1.
Cube
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In geometry, a cube is a three-dimensional solid object bounded by six square faces, facets or sides, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is the only regular hexahedron and is one of the five Platonic solids and it has 6 faces,12 edges, and 8 vertices. The cube is also a square parallelepiped, an equilateral cuboid and it is a regular square prism in three orientations, and a trigonal trapezohedron in four orientations. The cube is dual to the octahedron and it has cubical or octahedral symmetry. The cube has four special orthogonal projections, centered, on a vertex, edges, face, the first and third correspond to the A2 and B2 Coxeter planes. The cube can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. In analytic geometry, a surface with center and edge length of 2a is the locus of all points such that max = a. For a cube of length a, As the volume of a cube is the third power of its sides a × a × a, third powers are called cubes, by analogy with squares. A cube has the largest volume among cuboids with a surface area. Also, a cube has the largest volume among cuboids with the same linear size. They were unable to solve this problem, and in 1837 Pierre Wantzel proved it to be impossible because the root of 2 is not a constructible number. The cube has three uniform colorings, named by the colors of the faces around each vertex,111,112,123. The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry Oh has all the faces the same color, the dihedral symmetry D4h comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D2h is also a symmetry, with sides alternating colors. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol, a cube has eleven nets, that is, there are eleven ways to flatten a hollow cube by cutting seven edges. To color the cube so that no two adjacent faces have the color, one would need at least three colors
2.
Octahedron
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In geometry, an octahedron is a polyhedron with eight faces, twelve edges, and six vertices. A regular octahedron is a Platonic solid composed of eight equilateral triangles, a regular octahedron is the dual polyhedron of a cube. It is a square bipyramid in any of three orthogonal orientations and it is also a triangular antiprism in any of four orientations. An octahedron is the case of the more general concept of a cross polytope. A regular octahedron is a 3-ball in the Manhattan metric, the second and third correspond to the B2 and A2 Coxeter planes. The octahedron can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. An octahedron with edge length √2 can be placed with its center at the origin and its vertices on the coordinate axes, the Cartesian coordinates of the vertices are then. In an x–y–z Cartesian coordinate system, the octahedron with center coordinates, additionally the inertia tensor of the stretched octahedron is I =. These reduce to the equations for the regular octahedron when x m = y m = z m = a 22, the interior of the compound of two dual tetrahedra is an octahedron, and this compound, called the stella octangula, is its first and only stellation. Correspondingly, an octahedron is the result of cutting off from a regular tetrahedron. One can also divide the edges of an octahedron in the ratio of the mean to define the vertices of an icosahedron. There are five octahedra that define any given icosahedron in this fashion, octahedra and tetrahedra can be alternated to form a vertex, edge, and face-uniform tessellation of space, called the octet truss by Buckminster Fuller. This is the only such tiling save the regular tessellation of cubes, another is a tessellation of octahedra and cuboctahedra. The octahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in having a number of faces meeting at each vertex. Consequently, it is the member of that group to possess mirror planes that do not pass through any of the faces. Using the standard nomenclature for Johnson solids, an octahedron would be called a square bipyramid, truncation of two opposite vertices results in a square bifrustum. The octahedron is 4-connected, meaning that it takes the removal of four vertices to disconnect the remaining vertices and it is one of only four 4-connected simplicial well-covered polyhedra, meaning that all of the maximal independent sets of its vertices have the same size
3.
Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
4.
