbals are used in ensembles ranging from the orchestra, percussion ensembles, jazz bands, heavy metal bands. Drum kits usually incorporate at least a crash, ride or crash/ride, a player of cymbals is known as a cymbalist. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin cymbalum, which is the latinisation of the Greek word κύμβαλον kymbalon, cymbal, which in turn derives from κύμβη kymbē, cup, bowl. In orchestral scores, cymbals may be indicated by the French cymbales, German Becken, Schellbecken, Tellern, or Tschinellen, Italian piatti or cinelli, many of these derive from the word for plates. Cymbals have existed since ancient times, representations of cymbals may be found in reliefs and paintings from Hittite Anatolia, Larsa, Babylon, Assyria, ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, and ancient Rome. References to cymbals also appear throughout the Bible, through many Psalms, cymbals may have been introduced to China from Central Asia in the 3rd or 4th century AD. Cymbals were employed by Turkish janissaries in the 14th century or earlier, by the 17th century, such cymbals were used in European music, and more commonly played in military bands and orchestras by the mid 18th century. Since the 19th century, some composers have called for larger roles for cymbals in musical works, and a variety of shapes, techniques. The anatomy of the plays a large part in the sound it creates. A hole is drilled in the center of the cymbal, which is used to mount the cymbal on a stand or for tying straps through. The bell, dome, or cup is the section immediately surrounding the hole. The bell produces a higher pinging pitch than the rest of the cymbal, the bow is the rest of the surface surrounding the bell. The bow is sometimes described in two areas, the ride and crash area, the ride area is the thicker section closer to the bell while the crash area is the thinner tapering section near the edge. The edge or rim is the circumference of the cymbal. Cymbals are measured by their diameter either in inches or centimeters, the size of the cymbal affects its sound, larger cymbals usually being louder and having longer sustain. The weight describes how thick the cymbal is, Cymbal weights are important to the sound they produce and how they play
13.
Music therapy
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Neurologic music therapy is the therapeutic application of music to cognitive, sensory, and motor dysfunctions that come from human neurologic diseases. NMT treatment is based on stimulating music perception and production parts in the brain. Here are seven common neurologic dysfunctions categorized into one of four domains that are motor, sensory, cognitive, for each dysfunction, specific parts of the brain are impaired, and the corresponding locations of the brain are denoted with Brodmann area numbers. In neuroscience, a Brodmann area is a way to express different regions of cerebral cortex based on diverse cortical functions. Motor dysfunction involves malfunctioning of the system controlling muscles and movement of body. For stroke patients, the circuit has a difficult time being activated by itself. Using music-supported therapy, their motor circuit can be co-activated along with auditory cortex and this therapy is based on neuroplasticity, the capacity of brain to induce plastic changes and repair damaged brains of adults. After brain damage, new connections and pathways can be built, reshaped. Music-supported therapy has developed recently to improve the upper extremity function of stroke patients. Patients learn to play electronic pianos and electronic drums, each serving as a training method for fine. An intensive one-month program is conducted on stroke patients which teaches them to move their upper extremities in sync along with the song. After finishing this program, chronic stroke patients showed significant motor improvements in Action Research Arm Test, there was partial re-establishment of the default dynamics of the motor circuit, and this is induced by auditory-motor network co-activation. Also, after finishing this program, the song was played to these patients. From this fMRI study, researchers discovered bilateral activation of both auditory and motor circuits, stroke patients can improve on initiating movements by music-supported therapy which utilizes auditory cortex for co-activation of motor circuit system. An experiment was done on cats to prove rescue effect of enriched acoustic environment from hearing loss, fourteen short-hair, wild-type cats were exposed to a traumatizing noise of high frequency around 40 dB for two hours as an experimental group. As a result of the exposure, significant damage is observed in the frequency region of cochlea. This decrease in firing rates shifts the cortical tonotopic map toward a lower frequency range and this reorganization of cortical tonotopic map can result in tinnitus or phantom sound. After this impairment, half of the cats were placed in a room
14.
Popular music
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Popular music is music with wide appeal that is typically distributed to large audiences through the music industry. These forms and styles can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no musical training and it stands in contrast to both art music and traditional or folk music. Art music was historically disseminated through the performances of music, although since the beginning of the recording industry. Traditional music forms such as blues songs or hymns were passed along orally, or to smaller. The original application of the term is to music of the 1880s Tin Pan Alley period in the United States, although popular music sometimes is known as pop music, the two terms are not interchangeable. Popular music songs and pieces typically have easily singable melodies, in the 2000s, with songs and pieces available as digital sound files, it has become easier for music to spread from one country or region to another. Some popular music forms have become global, while others have an appeal within the culture of their origin. Through the mixture of genres, new popular music forms are created to reflect the ideals of a global culture. The examples of Africa, Indonesia and the Middle East show how Western pop music styles can blend with local traditions to create new hybrid styles. Sales of recordings or sheet music are one measure, middleton and Manuel note that this definition has problems because multiple listens or plays of the same song or piece are not counted. Manuel states that one criticism of music is that it is produced by large media conglomerates and passively consumed by the public. He claims that the listeners in the scenario would not have been able to make the choice of their favorite music, moreover, understandings of popular music have changed with time. A societys popular music reflects the ideals that are prevalent at the time it is performed or published, david Riesman states that the youth audiences of popular music fit into either a majority group or a subculture. The majority group listens to the commercially produced styles while the subcultures find a minority style to transmit their own values and this allows youth to choose what music they identify with, which gives them power as consumers to control the market of popular music. Form in popular music is most often sectional, the most common sections being verse, chorus or refrain, other common forms include thirty-two-bar form, chorus form *, and twelve-bar blues. Popular music songs are rarely composed using different music for each stanza of the lyrics, the verse and chorus are considered the primary elements. Each verse usually has the melody, but the lyrics change for most verses. The chorus usually has a phrase and a key lyrical line which is repeated
15.
Jazz
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Jazz is a music genre that originated amongst African Americans in New Orleans, United States, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in Blues and Ragtime. Since the 1920s jazz age, jazz has become recognized as a form of musical expression. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, Jazz has roots in West African cultural and musical expression, and in African-American music traditions including blues and ragtime, as well as European military band music. Although the foundation of jazz is deeply rooted within the Black experience of the United States, different cultures have contributed their own experience, intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as one of Americas original art forms. As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, New Orleans jazz began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French quadrilles, biguine, ragtime and blues with collective polyphonic improvisation. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented swing big bands, Kansas City jazz, bebop emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging musicians music which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. Cool jazz developed in the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, modal jazz developed in the late 1950s, using the mode, or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Jazz-rock fusion appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments. In the early 1980s, a form of jazz fusion called smooth jazz became successful. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as Latin, the question of the origin of the word jazz has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to jasm, a term dating back to 1860 meaning pep. The use of the word in a context was documented as early as 1915 in the Chicago Daily Tribune. Its first documented use in a context in New Orleans was in a November 14,1916 Times-Picayune article about jas bands. In an interview with NPR, musician Eubie Blake offered his recollections of the slang connotations of the term, saying, When Broadway picked it up. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, the American Dialect Society named it the Word of the Twentieth Century. Jazz has proved to be difficult to define, since it encompasses such a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, in the opinion of Robert Christgau, most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz. As Duke Ellington, one of jazzs most famous figures, said, although jazz is considered highly difficult to define, at least in part because it contains so many varied subgenres, improvisation is consistently regarded as being one of its key elements
16.