Polyhedron
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In geometry, a polyhedron is a solid in three dimensions with flat polygonal faces, straight edges and sharp corners or vertices. The word polyhedron comes from the Classical Greek πολύεδρον, as poly- + -hedron, a convex polyhedron is the convex hull of finitely many points, not all on the same plane. Cubes and pyramids are examples of convex polyhedra, a polyhedron is a 3-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. Convex polyhedra are well-defined, with several equivalent standard definitions, however, the formal mathematical definition of polyhedra that are not required to be convex has been problematic. Many definitions of polyhedron have been given within particular contexts, some more rigorous than others, some of these definitions exclude shapes that have often been counted as polyhedra or include shapes that are often not considered as valid polyhedra. As Branko Grünbaum observed, The Original Sin in the theory of polyhedra goes back to Euclid, the writers failed to define what are the polyhedra. Nevertheless, there is agreement that a polyhedron is a solid or surface that can be described by its vertices, edges, faces. Natural refinements of this definition require the solid to be bounded, to have a connected interior, and possibly also to have a connected boundary. However, the polyhedra defined in this way do not include the self-crossing star polyhedra, their faces may not form simple polygons, definitions based on the idea of a bounding surface rather than a solid are also common. If a planar part of such a surface is not itself a convex polygon, ORourke requires it to be subdivided into smaller convex polygons, cromwell gives a similar definition but without the restriction of three edges per vertex. Again, this type of definition does not encompass the self-crossing polyhedra, however, there exist topological polyhedra that cannot be realized as acoptic polyhedra. One modern approach is based on the theory of abstract polyhedra and these can be defined as partially ordered sets whose elements are the vertices, edges, and faces of a polyhedron. A vertex or edge element is less than an edge or face element when the vertex or edge is part of the edge or face, additionally, one may include a special bottom element of this partial order and a top element representing the whole polyhedron. However, these requirements are relaxed, to instead require only that the sections between elements two levels apart from line segments. Geometric polyhedra, defined in other ways, can be described abstractly in this way, a realization of an abstract polyhedron is generally taken to be a mapping from the vertices of the abstract polyhedron to geometric points, such that the points of each face are coplanar. A geometric polyhedron can then be defined as a realization of an abstract polyhedron, realizations that forgo the requirement of planarity, that impose additional requirements of symmetry, or that map the vertices to higher dimensional spaces have also been considered. Unlike the solid-based and surface-based definitions, this perfectly well for star polyhedra. However, without restrictions, this definition allows degenerate or unfaithful polyhedra
5.
Vertex (geometry)
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In geometry, a vertex is a point where two or more curves, lines, or edges meet. As a consequence of this definition, the point where two lines meet to form an angle and the corners of polygons and polyhedra are vertices. A vertex is a point of a polygon, polyhedron, or other higher-dimensional polytope. However, in theory, vertices may have fewer than two incident edges, which is usually not allowed for geometric vertices. However, a smooth approximation to a polygon will also have additional vertices. A polygon vertex xi of a simple polygon P is a principal polygon vertex if the diagonal intersects the boundary of P only at x and x, there are two types of principal vertices, ears and mouths. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called an ear if the diagonal that bridges xi lies entirely in P, according to the two ears theorem, every simple polygon has at least two ears. A principal vertex xi of a simple polygon P is called a mouth if the diagonal lies outside the boundary of P. Any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges and this equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula. Thus the number of vertices is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of faces, for example, a cube has 12 edges and 6 faces, and hence 8 vertices
6.
Face (geometry)
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In solid geometry, a face is a flat surface that forms part of the boundary of a solid object, a three-dimensional solid bounded exclusively by flat faces is a polyhedron. In more technical treatments of the geometry of polyhedra and higher-dimensional polytopes, in elementary geometry, a face is a polygon on the boundary of a polyhedron. Other names for a polygonal face include side of a polyhedron, for example, any of the six squares that bound a cube is a face of the cube. Sometimes face is used to refer to the 2-dimensional features of a 4-polytope. With this meaning, the 4-dimensional tesseract has 24 square faces, some other polygons, which are not faces, are also important for polyhedra and tessellations. These include Petrie polygons, vertex figures and facets, any convex polyhedrons surface has Euler characteristic V − E + F =2, where V is the number of vertices, E is the number of edges, and F is the number of faces. This equation is known as Eulers polyhedron formula, thus the number of faces is 2 more than the excess of the number of edges over the number of vertices. For example, a cube has 12 edges and 8 vertices, in higher-dimensional geometry the faces of a polytope are features of all dimensions. A face of dimension k is called a k-face, for example, the polygonal faces of an ordinary polyhedron are 2-faces. In set theory, the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself, for any n-polytope, −1 ≤ k ≤ n. For example, with meaning, the faces of a cube include the empty set, its vertices, edges and squares. Formally, a face of a polytope P is the intersection of P with any closed halfspace whose boundary is disjoint from the interior of P, from this definition it follows that the set of faces of a polytope includes the polytope itself and the empty set. In other areas of mathematics, such as the theories of abstract polytopes and star polytopes, abstract theory still requires that the set of faces include the polytope itself and the empty set. A cell is an element of a 4-dimensional polytope or 3-dimensional tessellation. Cells are facets for 4-polytopes and 3-honeycombs, examples, In higher-dimensional geometry, the facets of a n-polytope are the -faces of dimension one less than the polytope itself. A polytope is bounded by its facets, for example, The facets of a line segment are its 0-faces or vertices. The facets of a polygon are its 1-faces or edges, the facets of a polyhedron or plane tiling are its 2-faces. The facets of a 4D polytope or 3-honeycomb are its 3-faces, the facets of a 5D polytope or 4-honeycomb are its 4-faces
7.