Rock music
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It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by blues, rhythm and blues and country music. Rock music also drew strongly on a number of genres such as electric blues and folk. Musically, rock has centered on the guitar, usually as part of a rock group with electric bass guitar. Typically, rock is song-based music usually with a 4/4 time signature using a verse-chorus form, like pop music, lyrics often stress romantic love but also address a wide variety of other themes that are frequently social or political in emphasis. Punk was an influence into the 1980s on the subsequent development of subgenres, including new wave, post-punk. From the 1990s alternative rock began to rock music and break through into the mainstream in the form of grunge, Britpop. Similarly, 1970s punk culture spawned the visually distinctive goth and emo subcultures and this trio of instruments has often been complemented by the inclusion of other instruments, particularly keyboards such as the piano, Hammond organ and synthesizers. The basic rock instrumentation was adapted from the blues band instrumentation. A group of musicians performing rock music is termed a rock band or rock group, Rock music is traditionally built on a foundation of simple unsyncopated rhythms in a 4/4 meter, with a repetitive snare drum back beat on beats two and four. Melodies are often derived from older musical modes, including the Dorian and Mixolydian, harmonies range from the common triad to parallel fourths and fifths and dissonant harmonic progressions. Critics have stressed the eclecticism and stylistic diversity of rock, because of its complex history and tendency to borrow from other musical and cultural forms, it has been argued that it is impossible to bind rock music to a rigidly delineated musical definition. These themes were inherited from a variety of sources, including the Tin Pan Alley pop tradition, folk music and rhythm, as a result, it has been seen as articulating the concerns of this group in both style and lyrics. Christgau, writing in 1972, said in spite of some exceptions, rock and roll usually implies an identification of male sexuality, according to Simon Frith rock was something more than pop, something more than rock and roll. Rock musicians combined an emphasis on skill and technique with the concept of art as artistic expression, original. The foundations of music are in rock and roll, which originated in the United States during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Its immediate origins lay in a melding of various musical genres of the time, including rhythm and blues and gospel music, with country. In 1951, Cleveland, Ohio disc jockey Alan Freed began playing rhythm and blues music for a multi-racial audience, debate surrounds which record should be considered the first rock and roll record. Other artists with rock and roll hits included Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis
17.
Drummer
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The term percussionist applies to a musician who performs struck musical instruments of numerous diverse shapes, sizes and applications. Most contemporary western ensembles bands for rock, pop, jazz, most drummers of this particular designation work within the context of a larger contingent that may also include, keyboard or guitar, auxiliary percussion and bass. Said ensembles may also include melodic based mallet percussion including, vibraphone, the rhythm section, being the core metronomic foundation with which other melodic instruments, including voices, may present the harmonic/melodic portion of the material. In popular music, the function of the drummer is to keep time or provide a steady tempo. There are many tools that a drummer can use for either timekeeping or soloing and these include cymbals, snare, toms, auxiliary percussion and many others. Also there are single, double, and triple bass pedals for the bass drum, before motorized transport became widespread, drummers played a key role in military conflicts. Military drummers provided drum cadences that set a marching pace. In some armies drums also assisted in combat by keeping cadence for firing and loading drills with muzzle loading guns, military drummers were also employed on the parade field, when troops passed in review, and in various ceremonies including ominous drum rolls accompanying disciplinary punishments. Children also served as drummer boys well into the century, though less commonly than is popularly assumed, due to the nature of the job. In modern times, drummers are not employed in battle, typically buglers and drummers mass under a sergeant-drummer and during marches alternately perform with the regiment or battalion ensembles. Military-based musical percussion traditions were not limited exclusively to the western world, in the Ottoman Empire, the size of a military band reflected the rank of its commander in chief, the largest band was reserved for the Sultan. It included various percussion instruments, often adopted in European military music, the pitched bass drum is still known in some languages as the Turkish Drum. The drumline is a type of marching ensemble descended from drummers, and can be arranged as a performance of a drum. Their uniforms will often have a style and a fancy hat. In recent times, it is common to see drummers in parades wearing costumes with an African, Asian, Latin, Native American, or tribal look. Various indigenous cultures use the drum to create a sense of unity with others especially during recreational events, the drum also helps in prayers and meditations. List of drummers Drum beat Drum machine Drum tracks Pipe band This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
18.
Burundi
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It is also considered part of Central Africa. The southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom, until the beginning of the twentieth century, after the First World War and Germanys defeat, it ceded the territory to Belgium. Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi, despite common misconceptions, Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common rule until the time of European colonisation. The European intervention exacerbated social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, and contributed to political unrest in the region. Bouts of ethnic cleansing and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s left the country undeveloped, Burundis political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the head of state and head of government, there are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi. On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution, six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assemblys seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a government in 2000. In October 2016, Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court, Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013. The population density of around 315 people per kilometre is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, the official languages of Burundi are French and Kirundi, although Swahili can be found spoken along the Tanzanian border. One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi has an equatorial climate, Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the East African Rift. The country lies on a plateau in the centre of Africa. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 2,685 m, lies to the southeast of the capital, there are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwest, Ruvubu National Park to the northeast. Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations, Burundis lands are mostly agricultural or pasture. Settlement by rural populations has led to deforestation, soil erosion, deforestation of the entire country is almost completely due to overpopulation, with a mere 600 km2 remaining and an ongoing loss of about 9% per annum. In addition to poverty, Burundians often have to deal with corruption, weak infrastructure, poor access to health and education services, Burundi is densely populated and has had substantial emigration as young people seek opportunities elsewhere
19.
Karyenda
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The karyenda is a traditional African drum. It was the symbol of Burundi and its mwami and had semi-divine status. The mwami was said to interpret the beatings of the karyenda into rules for the kingdom, when Burundi gained independence from Belgium in 1962, the karyenda was the symbol on the national flag and its coat of arms from 1962-1966. It was replaced after the republic was established, traditionally the most important folk songs and dances were performed to extol the virtues of the kingship. One big festival was the annual umuganuro, which was a display of pomp, festivities. Since the fall of the monarchy in 1966, and particularly after a massacre of Hutus in 1972, the second most important drum was the rukinzo. It accompanied the mwami wherever he went, the drums, despite all upheavals, have remained popular and are still revered. The old families who were wardens of the drums have tried to keep the ancient traditions alive, some have an international outreach, such as the Royal Drummers of Burundi, or L. Ndoricimpa and C. Guillet, who recorded Les tambours du Burundi in 1983, as sacred objects, the drums were much more than simple musical instruments. They were used in rituals, such as the umuganuro, or for special circumstances, major events for the king, such as royal coronations, funerals, and weddings were announced through the drums. The beating of the drums also signalled certain rites, such as when the rose in the morning or retired in the evening. Drums had various names, such as dispenser of peace or lady of the land, the Royal Order of Karyenda and the Royal Order of Rukinzo were founded by King Mwambutsa IV of Burundi on July 1,1962. The Order of Karyanda was the order of the kingdom and was divided into five classes. The drums were kept in drum sanctuaries. These were a network of high places, as well as centres of political. The sanctuaries were guarded mainly by Hutu families, who were the ones the king allowed to manufacture, play. They were called abatimbo, which is Rundi for drummers who hit hard, a sacred drum was enthroned in each sanctuary and guarded by attendants. There were also ingendanyi, and a set of drums that were played with the main drums, some of the main sanctuaries for the drums were, Gishora Hill, near Gitega, Higiro Hill, also near Gitega, Magamba Hill, and Banga
20.
Cylinder
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In its simplest form, a cylinder is the surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given straight line called the axis of the cylinder. It is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes, commonly the word cylinder is understood to refer to a finite section of a right circular cylinder having a finite height with circular ends perpendicular to the axis as shown in the figure. If the ends are open, it is called an open cylinder, if the ends are closed by flat surfaces it is called a solid cylinder. The formulae for the area and the volume of such a cylinder have been known since deep antiquity. The area of the side is known as the lateral area. An open cylinder does not include either top or bottom elements, the surface area of a closed cylinder is made up the sum of all three components, top, bottom and side. Its surface area is A = 2πr2 + 2πrh = 2πr = πd=L+2B, for a given volume, the closed cylinder with the smallest surface area has h = 2r. Equivalently, for a surface area, the closed cylinder with the largest volume has h = 2r. Cylindric sections are the intersections of cylinders with planes, for a right circular cylinder, there are four possibilities. A plane tangent to the cylinder meets the cylinder in a straight line segment. Moved while parallel to itself, the plane either does not intersect the cylinder or intersects it in two line segments. All other planes intersect the cylinder in an ellipse or, when they are perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, a cylinder whose cross section is an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola is called an elliptic cylinder, parabolic cylinder, or hyperbolic cylinder respectively. Elliptic cylinders are also known as cylindroids, but that name is ambiguous, as it can also refer to the Plücker conoid. The volume of a cylinder with height h is V = ∫0 h A d x = ∫0 h π a b d x = π a b ∫0 h d x = π a b h. Even more general than the cylinder is the generalized cylinder. The cylinder is a degenerate quadric because at least one of the coordinates does not appear in the equation, an oblique cylinder has the top and bottom surfaces displaced from one another. There are other unusual types of cylinders. Let the height be h, internal radius r, and external radius R, the volume is given by V = π h
21.