Abstract polytope
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An ordinary geometric polytope is said to be a realization in some real N-dimensional space, typically Euclidean, of the corresponding abstract polytope. The abstract definition allows some more general combinatorial structures than traditional definitions of a polytope, the term polytope is a generalisation of polygons and polyhedra into any number of dimensions. In Euclidean geometry, the six quadrilaterals illustrated are all different, yet they have a common structure in the alternating chain of four vertices and four sides which gives them their name. They are said to be isomorphic or “structure preserving”, the measurable properties of traditional polytopes such as angles, edge-lengths, skewness, straightness and convexity have no meaning for an abstract polytope. What is true for traditional polytopes may not be so for abstract ones, for example, a traditional polytope is regular if all its facets and vertex figures are regular, but this is not necessarily so for an abstract polytope. A traditional geometric polytope is said to be a realisation of the abstract polytope. A realisation is a mapping or injection of the object into a real space, typically Euclidean. The six quadrilaterals shown are all distinct realisations of the abstract quadrilateral, some of them do not conform to traditional definitions of a quadrilateral and are said to be unfaithful realisations. A conventional polytope is a faithful realisation, in an abstract polytope, each structural element - vertex, edge, cell, etc. is associated with a corresponding member or element of the set. The term face often refers to any such element e. g. a vertex, edge or a general k-face, the faces are ranked according to their associated real dimension, vertices have rank =0, edges rank =1 and so on. This usage of incidence also occurs in Finite geometry, although it differs from traditional geometry, for example in the square abcd, edges ab and bc are not abstractly incident. A polytope is defined as a set of faces P with an order relation <. Formally, P will be an ordered set, or poset. Just as the zero is necessary in mathematics, so also set theory requires an empty set which, technically. In an abstract polytope this is known as the least or null face and is a subface of all the others, since the least face is one level below the vertices or 0-faces, its rank is −1 and may be denoted as F−1. There is also a face of which all the others are subfaces. This is called the greatest face, in an n-dimensional polytope, the greatest face has rank = n and may be denoted as Fn. It is sometimes realized as the interior of the geometric figure and these least and greatest faces are sometimes called improper faces, with all others being proper faces
8.
Symmetry
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Symmetry in everyday language refers to a sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion and balance. In mathematics, symmetry has a precise definition, that an object is invariant to any of various transformations. Although these two meanings of symmetry can sometimes be told apart, they are related, so they are discussed together. The opposite of symmetry is asymmetry, a geometric shape or object is symmetric if it can be divided into two or more identical pieces that are arranged in an organized fashion. This means that an object is symmetric if there is a transformation that moves individual pieces of the object, an object has rotational symmetry if the object can be rotated about a fixed point without changing the overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be translated without changing its overall shape. An object has symmetry if it can be simultaneously translated and rotated in three-dimensional space along a line known as a screw axis. An object has symmetry if it does not change shape when it is expanded or contracted. Fractals also exhibit a form of symmetry, where small portions of the fractal are similar in shape to large portions. Other symmetries include glide reflection symmetry and rotoreflection symmetry, a dyadic relation R is symmetric if and only if, whenever its true that Rab, its true that Rba. Thus, is the age as is symmetrical, for if Paul is the same age as Mary. Symmetric binary logical connectives are and, or, biconditional, nand, xor, the set of operations that preserve a given property of the object form a group. In general, every kind of structure in mathematics will have its own kind of symmetry, examples include even and odd functions in calculus, the symmetric group in abstract algebra, symmetric matrices in linear algebra, and the Galois group in Galois theory. In statistics, it appears as symmetric probability distributions, and as skewness, symmetry in physics has been generalized to mean invariance—that is, lack of change—under any kind of transformation, for example arbitrary coordinate transformations. This concept has one of the most powerful tools of theoretical physics. See Noethers theorem, and also, Wigners classification, which says that the symmetries of the laws of physics determine the properties of the found in nature. Important symmetries in physics include continuous symmetries and discrete symmetries of spacetime, internal symmetries of particles, in biology, the notion of symmetry is mostly used explicitly to describe body shapes. Bilateral animals, including humans, are more or less symmetric with respect to the plane which divides the body into left
9.
Platonic solid
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In three-dimensional space, a Platonic solid is a regular, convex polyhedron. It is constructed by congruent regular polygonal faces with the number of faces meeting at each vertex. Five solids meet those criteria, Geometers have studied the mathematical beauty and they are named for the ancient Greek philosopher Plato who theorized in his dialogue, the Timaeus, that the classical elements were made of these regular solids. The Platonic solids have been known since antiquity, dice go back to the dawn of civilization with shapes that predated formal charting of Platonic solids. The ancient Greeks studied the Platonic solids extensively, some sources credit Pythagoras with their discovery. In any case, Theaetetus gave a description of all five. The Platonic solids are prominent in the philosophy of Plato, their namesake, Plato wrote about them in the dialogue Timaeus c.360 B. C. in which he associated each of the four classical elements with a regular solid. Earth was associated with the cube, air with the octahedron, water with the icosahedron, there was intuitive justification for these associations, the heat of fire feels sharp and stabbing. Air is made of the octahedron, its components are so smooth that one can barely feel it. Water, the icosahedron, flows out of hand when picked up. By contrast, a highly nonspherical solid, the hexahedron represents earth and these clumsy little solids cause dirt to crumble and break when picked up in stark difference to the smooth flow of water. Moreover, the cubes being the regular solid that tessellates Euclidean space was believed to cause the solidity of the Earth. Of the fifth Platonic solid, the dodecahedron, Plato obscurely remarks. the god used for arranging the constellations on the whole heaven. Aristotle added an element, aithēr and postulated that the heavens were made of this element. Euclid completely mathematically described the Platonic solids in the Elements, the last book of which is devoted to their properties, propositions 13–17 in Book XIII describe the construction of the tetrahedron, octahedron, cube, icosahedron, and dodecahedron in that order. For each solid Euclid finds the ratio of the diameter of the sphere to the edge length. In Proposition 18 he argues there are no further convex regular polyhedra. Andreas Speiser has advocated the view that the construction of the 5 regular solids is the goal of the deductive system canonized in the Elements
10.