Bowl
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A bowl is a round, open-top container used in many cultures to serve hot and cold food. Bowls are also used for drinking, as in the case of caffè latte, bowls used for storing non-food items range from small bowls used for holding tips at a coffee shop to large bowls used for storing DVDs or CDs. Bowls are typically small and shallow, as in the case of bowls used for single servings of soup or cereal, some bowls, such as punch bowls, serving bowls, fruit bowls and salad bowls are larger and often intended to serve many people. Modern bowls can be made of ceramic, metal, wood, plastic and their appearance can range from very simple designs of a single color to designs sophisticated artwork. Bowls have existed for thousands of years, very early bowls have been found in China, Ancient Greece, Crete and in certain Native American cultures. In classical Greece, small bowls, including phiales and pateras, some Mediterranean examples from the Bronze Age manifest elaborate decoration and sophistication of design. For example, the bridge spouted vessel design appeared in Minoan at Phaistos, in the 4th century BCE, evidence exists that the Uruk culture of ancient Mesopotamia mass-produced beveled rim bowls of standardized sizes. Moreover, in Chinese pottery, there are elaborately painted bowls. As of 2009, the oldest found is 18,000 years old, a bowl is also a standard unit of measure, as defined by the American Institute of Measurements. One bowl is the equivalent of 3.75 cups or 887.2059 ml, bridge spouted vessel Buffet Dishware List of eating utensils C. Michael Hogan Phaistos fieldnotes, The Modern Antiquarian,2007 Vincas P. Steponaitis. Ceramics, Chronology, and Community Patterns, An Archaeological Study at Moundville, history of Ancient Pottery, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman, pp 140, 191–192. The Phiale of Achyris - On the website of the Archeological Institute of America, the Phiale is dated from 300 BC and is made of gold, includes pictures
22.
Tar (drum)
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A Tar is a single-headed frame drum of Turkish origin, but is commonly played in North Africa and the Middle East. This instrument has been depicted in images from Turkish shrines that date to 6000 BC, making the Tar one of the most ancient musical instruments. The tar is held mainly with one hand, although the playing hand can also play and it has an open tone, and is often either played for accompaniment to other instruments or in tar ensembles. Frame drums are common throughout the world, there are tar, bendir, bodhran, deff, duff, and many others. Many Native American cultures use the drum in ceremony and celebration. These drums seem simple, but are capable of great nuance, riq Daf Mazhar Bendir Davul Ardah Brief of Tar
23.
Bongo drum
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Bongos are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed drums of different sizes. In Spanish the larger drum is called the hembra and the smaller the macho, the origin of the bongo is largely unclear. Most sources on Afro-Cuban cultural history argue that the bongo derives from Central African drum models, also a Santería influence from Yoruba culture in the symbolic twin drum is assumed. The strong historical presence of Africans from the Congo/Angola region in Eastern Cuba makes such an influence probable, moreover, Central African/Congo influences are also documented in the Cuban son music genre, including changüí, and initially the development of the bongo drum went parallel with these genres. From such conceptual African drum models, the bongo developed further in Cuba itself, and some historians state that the attaching of the two drums was a later invention that took place in Cuba. Although the bongos are defined as African in concept, but Cuban in invention - e. g. by author Ned Sublette - some Moorish or European aspects may also have shaped the bongos over time. Etymologically, Sublette traces the origin of the bongo to a multi-purpose word of Bantu origin. The bongo came to western Cuba at the turn of the 20th century, as son inspired Cuban big band music gained international popularity, the Cuban bongo was exported all over the world. It is today one of the most common hand drums, bongo drums produce relatively high-pitched sounds compared to conga drums, and should be held behind the knees with the larger drum on the right when right-handed. It is most often played by hand and is associated in Cuban music with a steady pattern or ostinato of eighth-notes known as the martillo or hammer. They are traditionally played by striking the edge of the drumheads with the fingers, the glissando used with bongó de monte is done by rubbing the third finger, supported by the thumb, across the head of the drum. The finger is sometimes moistened with saliva, or sweat before rubbing it across the head, when used in art music compositions they are usually struck with drum sticks. These drums can also be played on a stand, as is the case with concert orchestras, bongo drummers are known as bongoseros. The following drummers are important figures in the history of the instrument
24.
Ashiko
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The ashiko is a drum, shaped like a tapered cylinder with the head on the wide end, and the narrow end open. It is made of hardwood and generally has a goatskin hide and it is played with the hands, and tuned by ropes. Ashiko drums – or variants thereof – are traditionally found in West Africa, the origins of the ashiko drum are traced to the Yoruba culture in present-day Nigeria and Benin, West Africa. The word “ashiko” is also traced to a word in the Yoruba language meaning either “drum” or time-frame or “freedom”, the drum has a long tradition in Yoruba culture, where the drum functioned in community celebrations, as well as a “talking drum”. Traditional ashikos were/are hand carved from a lug of wood and were not straight cones. In Cuba specifically, “ashiko-like” drums can be identified in the known as “bocú” in Eastern Cuba. Drums similarly shaped to the ashiko - including the cone form - can also be found in Afro-Colombian music, as well as in Afro-Brazilian music. The latter, from the Bahia region, tends to have however synthetic heads and is, unlike the ashiko, tuned by pegs. The African/Nigerian ashiko as such first got disseminated and popularized in some circles in the USA in the 1930s, some call the ashiko a male counterpart to the djembe, though this is contradicted by references to the relatively matriarchal Yoruba culture. It is a drum in itself and not a counterpart or derivative, there is, besides this, a geographical difference, as the djembe’s origins are associated with the Mali empire, and the ashiko’s as said with Yorubaland. Some percussionists argue that the ashiko knows more middle tones when compared to the djembe, modern ashiko drums produced in the West are often made of vertical staves. Like other drums they can be purchased with the standard 8,10, ashikos tuned by lugs and metal tacks are nowadays also produced. Some manufacturers use cow hide to make the ashiko resemble an Afro-Cuban conga
25.
Goblet drum
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The goblet drum is a single head membranophone with a goblet shaped body used mostly in the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia, and Eastern Europe. The African djembe-wassolou is also a goblet membranophone and this article focuses on the Eastern and North-African goblet drum. The origin of the Egyptian Arabic term darabukka probably lies in the Arabic word darab, goblet drums were seen in Babylonia and Sumer dates from as early as 1100 BCE. On Celebes one large form serves as an instrument, set on the floor when performed. There are two types of goblet drums. The Egyptian style has rounded edges around the head, whereas the Turkish style exposes the edge of the head, the exposed edge allows closer access to the head so finger-snapping techniques can be done, but the hard edge discourages the rapid rolls possible with the Egyptian style. The goblet drum may be played while held under one arm or by placing it sideways upon the lap while seated, some drums are also made with strap mounts so the drum may be slung over the shoulder, to facilitate playing while standing or dancing. It produces a resonant, low-sustain sound while played lightly with the fingertips, some players move their fists in and out of the bell to alter the tone. There are a variety of rhythms that form the basis of the folkloric and modern music, there are three main sounds produced by the goblet drum. The first is called the doum and it is the deeper bass sound produced by striking the head near the center with the length of the fingers and palm and taking off the hand for an open sound. The second is called the tek and is the sound produced by hitting near the edge of the head with the fingertips. A tek struck with the hand is also known as a ka. The third is the closed sound pa, resting rapidly the hand on the head to not permit an open sound, additionally, there are more complex techniques including snaps, slaps, pops and rolls that are used to ornament the basic rhythm. Hand clapping and hitting the sides of the drum can be used in addition to drumhead sounds, another technique commonly used in Greece, Bulgaria, Turkey and Egypt is to tap with the fingers of one hand and with a thin stick in the other. In Turkey the stick is called the çubuk, which means wand, the Romani of most of the countries associated with the goblet drum use this technique. Ashiko Djembe Duhulla Taarija Tonbak Toubeleki
26.