Tetrahedron
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In geometry, a tetrahedron, also known as a triangular pyramid, is a polyhedron composed of four triangular faces, six straight edges, and four vertex corners. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra, the tetrahedron is the three-dimensional case of the more general concept of a Euclidean simplex. The tetrahedron is one kind of pyramid, which is a polyhedron with a polygon base. In the case of a tetrahedron the base is a triangle, like all convex polyhedra, a tetrahedron can be folded from a single sheet of paper. For any tetrahedron there exists a sphere on which all four vertices lie, a regular tetrahedron is one in which all four faces are equilateral triangles. It is one of the five regular Platonic solids, which have known since antiquity. In a regular tetrahedron, not only are all its faces the same size and shape, regular tetrahedra alone do not tessellate, but if alternated with regular octahedra they form the alternated cubic honeycomb, which is a tessellation. The regular tetrahedron is self-dual, which means that its dual is another regular tetrahedron, the compound figure comprising two such dual tetrahedra form a stellated octahedron or stella octangula. This form has Coxeter diagram and Schläfli symbol h, the tetrahedron in this case has edge length 2√2. Inverting these coordinates generates the dual tetrahedron, and the together form the stellated octahedron. In other words, if C is the centroid of the base and this follows from the fact that the medians of a triangle intersect at its centroid, and this point divides each of them in two segments, one of which is twice as long as the other. The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular tetrahedron, the symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to half of those of a cube, those that map the tetrahedra to themselves, and not to each other. The tetrahedron is the only Platonic solid that is not mapped to itself by point inversion, the regular tetrahedron has 24 isometries, forming the symmetry group Td, isomorphic to the symmetric group, S4. The first corresponds to the A2 Coxeter plane, the two skew perpendicular opposite edges of a regular tetrahedron define a set of parallel planes. When one of these intersects the tetrahedron the resulting cross section is a rectangle. When the intersecting plane is one of the edges the rectangle is long. When halfway between the two edges the intersection is a square, the aspect ratio of the rectangle reverses as you pass this halfway point. For the midpoint square intersection the resulting boundary line traverses every face of the tetrahedron similarly, if the tetrahedron is bisected on this plane, both halves become wedges
11.
Isotoxal figure
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In geometry, a polytope, or a tiling, is isotoxal or edge-transitive if its symmetries act transitively on its edges. The term isotoxal is derived from the Greek τοξον meaning arc, an isotoxal polygon is an equilateral polygon, but not all equilateral polygons are isotoxal. The duals of isotoxal polygons are isogonal polygons, in general, an isotoxal 2n-gon will have Dn dihedral symmetry. A rhombus is a polygon with D2 symmetry. All regular polygons are isotoxal, having double the symmetry order. A regular 2n-gon is a polygon and can be marked with alternately colored vertices. An isotoxal polyhedron or tiling must be either isogonal or isohedral or both, regular polyhedra are isohedral, isogonal and isotoxal. Quasiregular polyhedra are isogonal and isotoxal, but not isohedral, their duals are isohedral and isotoxal, not every polyhedron or 2-dimensional tessellation constructed from regular polygons is isotoxal. An isotoxal polyhedron has the dihedral angle for all edges. There are nine convex isotoxal polyhedra formed from the Platonic solids,8 formed by the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Coxeter, Harold Scott MacDonald, Longuet-Higgins, M. S. Miller, J. C. P. Uniform polyhedra, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, mathematical and Physical Sciences,246, 401–450, doi,10. 1098/rsta.1954.0003, ISSN 0080-4614, JSTOR91532, MR0062446
12.
Johannes Kepler
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Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution, he is best known for his laws of motion, based on his works Astronomia nova, Harmonices Mundi. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newtons theory of universal gravitation, Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became an associate of Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Later he became an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague and he was also a mathematics teacher in Linz, and an adviser to General Wallenstein. Kepler lived in an era when there was no distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy and physics. Kepler was born on December 27, the feast day of St John the Evangelist,1571 and his grandfather, Sebald Kepler, had been Lord Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family fortune was in decline and his father, Heinrich Kepler, earned a precarious living as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He was believed to have died in the Eighty Years War in the Netherlands and his mother Katharina Guldenmann, an innkeepers daughter, was a healer and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes claimed to have weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impressed travelers at his grandfathers inn with his phenomenal mathematical faculty and he was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would span his entire life. At age six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, in 1580, at age nine, he observed another astronomical event, a lunar eclipse, recording that he remembered being called outdoors to see it and that the moon appeared quite red. However, childhood smallpox left him with vision and crippled hands. In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, there, he studied philosophy under Vitus Müller and theology under Jacob Heerbrand, who also taught Michael Maestlin while he was a student, until he became Chancellor at Tübingen in 1590. He proved himself to be a mathematician and earned a reputation as a skilful astrologer. Under the instruction of Michael Maestlin, Tübingens professor of mathematics from 1583 to 1631 and he became a Copernican at that time. In a student disputation, he defended heliocentrism from both a theoretical and theological perspective, maintaining that the Sun was the source of motive power in the universe. Despite his desire to become a minister, near the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as teacher of mathematics and he accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23. Keplers first major work, Mysterium Cosmographicum, was the first published defense of the Copernican system
13.
Harmonices Mundi
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Harmonices Mundi is a book by Johannes Kepler. In the work Kepler discusses harmony and congruence in geometrical forms, the final section of the work relates his discovery of the so-called third law of planetary motion. Thus Kepler could reason that his relationships gave evidence for God acting as a geometer, rather than a Pythagorean numerologist. The concept of musical harmonies intrinsically existing within the spacing of the planets existed in medieval philosophy prior to Kepler. Musica Universalis was a philosophical metaphor that was taught in the quadrivium. He notes musical harmony as being a product of man, derived from angles, in turn, this allowed Kepler to claim the Earth has a soul because it is subjected to astrological harmony. Chapters 1 and 2 of The Harmony of the World contain most of Kepler’s contributions concerning polyhedra and he is primarily interested with how polygons, which he defines as either regular or semiregular, can come to be fixed together around a central point on a plane to form congruence. His primary objective was to be able to rank polygons based on a measure of sociability, or rather and he returns to this concept later in Harmonices Mundi with relation to astronomical explanations. He describes polyhedra in terms of their faces, which is similar to the used in Plato’s Timaeus to describe the formation of Platonic solids in terms of basic triangles. While medieval philosophers spoke metaphorically of the music of the spheres and he found that the difference between the maximum and minimum angular speeds of a planet in its orbit approximates a harmonic proportion. For instance, the angular speed of the Earth as measured from the Sun varies by a semitone, from mi to fa. Venus only varies by a tiny 25,24 interval, Kepler explains the reason for the Earths small harmonic range, The Earth sings Mi, Fa, Mi, you may infer even from the syllables that in this our home misery and famine hold sway. The celestial choir Kepler formed was made up of a tenor, at very rare intervals all of the planets would sing together in perfect concord, Kepler proposed that this may have happened only once in history, perhaps at the time of creation. Kepler discovers that all but one of the ratios of the maximum and minimum speeds of planets on neighboring orbits approximate musical harmonies within a margin of error of less than a diesis. The orbits of Mars and Jupiter produce the one exception to this rule, in fact, the cause of Keplers dissonance might be explained by the fact that the asteroid belt separates those two planetary orbits, as discovered in 1801,150 years after Keplers death. Keplers previous book Astronomia nova related the discovery of the first two of the principles that we know today as Keplers laws, a copy of the 1619 edition was stolen from the National Library of Sweden in the 1990s. A small number of recent compositions either make reference to or are based on the concepts of Harmonices Mundi or Harmony of the Spheres, the most notable of these are, Laurie Spiegel, Keplers Harmony of the Worlds. An excerpt of the piece was selected by Carl Sagan for inclusion on the Voyager Golden Record, mike Oldfield, Music of the Spheres
14.
Pole and polar
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In geometry, the pole and polar are respectively a point and a line that have a unique reciprocal relationship with respect to a given conic section. If the point lies on the section, its polar is the tangent line to the conic section at that point. For a given circle, reciprocation in a means the transformation of each point in the plane into its polar line. Poles and polars have several properties, If a point P lies on a line l. If a point P moves along a line l, its polar p rotates about the pole L of the line l, If two tangent lines can be drawn from a pole to the conic section, then its polar passes through both tangent points. If a point lies on the section, its polar is the tangent through this point to the conic section. If a point P lies on its own line, then P is on the conic section. Each line has, with respect to a conic section. The pole of a line L in a circle C is a point P that is the inversion in C of the point Q on L that is closest to the center of the circle. Conversely, the line of a point P in a circle C is the line L such that its closest point Q to the center of the circle is the inversion of P in C. The relationship between poles and polars is reciprocal, thus, if a point Q is on the polar line A of a point P, then the point P must lie on the polar line B of the point Q. The two polar lines A and B need not be parallel, there is another description of the polar line of a point P in the case that it lies outside the circle C. In this case, there are two lines through P which are tangent to the circle, and the polar of P is the joining the two points of tangency. This shows that pole and polar line are concepts in the geometry of the plane. The concepts of a pole and its line were advanced in projective geometry. For instance, the line can be viewed as the set of projective harmonic conjugates of a given point. The operation of replacing every point by its polar and vice versa is known as a polarity, a polarity is a correlation that is also an involution. The concepts of pole, polar and reciprocation can be generalized from circles to other sections which are the ellipse
15.