Timbales
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Timbales or pailas are shallow single-headed drums with metal casing. They are shallower than single-headed tom-toms, and usually tuned much higher, the shells are referred to as cáscara, which is also the name of a rhythmic pattern common in salsa music that is played on the shells of the timbales. The shells are made of metal, but some manufacturers offer shells of maple. The heads are light, and tuned fairly high for their size, the term timbal or timbales has been used in Cuba for two quite different types of drum. Timbales is the Spanish word for timpani, an instrument that was imported into Cuba in the 19th century and these were the same general type of drum used in military bands, perhaps slung either side of a horse, and in classical orchestras. These were, and are, played with mallets, the timpani were replaced by pailas criollas, which were originally designed to be used by street bands. Pailas are always hit with straight batons that have no additional head, hits are made on the top and on the metal sides. In a modern band the timbalero may also have a set to switch to for certain numbers. Since the term timbales is used to refer to both timpani and pailas criollas, it is ambiguous when referring to bands playing the danzón in the 1900–1930 period, if one does not have a photograph it is difficult to know which drum a band used. In French, timbales is also the word for timpani, thus the French refer to Cuban timbales as timbales latines, in Brazil, the term timbal refers to an unrelated drum. Timbalitos or pailitas are small timbales with diameters of 6″, 8″, the timbalitos are used to play the part of the bongos with sticks and are not used to play the traditional timbales part. Papaíto and Manny Oquendo were masters at playing the part on timbalitos. Timbalitos are sometimes incorporated into expanded timbales set-ups, or incorporated into drum kits, the basic timbales part for danzón is called the baqueteo. In the example below, the slashed noteheads indicate muted drum strokes, the danzón was the first written music to be based on the organizing principle of sub-Saharan African rhythm, known in Cuba as clave. During the mambo era of the 1940s, cowbells were mounted on the drums, the cowbells, or wood block may be mounted slightly above and between the two timbales a little further from the player. The following four timbale bell patterns are based on the folkloric rumba cáscara part and they are written in 3-2 clave sequence. In the 1970s José Luis Quintana Changuito developed the technique of simultaneously playing timbale, the example below shows the combined bell patterns. Due to the timbalero Tito Puente, it is now acceptable for a player – especially a band leader, Puente was frequently seen in concerts, and on posters and album covers, with seven or eight timbales in one set
27.
Resonance
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In physics, resonance is a phenomenon in which a vibrating system or external force drives another system to oscillate with greater amplitude at a specific preferential frequency. Frequencies at which the amplitude is a relative maximum are known as the systems resonant frequencies or resonance frequencies. At resonant frequencies, small periodic driving forces have the ability to produce large amplitude oscillations, Resonance occurs when a system is able to store and easily transfer energy between two or more different storage modes. However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping, when damping is small, the resonant frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is a frequency of unforced vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies, resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency, or pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many frequencies. Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is exploited in many manmade devices and it is the mechanism by which virtually all sine waves and vibrations are generated. Many sounds we hear, such as when hard objects of metal, glass, light and other short wavelength electromagnetic radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, such as electrons in atoms. A familiar example is a swing, which acts as a pendulum. Pushing a person in a swing in time with the interval of the swing makes the swing go higher and higher. This is because the energy the swing absorbs is maximized when the match the swings natural oscillations. It may cause violent swaying motions and even catastrophic failure in improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings, trains, avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building, tower, and bridge construction project. As a countermeasure, shock mounts can be installed to absorb resonant frequencies, the Taipei 101 building relies on a 660-tonne pendulum —a tuned mass damper—to cancel resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to resonate at a frequency that does not typically occur, buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. Clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a wheel, pendulum. The cadence of runners has been hypothesized to be energetically favorable due to resonance between the energy stored in the lower limb and the mass of the runner. Acoustic resonance is a branch of mechanical resonance that is concerned with the mechanical vibrations across the range of human hearing. Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in failure of the object at resonance. The classic example of this is breaking a glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass
28.
Slit drum
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A slit drum is a hollow percussion instrument. In spite of the name, it is not a drum but an idiophone. Most slit drums have one slit, though two and three slits occur, if the resultant tongues are different width or thicknesses, the drum will produce two different pitches. It is used throughout Africa, Southeast Asia, and Oceania, in Africa such drums, strategically situated for optimal acoustic transmission, have been used for long-distance communication. The ends of a drum are closed so that the shell becomes the resonating chamber for the sound vibrations created when the tongues are struck. The resonating chamber increases the volume of the produced by the tongue. The people of Vanuatu cut a log with totem type carvings on the outer surface. This hollowed out log gives the deep resonance of drums when hit on the outside with sticks, planet Drum, A Celebration of Percussion and Rhythm. ISBN9780062504142, ISBN9780062503978, ISBN9780062504623
29.
Steelpan
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Steelpans is a musical instrument originating from Trinidad and Tobago. Steel pan musicians are called pannists, the modern pan is a chromatically pitched percussion instrument made from 55 gallon industrial drums that formerly contained chemicals. Steel pans are the instruments made to play in the Pythagorian musical cycle of fourths and fifths. The pan is struck using a pair of straight sticks tipped with rubber, some musicians use four pansticks, holding two in each hand. This skill and performance have been shown to have grown out of Trinidad. The pan is the instrument of Trinidad and Tobago. The celebration of carnivale had arrived with the French, slaves, who could not take part in carnival, formed their own, parallel celebration called canboulay. Stick-fighting and African percussion music were banned in 1880, in response to the Canboulay Riots and they were replaced by bamboo sticks beaten together, which were themselves banned in turn. In 1937 they reappeared in Laventille, transformed as an orchestra of frying pans, dustbin lids and these steelpans are now a major part of the Trinidadian music scene and are a popular section of the Canboulay music contests. In 1941, the United States Navy arrived on Trinidad, the pannists, who were associated with lawlessness and violence, helped to popularize steelpan music among the soldiers, which began its international popularization. The first instruments developed in the evolution of steelpan were Tamboo-Bamboos and these were hit onto the ground and with other sticks in order to produce sound. Tamboo-Bamboo bands included percussion of a bottle and spoon, by the mid-1930s, bits of metal percussion were being used in the tamboo bamboo bands, the first probably being either the automobile brake hub iron or the biscuit drum boom. The former replaced the gin bottle-and-spoon, and the latter the bass bamboo that was pounded on the ground, by the late 1930s their occasional all-steel bands were seen at carnival, and by 1940 it had become the preferred carnival accompaniment of young underprivileged men. The 55-gallon oil drum was used to make steelpans from around 1947, the Trinidad All Steel Percussion Orchestra, formed to attend the Festival of Britain in 1951, was the first steelband whose instruments were all made from oil drums. Members of TASPO included Ellie Mannette and Winston Spree Simon and they were featured on an album with him. Steelpans are built using sheet metal with a thickness between 0.8 and 1.5 mm. Historically, steelpans have been built from used oil barrels. Nowadays, many instrument makers do not rely on used steel containers and get the resonance bodies manufactured according to their preferences, in a first step, the sheet metal is stretched into a bowl shape. This process is usually done with hammers, manually or with the help of air pressure, the note pattern is then marked onto the surface, and the notes of different sizes are shaped and molded into the surface
30.