Euclidean space
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In geometry, Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, and certain other spaces. It is named after the Ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria, the term Euclidean distinguishes these spaces from other types of spaces considered in modern geometry. Euclidean spaces also generalize to higher dimensions, classical Greek geometry defined the Euclidean plane and Euclidean three-dimensional space using certain postulates, while the other properties of these spaces were deduced as theorems. Geometric constructions are used to define rational numbers. It means that points of the space are specified with collections of real numbers and this approach brings the tools of algebra and calculus to bear on questions of geometry and has the advantage that it generalizes easily to Euclidean spaces of more than three dimensions. From the modern viewpoint, there is only one Euclidean space of each dimension. With Cartesian coordinates it is modelled by the coordinate space of the same dimension. In one dimension, this is the line, in two dimensions, it is the Cartesian plane, and in higher dimensions it is a coordinate space with three or more real number coordinates. One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance, for example, there are two fundamental operations on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that point is shifted in the same direction. The other is rotation about a point in the plane. In order to all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define the notions of distance, angle, translation. Even when used in theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments. The standard way to such space, as carried out in the remainder of this article, is to define the Euclidean plane as a two-dimensional real vector space equipped with an inner product. The reason for working with vector spaces instead of Rn is that it is often preferable to work in a coordinate-free manner. Once the Euclidean plane has been described in language, it is actually a simple matter to extend its concept to arbitrary dimensions. For the most part, the vocabulary, formulae, and calculations are not made any more difficult by the presence of more dimensions. Intuitively, the distinction says merely that there is no choice of where the origin should go in the space
16.
Duality (projective geometry)
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In geometry a striking feature of projective planes is the symmetry of the roles played by points and lines in the definitions and theorems, and duality is the formalization of this concept. There are two approaches to the subject of duality, one language and the other a more functional approach through special mappings. These are completely equivalent and either treatment has as its point the axiomatic version of the geometries under consideration. In the functional approach there is a map between related geometries that is called a duality, such a map can be constructed in many ways. The concept of plane duality readily extends to space duality and beyond that to duality in any finite-dimensional projective geometry and these sets can be used to define a plane dual structure. Interchange the role of points and lines in C = to obtain the dual structure C∗ =, C∗ is also a projective plane, called the dual plane of C. If C and C∗ are isomorphic, then C is called self-dual, the projective planes PG for any field K are self-dual. In particular, Desarguesian planes of order are always self-dual. However, there are non-Desarguesian planes which are not self-dual, such as the Hall planes and some that are, the plane dual statement of Two points are on a unique line is Two lines meet at a unique point. Forming the plane dual of a statement is known as dualizing the statement, if a statement is true in a projective plane C, then the plane dual of that statement must be true in the dual plane C∗. This follows since dualizing each statement in the proof in C gives a statement of the proof in C∗. The Principle of Plane Duality says that any theorem in a self-dual projective plane C produces another theorem valid in C. The above concepts can be generalized to talk about space duality and this leads to the Principle of Space Duality. These principles provide a reason for preferring to use a symmetric term for the incidence relation. Thus instead of saying a point lies on a one should say a point is incident with a line since dualizing the latter only involves interchanging point. The validity of the Principle of Plane Duality follows from the definition of a projective plane. The three axioms of this definition can be written so that they are self-dual statements implying that the dual of a plane is also a projective plane. As the real plane, PG, is self-dual there are a number of pairs of well known results that are duals of each other
17.