Snare drum
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The snare drum or side drum is a percussion instrument that produces a sharp staccato sound when the head is struck with a drum stick. Snare drums are used in orchestras, concert bands, marching bands, parades, drumlines, drum corps. It is one of the pieces in a drum set, a collection of percussion instruments designed to be played by a seated drummer. Snare drums are played with drum sticks, but the use of other beaters such as the brush or the rute can be used to achieve very different sounds. The snare drum is a versatile and expressive percussion instrument due its sensitivity, the snare drum originates from the tabor, a drum first used to accompany the flute. The tabor evolved into more modern versions, such as the kit snare, marching snare, tarol snare, each type presents a different style of percussion and size. The snare drum that one might see in a music concert is usually used in a backbeat style to create rhythm. In marching bands, it can do the same but is used mostly for a front beat, in comparison with the marching snare, the kit snare is generally smaller in length between the two heads, while the piccolo is the smallest of the three. The snare drum is easily recognizable by its loud cracking sound when struck firmly with a stick or mallet. The depth of the sound varies from snare to snare because of the different techniques, some of these qualities are head material and tension, dimensions, and rim and drum shell materials and construction. The snare drum is constructed of two heads—both usually made of plastic—along with a rattle of metal wires on the head called the snares. The wires can also be placed on the top, as in the tarol snare, the top head is typically called the batter head because that is where the drummer strikes it, while the bottom head is called the snare head because that is where the snares are located. The tension of each head is constant by tension rods. Tension rod adjustment allows the pitch and tonal character of the drum to be customized by the player, the strainer is a lever that engages or disengages contact between the snares and the head, and allows snare tension adjustment. If the strainer is disengaged, the sound of the drum resembles a tom because the snares are inactive. The rim is the ring around the batter head, which can be used for a variety of things. The drum can be played by striking it with a stick or any other form of beater, including brushes, rute and hands. When using a stick, the drummer may strike the head of the drum, when the top head is struck, the bottom head vibrates in tandem, which in turn stimulates the snares and produces a cracking sound
31.
Bass reflex
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A bass reflex system is a type of loudspeaker enclosure that uses a port or vent cut into the cabinet and a section of tubing or pipe affixed to the port. A reflex port is the feature of this popular enclosure type. The design approach enhances the reproduction of the lowest frequencies generated by the woofer or subwoofer, the port generally consists of one or more tubes or pipes mounted in the front or rear face of the enclosure. Proper adjustment of the cabinet and port size, and matching with driver characteristics can reduce much of this problem. Unlike closed box loudspeakers, which are substantially airtight, a bass reflex system has an opening called a port or vent cut into the cabinet, another metaphor often used is to think of the air like a spring or rubber band. Even with these programs, however, some experimentation with prototypes is still necessary to determine if the enclosure sounds good, since the backwave is already in opposite polarity with the front wave, this inversion brings the two emissions in phase and therefore they reinforce each other. This has the purpose of producing higher output or, conversely. The penalty incurred for this reinforcement is time smearing, in essence the vent resonance augments main driver output by imposing a resonant tail on it, for frequencies above the natural resonance of the driver, the reflex alignment has no influence. For frequencies below the vent resonance, polarity inversion is not accomplished, furthermore, the driver behaves as though suspended in free air, as box air springiness is absent. The design is popular among consumers and manufacturers but the increase in bass output requires close matching of driver, the enclosure, and port. Passive radiators are similar in operation to ported bass reflex systems, by far, the port is the most common means of extended bass response in a cabinet. The second most common bass extender for loudspeakers is called a passive radiator A passive radiator is the use of one or more speakers in a cabinet. One speaker is a speaker with a magnet and voice coil. One or more additional passive radiator speakers have the cone, passive radiators are also called drone cones. Passive radiators are not connected to the power amplifier, the effect of the various speaker parameters, enclosure sizes and port dimensions on the performance of bass reflex systems was not well understood until the early 1960s. At that time, pioneering analyses by A. N, small related these factors in a series of alignments that produced useful, predictable responses. These made it possible for manufacturers to design speakers to match various sizes of enclosures. All of this is constrained by the laws of physics, which is covered in detail in Thiele and it is not possible to have a small speaker in a small enclosure producing extended bass response at high efficiencies
32.
Bass drum
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A bass drum, or kick drum, is a large drum that produces a note of low definite or indefinite pitch. Bass drums are percussion instruments and vary in size and are used in musical genres. Three major types of bass drums can be distinguished, the type usually seen or heard in orchestral, ensemble or concert band music is the orchestral, or concert bass drum. It is the largest drum of the orchestra, the kick drum, a term for a bass drum associated with a drum kit. It is struck with an attached to a pedal, usually seen on drum kits. The pitched bass drum, generally used in marching bands and drum corps and this is tuned to a specific pitch and is usually played in a set of three to six drums. A bass drum is cylindrical with the drums diameter much greater than the drums depth. There is normally a head at both ends of the cylinder. The heads may be made of skin or plastic. There is normally a means of adjusting the tension either by threaded taps or by strings, Bass drums are built in a variety of sizes, but size has little to do with the volume produced by the drum. The size chosen being based on convenience and aesthetics, music Bass drums have many synonyms and translations, such as Gran Cassa, Grosse caisse, Grosse Trommel, and Bombo. Bass drums are too large to be held and are always mounted in some way. The usual ways of mounting a bass drum are, Using a shoulder harness so that the heads are vertical, on a floor stand as part of a drum kit. The heads are always vertical when mounted in this way, in this situation, the heads may be adjusted to any position between vertical and horizontal. It is possible for the drum to have a single cymbal mounted on it. Bass drums can have a variety of strikers depending on the music, when the drum is mounted vertically, the mallet above may be held in one hand and a rute held in the other. 2 matching bass drum mallets or a double headed mallet are used for playing drum rolls, when used as part of a drum kit, a variation of the mallet described above is mounted on a pedal and called a beater. The earliest known predecessor to the drum was the Turkish davul
33.
Musical ensemble
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A musical ensemble, also known as a music group or musical group, is a group of people who perform instrumental and/or vocal music, with the ensemble typically known by a distinct name. Some music ensembles consist solely of instruments, such as the jazz quartet or the orchestra, some music ensembles consist solely of singers, such as choirs and doo wop groups. In classical music, trios or quartets either blend the sounds of musical instrument families or group together instruments from the instrument family. In jazz ensembles, the instruments typically include wind instruments, one or two chordal comping instruments, an instrument, and a drummer or percussionist. Jazz ensembles may be instrumental, or they may consist of a group of instruments accompanying one or more singers. In rock and pop ensembles, usually called rock bands or pop bands, there are usually guitars and keyboards, one or more singers, Music ensembles typically have a leader. In jazz bands, rock and pop groups and similar ensembles, in classical music, orchestras, concert bands and choirs are led by a conductor. In orchestra, the concertmaster is the instrumentalist leader of the orchestra, in orchestras, the individual sections also have leaders, typically called the principal of the section. Conductors are also used in big bands and in some very large rock or pop ensembles. In Western classical music, smaller ensembles are called chamber music ensembles, the terms duet, trio, quartet, quintet, sextet, septet, octet, nonet and dectet describe groups of two up to ten musicians, respectively. A group of musicians, such as found in The Carnival of the Animals, is called either a hendectet or an undectet. A soloist playing unaccompanied is not an ensemble because it contains one musician. A string quartet consists of two violins, a viola and a cello, there is a vast body of music written for string quartets, as it is seen as an important genre in classical music. A woodwind quartet usually features a flute, an oboe, a clarinet, a brass quartet features two trumpets, a trombone and a tuba. A saxophone quartet consists of a saxophone, an alto saxophone, a tenor saxophone. The string quintet is a type of group. It is similar to the quartet, but with an additional viola, cello, or more rarely. Terms such as piano quintet or clarinet quintet frequently refer to a string quartet plus a fifth instrument
34.
Orchestra
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The term orchestra derives from the Greek ὀρχήστρα, the name for the area in front of a stage in ancient Greek theatre reserved for the Greek chorus. A full-size orchestra may sometimes be called an orchestra or philharmonic orchestra. The actual number of employed in a given performance may vary from seventy to over one hundred musicians, depending on the work being played. The term chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles of about fifty musicians or fewer, the typical orchestra grew in size throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, reaching a peak with the large orchestras called for in the works of Richard Wagner, and later, Gustav Mahler. Orchestras are usually led by a conductor who directs the performance with movements of the hands and arms, the conductor unifies the orchestra, sets the tempo and shapes the sound of the ensemble. The first violin, commonly called the concertmaster, also plays an important role in leading the musicians, the typical symphony orchestra consists of four groups of related musical instruments called the woodwinds, brass, percussion, and strings. The orchestra, depending on the size, contains almost all of the instruments in each group. Chamber orchestra usually refers to smaller-sized ensembles, a chamber orchestra might employ as many as fifty musicians. The term concert orchestra may also be used, as in the BBC Concert Orchestra, the so-called standard complement of doubled winds and brass in the orchestra from the first half of the 19th century is generally attributed to the forces called for by Beethoven. The composers instrumentation almost always included paired flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, the exceptions to this are his Symphony No. 4, Violin Concerto, and Piano Concerto No,4, which each specify a single flute. Beethoven carefully calculated the expansion of this particular timbral palette in Symphonies 3,5,6, the third horn in the Eroica Symphony arrives to provide not only some harmonic flexibility, but also the effect of choral brass in the Trio movement. Piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones add to the finale of his Symphony No.5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver the effect of storm and sunshine in the Sixth, for several decades after his death, symphonic instrumentation was faithful to Beethovens well-established model, with few exceptions. Apart from the core orchestral complement, various instruments are called for occasionally. These include the guitar, heckelphone, flugelhorn, cornet, harpsichord. Saxophones, for example, appear in some 19th- through 21st-century scores.6 and 9 and William Waltons Belshazzars Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked tenor tuba, including Gustav Holsts The Planets, cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovskys ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussys La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz
35.
Ewe music
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Ewe music is the music of the Ewe people of Togo, Ghana, and Benin, West Africa. Instrumentation is primarily percussive and rhythmically the music features great metrical complexity and its highest form is in dance music including a drum orchestra, but there are also work, play, and other songs. Ewe music is featured in A. M. Joness Studies in African Music, thus a phrase of 10 will be + or +4. The Rule of Repeats, The repeats within an African song are a part of it. If a song is formally A + A + B + B + B one cannot leave out, say and he also lists the following Features of African Music, Songs appear to be in free rhythm but most of them have a fixed time-background. The rule of 2 and 3 in the build of songs. Nearly all rhythms which are used in combination are made from simple aggregates of a basic time-unit, a quaver is always a quaver. The claps or other time-background impart no accent what-ever to the song, African melodies are additive, their time-background is divisive. The rests within and at the end of a song before repeats are a part of it. Repeats are a part of the song, they result in many variations of the call. The call and response type of song is usual in Africa, African melodies are diatonic, the major exception being the sequence dominant-sharpened subdominant-dominant. The teleological trend, many African songs lean towards the ends of the lines, the ethnomusicologist David Locke states, Cross-rhythm pervades Ewe drumming. In fact, the rhythmic structure is generated through cross-rhythm. Cross-rhythm was first identified as the basis of sub-Saharan rhythm in the writings of A. M. Jones, and was explained in great detail in lectures by the Ewe master drummer. Ladzekpo, and in the writings of Locke, at the center of a core of rhythmic traditions within which the composer conveys his ideas is the technique of cross rhythm. The technique of rhythm is a simultaneous use of contrasting rhythmic patterns within the same scheme of accents or meter. The premise is that by rightly instituting the mind in coping with these simulated emotional stress phenomena, intrepidness, or resolute fearlessness, in Anlo-Ewe view, is an extraordinary strength of mind
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Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
37.
National Museum of the American Indian
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It has three facilities, the National Museum of the American Indian on the National Mall in Washington, D. C. Passed as Public Law 101-185, it established the National Museum of the American Indian as a memorial to Native Americans. Since 1989 the Smithsonian has repatriated over 5,000 individual remains – about 1/3 of the estimated human remains in its collection. C. of indigenous people to its time. The creation of the museum brought together the collections of the George Gustav Heye Center in New York City, founded in 1922, the Heye collection became part of the Smithsonian in June 1990, and represents approximately 85% of the holdings of the NMAI. The Heye Collection was formerly displayed in the Audubon Terrace location, the current arrangement represented a political compromise between those who wished to keep the Heye Collection in New York, and those who wanted it to be part of the new NMAI in Washington, DC. The NMAI was initially housed in lower Manhattan at the Alexander Hamilton U. S, custom House, which was refurbished for this purpose and remains an exhibition site, its building on the Mall in Washington, DC opened in 2005. The site on the National Mall opened in September 2004, fifteen years in the making, it is the first national museum in the country dedicated exclusively to Native Americans. The five-story,250, 000-square-foot, curvilinear building is clad in a golden-colored Kasota limestone designed to evoke natural rock formations shaped by wind, the museum is set in a 4.25 acres -site and is surrounded by simulated wetlands. The museum’s east-facing entrance, its window and its 120-foot high space for contemporary Native performances are direct results of extensive consultations with Native peoples. The museum’s architect and project designer is the Canadian Douglas Cardinal, its design architects are GBQC Architects of Philadelphia, disagreements during construction led to Cardinals being removed from the project, but the building retains his original design intent. His continued input enabled its completion, the structural engineering firm chosen for this project was Severud Associates. The landscape architects are Jones & Jones Architects and Landscape Architects Ltd. of Seattle and EDAW, donna E. House, the Navajo and Oneida botanist who supervised the landscaping, has said, The landscape flows into the building, and the environment is who we are. We are the trees, we are the rocks, we are the water, and that had to be part of the museum. This theme of organic flow is reflected by the interior of the museum, whose walls are mostly curving surfaces, George Gustav Heye traveled throughout North and South America collecting native objects. His collection was assembled over 54 years, beginning in 1903 and he started the Museum of the American Indian and his Heye Foundation in 1916. The Heye Foundations Museum of the American Indian opened to the public on Audubon Terrace in New York City in 1922. The museum at Audubon Terrace closed in 1994 and part of the collection is now housed at The Museum’s George Gustav Heye Center, the Beaux Arts-style building, designed by architect Cass Gilbert, was completed in 1907. It is a designated National Historic Landmark and a New York City landmark, the center’s exhibition and public access areas total about 20,000 square feet
38.
Tom-tom drum
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A tom-tom drum is a cylindrical drum with no snares. The name came originally from the Anglo-Indian and Sinhala, the tom-tom drum was added to the drum kit in the early part of the 20th century. Most toms range in size between 6 and 20 inches in diameter, though floor toms can go as large as 24 inches, the first drum kit tom-toms had no rims, the heads were tacked to the shell. As major drum manufacturers began to offer tunable tom-toms with hoops and tuning lugs, later a 16 in drum mounted on three legs was added. Finally, a drum was mounted on the right of the bass drum. Together with a 14 in snare drum and a drum of varying size. Later, the mounted tom-toms, known as hanging toms or rack toms, were deepened by one inch each, extra-deep hanging toms, known as cannon depth, never achieved popularity. A wide variety of configurations are available and in use at all levels from advanced student kits upwards. Most toms range in size between 6 and 20 inches in diameter, though floor toms can go as large as 24 inches. Note that these terms do not imply drum depths, so for example and these terms fusion and rock are really marketing terms invented by drum manufacturing companies, and there is not an absolute definition for them, more a case of an accepted norm. In the 50s and early 60s, it was common to have only a single hanging tom, Standard tom-tom depths The standard depth rack toms popular in the 1950-1980s were 12×8 and 13×9. This classic configuration is popular among many players. FAST sizes are 10×8, 12×9, 13×10, etc, DW use the marketing term FAST for these sizes, but they are not unique to DW, and are widely popular sizes with all drum manufacturers. New Standard - 10×9, 12×10, 13×11, etc. i. e, the New standard sizes are 2 deeper than what was considered standard in the 50s. However, despite the term, these are becoming standard in favour of FAST sizes. Power toms are one inch deeper than standard, so standard sizes are 10×9 or 10×10, 12×11 and this depth overtook the classic setup in popularity during the 1980s. Square - 10×10, 12×12, 13×13, etc, popular in the 80s and 90s but no longer popular. Hyperdrive - Shallow depths made popular initially by Tama, 10×6.5, 12×7, 13×7.5, single-headed tom-toms have also been used in drumkits, though their use has fallen off in popularity since the 1970s
39.
Overtone
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An overtone is any frequency greater than the fundamental frequency of a sound. Using the model of Fourier analysis, the fundamental and the overtones together are called partials, harmonics, or more precisely, harmonic partials, are partials whose frequencies are integer multiples of the fundamental. These overlapping terms are used when discussing the acoustic behavior of musical instruments. The model of Fourier analysis provides for the inclusion of inharmonic partials, when a resonant system such as a blown pipe or plucked string is excited, a number of overtones may be produced along with the fundamental tone. In simple cases, such as for most musical instruments, the frequencies of these tones are the same as the harmonics. Examples of exceptions include the drum, – a timpani whose first overtone is about 1.6 times its fundamental resonance frequency, gongs and cymbals. The human vocal tract is able to produce highly variable amplitudes of the overtones, called formants, most oscillators, from a guitar string to a flute, will naturally vibrate at a series of distinct frequencies known as normal modes. The lowest normal mode frequency is known as the fundamental frequency, often, when an oscillator is excited by, for example, plucking a guitar string, it will oscillate at several of its modal frequencies at the same time. So when a note is played, this gives the sensation of hearing other frequencies above the lowest frequency, timbre is the quality that gives the listener the ability to distinguish between the sound of different instruments. The timbre of an instrument is determined by which overtones it emphasizes and that is to say, the relative volumes of these overtones to each other determines the specific flavor or color of sound of that family of instruments. The intensity of each of these overtones is rarely constant for the duration of a note, over time, different overtones may decay at different rates, causing the relative intensity of each overtone to rise or fall independent of the overall volume of the sound. A carefully trained ear can hear these changes even in a single note and this is why the timbre of a note may be perceived differently when played staccato or legato. A driven non-linear oscillator, such as the folds, a blown wind instrument, or a bowed violin string will oscillate in a periodic. This generates the impression of sound at integer multiple frequencies of the known as harmonics, or more precisely. Thus, in music, overtones are often called harmonics, depending upon how the string is plucked or bowed, different overtones can be emphasized. However, some overtones in some instruments may not be of an integer multiplication of the fundamental frequency. High quality instruments are built in such a manner that their individual notes do not create disharmonious overtones. This is illustrated by the following, Consider a guitar string and this dead length actually varies from string to string, being more pronounced with thicker and/or stiffer strings
40.
Pitch (music)
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Pitch can be determined only in sounds that have a frequency that is clear and stable enough to distinguish from noise. Pitch is a major attribute of musical tones, along with duration, loudness. Pitch may be quantified as a frequency, but pitch is not a purely objective physical property, Pitch is an auditory sensation in which a listener assigns musical tones to relative positions on a musical scale based primarily on their perception of the frequency of vibration. Pitch is closely related to frequency, but the two are not equivalent, frequency is an objective, scientific attribute that can be measured. Pitch is each persons subjective perception of a wave, which cannot be directly measured. However, this not necessarily mean that most people wont agree on which notes are higher and lower. Sound waves themselves do not have pitch, but their oscillations can be measured to obtain a frequency and it takes a sentient mind to map the internal quality of pitch. However, pitches are usually associated with, and thus quantified as frequencies in cycles per second, or hertz, by comparing sounds with pure tones, Complex and aperiodic sound waves can often be assigned a pitch by this method. According to the American National Standards Institute, pitch is the attribute of sound according to which sounds can be ordered on a scale from low to high. That is, high pitch means very rapid oscillation, and low pitch corresponds to slower oscillation, despite that, the idiom relating vertical height to sound pitch is shared by most languages. At least in English, it is just one of many deep conceptual metaphors that involve up/down, the exact etymological history of the musical sense of high and low pitch is still unclear. There is evidence that humans do actually perceive that the source of a sound is slightly higher or lower in vertical space when the frequency is increased or reduced. The pitch of tones can be ambiguous, meaning that two or more different pitches can be perceived, depending upon the observer. In a situation like this, the percept at 200 Hz is commonly referred to as the missing fundamental, Pitch depends to a lesser degree on the sound pressure level of the tone, especially at frequencies below 1,000 Hz and above 2,000 Hz. The pitch of lower tones gets lower as sound pressure increases, for instance, a tone of 200 Hz that is very loud seems one semitone lower in pitch than if it is just barely audible. Above 2,000 Hz, the pitch gets higher as the sound gets louder, theories of pitch perception try to explain how the physical sound and specific physiology of the auditory system work together to yield the experience of pitch. In general, pitch perception theories can be divided into place coding, place theory holds that the perception of pitch is determined by the place of maximum excitation on the basilar membrane. However, a purely place-based theory cannot account for the accuracy of pitch perception in the low, temporal theories offer an alternative that appeals to the temporal structure of action potentials, mostly the phase-locking and mode-locking of action potentials to frequencies in a stimulus
41.
Perimeter
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A perimeter is a path that surrounds a two-dimensional shape. The term may be used either for the path or its length—it can be thought of as the length of the outline of a shape, the perimeter of a circle or ellipse is called its circumference. Calculating the perimeter has several practical applications, a calculated perimeter is the length of fence required to surround a yard or garden. The perimeter of a wheel describes how far it will roll in one revolution, similarly, the amount of string wound around a spool is related to the spools perimeter. The perimeter is the distance around a shape, perimeters for more general shapes can be calculated, as any path, with ∫0 L d s, where L is the length of the path and d s is an infinitesimal line element. Both of these must be replaced with by algebraic forms in order to be practically calculated, the first mathematician known to have used this kind of reasoning is Archimedes, who approximated the perimeter of a circle by surrounding it with regular polygons. The perimeter of a polygon equals the sum of the lengths of its sides, in particular, the perimeter of a rectangle of width w and length ℓ equals 2 w +2 ℓ. An equilateral polygon is a polygon which has all sides of the same length, to calculate the perimeter of an equilateral polygon, one must multiply the common length of the sides by the number of sides. A regular polygon may be characterized by the number of its sides and by its circumradius, that is to say, the length of its sides can be calculated using trigonometry. If R is a regular polygons radius and n is the number of its sides, a splitter of a triangle is a cevian that divides the perimeter into two equal lengths, this common length being called the semiperimeter of the triangle. The three splitters of a triangle all intersect each other at the Nagel point of the triangle, a cleaver of a triangle is a segment from the midpoint of a side of a triangle to the opposite side such that the perimeter is divided into two equal lengths. The three cleavers of a triangle all intersect each other at the triangles Spieker center, the perimeter of a circle, often called the circumference, is proportional to its diameter and its radius. That is to say, there exists a constant number pi, π, such that if P is the perimeter and D its diameter then. In terms of the r of the circle, this formula becomes. To calculate a circles perimeter, knowledge of its radius or diameter, the problem is that π is not rational, nor is it algebraic. So, obtaining an approximation of π is important in the calculation. The computation of the digits of π is relevant to many fields, such as mathematical analysis, algorithmics, the perimeter and the area are two main measures of geometric figures. Confusing them is an error, as well as believing that the greater one of them is
42.
Amplitude
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The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period. There are various definitions of amplitude, which are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the extreme values. In older texts the phase is called the amplitude. Peak-to-peak amplitude is the change between peak and trough, with appropriate circuitry, peak-to-peak amplitudes of electric oscillations can be measured by meters or by viewing the waveform on an oscilloscope. Peak-to-peak is a measurement on an oscilloscope, the peaks of the waveform being easily identified and measured against the graticule. This remains a common way of specifying amplitude, but sometimes other measures of amplitude are more appropriate. In audio system measurements, telecommunications and other areas where the measurand is a signal that swings above and below a value but is not sinusoidal. If the reference is zero, this is the absolute value of the signal, if the reference is a mean value. Semi-amplitude means half the peak-to-peak amplitude, some scientists use amplitude or peak amplitude to mean semi-amplitude, that is, half the peak-to-peak amplitude. It is the most widely used measure of orbital wobble in astronomy, the RMS of the AC waveform. For complicated waveforms, especially non-repeating signals like noise, the RMS amplitude is used because it is both unambiguous and has physical significance. For example, the power transmitted by an acoustic or electromagnetic wave or by an electrical signal is proportional to the square of the RMS amplitude. For alternating current electric power, the practice is to specify RMS values of a sinusoidal waveform. One property of root mean square voltages and currents is that they produce the same heating effect as direct current in a given resistance, the peak-to-peak value is used, for example, when choosing rectifiers for power supplies, or when estimating the maximum voltage that insulation must withstand. Some common voltmeters are calibrated for RMS amplitude, but respond to the value of a rectified waveform. Many digital voltmeters and all moving coil meters are in this category, the RMS calibration is only correct for a sine wave input since the ratio between peak, average and RMS values is dependent on waveform. If the wave shape being measured is greatly different from a sine wave, true RMS-responding meters were used in radio frequency measurements, where instruments measured the heating effect in a resistor to measure current. The advent of microprocessor controlled meters capable of calculating RMS by sampling the waveform has made true RMS measurement commonplace
43.
Frequency
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Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, for example, if a newborn babys heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a minute, its period—the time interval between beats—is half a second. Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as vibrations, audio signals, radio waves. For cyclical processes, such as rotation, oscillations, or waves, in physics and engineering disciplines, such as optics, acoustics, and radio, frequency is usually denoted by a Latin letter f or by the Greek letter ν or ν. For a simple motion, the relation between the frequency and the period T is given by f =1 T. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz, named after the German physicist Heinrich Hertz, a previous name for this unit was cycles per second. The SI unit for period is the second, a traditional unit of measure used with rotating mechanical devices is revolutions per minute, abbreviated r/min or rpm. As a matter of convenience, longer and slower waves, such as ocean surface waves, short and fast waves, like audio and radio, are usually described by their frequency instead of period. Spatial frequency is analogous to temporal frequency, but the axis is replaced by one or more spatial displacement axes. Y = sin = sin d θ d x = k Wavenumber, in the case of more than one spatial dimension, wavenumber is a vector quantity. For periodic waves in nondispersive media, frequency has a relationship to the wavelength. Even in dispersive media, the frequency f of a wave is equal to the phase velocity v of the wave divided by the wavelength λ of the wave. In the special case of electromagnetic waves moving through a vacuum, then v = c, where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and this expression becomes, f = c λ. When waves from a monochrome source travel from one medium to another, their remains the same—only their wavelength. For example, if 71 events occur within 15 seconds the frequency is, the latter method introduces a random error into the count of between zero and one count, so on average half a count. This is called gating error and causes an error in the calculated frequency of Δf = 1/, or a fractional error of Δf / f = 1/ where Tm is the timing interval. This error decreases with frequency, so it is a problem at low frequencies where the number of counts N is small, an older method of measuring the frequency of rotating or vibrating objects is to use a stroboscope
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Mahogany
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West Indian or Cuban mahogany, native to southern Florida and the Caribbean, formerly dominant in the mahogany trade, but not in widespread commercial use since World War II. Swietenia humilis, a small and often twisted mahogany tree limited to dry forests in Pacific Central America that is of limited commercial utility. Some botanists believe that S. humilis is a variant of S. macrophylla. While the three Swietenia species are classified officially as genuine mahogany, other Meliaceae species with timber uses are classified as true mahogany, some may or may not have the word mahogany in their trade or common name. Some members of the genus Shorea of the family Dipterocarpaceae are also sold as Philippine mahogany. Mahogany is an important lumber prized for its beauty, durability, and color. The leading importer of mahogany is the United States, followed by Britain, while the largest exporter today is Peru and it was estimated that in 2000, some 57,000 mahogany trees were harvested to supply the U. S. furniture trade alone. Mahogany is the tree of the Dominican Republic and Belize. A mahogany tree with two woodcutters bearing an axe and a paddle also appears on the Belizean national coat of arms, under the motto, Sub umbra floreo. The natural distribution of species within the Americas is geographically distinct. In the 20th century various botanists attempted to further define S. macrophylla in South America as a new species, such as S. candollei Pittier, but many authorities consider these spurious. According to Record and Hess, all of the mahogany of continental North and South America can be considered as one botanical species, the name mahogany was initially associated only with those islands in the West Indies under British control. When transported to Jamaica as slaves, they gave the name to the similar trees they saw there. Though this interpretation has been disputed, no one has suggested a more plausible origin, the indigenous Arawak name for the tree is not known. In 1671 the word appeared in print for the first time. Among botanists and naturalists, however, the tree was considered a type of cedar, the following year it was assigned to a new genus by Nicholas Joseph Jacquin, and named Swietenia mahagoni. Until the 19th century all of the mahogany was regarded as one species, although varying in quality and character according to soil and climate. In 1836 the German botanist Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini identified a species while working on specimens collected on the Pacific coast of Mexico
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Musical tuning
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In music, there are two common meanings for tuning, Tuning practice, the act of tuning an instrument or voice. Tuning systems, the systems of pitches used to tune an instrument. Tuning is the process of adjusting the pitch of one or many tones from musical instruments to establish typical intervals between these tones, Tuning is usually based on a fixed reference, such as A =440 Hz. Out of tune refers to a pitch/tone that is too high or too low in relation to a given reference pitch. While an instrument might be in relative to its own range of notes. Some instruments become out of tune with damage or time and must be readjusted or repaired, different methods of sound production require different methods of adjustment, Tuning to a pitch with ones voice is called matching pitch and is the most basic skill learned in ear training. Turning pegs to increase or decrease the tension on strings so as to control the pitch, instruments such as the harp, piano, and harpsichord require a wrench to turn the tuning pegs, while others such as the violin can be tuned manually. Modifying the length or width of the tube of an instrument, brass instrument, pipe, bell. The sounds of instruments such as cymbals are inharmonic—they have irregular overtones not conforming to the harmonic series. Tuning may be done aurally by sounding two pitches and adjusting one of them to match or relate to the other, a tuning fork or electronic tuning device may be used as a reference pitch, though in ensemble rehearsals often a piano is used. Symphony orchestras and concert bands tend to tune to an A or a B♭, respectively, interference beats are used to objectively measure the accuracy of tuning. As the two approach a harmonic relationship, the frequency of beating decreases. When tuning a unison or octave it is desired to reduce the beating frequency until it cannot be detected, for other intervals, this is dependent on the tuning system being used. Harmonics may be used to facilitate tuning of strings that are not themselves tuned to the unison, for example, lightly touching the highest string of a cello at the middle while bowing produces the same pitch as doing the same a third of the way down its second-highest string. The resulting unison is more easily and quickly judged than the quality of the fifth between the fundamentals of the two strings. In music, the open string refers to the fundamental note of the unstopped. The strings of a guitar are tuned to fourths, as are the strings of the bass guitar. Violin, viola, and cello strings are tuned to fifths, however, non-standard tunings exist to change the sound of the instrument or create other playing options
. PMID 19805199.
The dictionary definition of drum at Wiktionary
"Drum". Encyclopædia Britannica. 8 (11th ed.). 1911.
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