Projective geometry
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Projective geometry is a topic of mathematics. It is the study of properties that are invariant with respect to projective transformations. This means that, compared to elementary geometry, projective geometry has a different setting, projective space, properties meaningful for projective geometry are respected by this new idea of transformation, which is more radical in its effects than can be expressed by a transformation matrix and translations. The first issue for geometers is what kind of geometry is adequate for a novel situation, one source for projective geometry was indeed the theory of perspective. Another difference from elementary geometry is the way in which parallel lines can be said to meet in a point at infinity, again this notion has an intuitive basis, such as railway tracks meeting at the horizon in a perspective drawing. See projective plane for the basics of geometry in two dimensions. While the ideas were available earlier, projective geometry was mainly a development of the 19th century and this included the theory of complex projective space, the coordinates used being complex numbers. Several major types of more abstract mathematics were based on projective geometry and it was also a subject with a large number of practitioners for its own sake, as synthetic geometry. Another topic that developed from axiomatic studies of projective geometry is finite geometry, the topic of projective geometry is itself now divided into many research subtopics, two examples of which are projective algebraic geometry and projective differential geometry. Projective geometry is an elementary form of geometry, meaning that it is not based on a concept of distance. In two dimensions it begins with the study of configurations of points and lines and that there is indeed some geometric interest in this sparse setting was first established by Desargues and others in their exploration of the principles of perspective art. In higher dimensional spaces there are considered hyperplanes, and other linear subspaces, Projective geometry can also be seen as a geometry of constructions with a straight-edge alone. Since projective geometry excludes compass constructions, there are no circles, no angles, no measurements, no parallels and it was realised that the theorems that do apply to projective geometry are simpler statements. For example, the different conic sections are all equivalent in projective geometry, during the early 19th century the work of Jean-Victor Poncelet, Lazare Carnot and others established projective geometry as an independent field of mathematics. Its rigorous foundations were addressed by Karl von Staudt and perfected by Italians Giuseppe Peano, Mario Pieri, Alessandro Padoa, after much work on the very large number of theorems in the subject, therefore, the basics of projective geometry became understood. The incidence structure and the cross-ratio are fundamental invariants under projective transformations, Projective geometry can be modeled by the affine plane plus a line at infinity and then treating that line as ordinary. An algebraic model for doing projective geometry in the style of geometry is given by homogeneous coordinates. In a foundational sense, projective geometry and ordered geometry are elementary since they involve a minimum of axioms and either can be used as the foundation for affine, Projective geometry is not ordered and so it is a distinct foundation for geometry
18.
Polytope compound
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A polyhedral compound is a figure that is composed of several polyhedra sharing a common centre. They are the analogs of polygonal compounds such as the hexagram. The outer vertices of a compound can be connected to form a convex polyhedron called the convex hull, the compound is a facetting of the convex hull. Another convex polyhedron is formed by the central space common to all members of the compound. This polyhedron can be used as the core for a set of stellations, a regular polyhedron compound can be defined as a compound which, like a regular polyhedron, is vertex-transitive, edge-transitive, and face-transitive. There are five regular compounds of polyhedra, best known is the compound of two tetrahedra, often called the stella octangula, a name given to it by Kepler. The vertices of the two tetrahedra define a cube and the intersection of the two an octahedron, which shares the same face-planes as the compound, thus it is a stellation of the octahedron, and in fact, the only finite stellation thereof. The stella octangula can also be regarded as a dual-regular compound, the compound of five tetrahedra comes in two enantiomorphic versions, which together make up the compound of 10 tetrahedra. Each of the compounds is self-dual, and the compound of 5 cubes is dual to the compound of 5 octahedra. There are five such compounds of the regular polyhedra, the tetrahedron is self-dual, so the dual compound of a tetrahedron with its dual polyhedron is also the regular Stella octangula. The cube-octahedron and dodecahedron-icosahedron dual compounds are the first stellations of the cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron, the compound of the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron looks outwardly the same as the small stellated dodecahedron, because the great dodecahedron is completely contained inside. For this reason, the image shown above shows the small stellated dodecahedron in wireframe, in 1976 John Skilling published Uniform Compounds of Uniform Polyhedra which enumerated 75 compounds made from uniform polyhedra with rotational symmetry. This list includes the five regular compounds above, the 75 uniform compounds are listed in the Table below. Most are shown singularly colored by each polyhedron element, some chiral pairs of face groups are colored by symmetry of the faces within each polyhedron. If the definition of a polyhedron is generalised they are uniform. The section for entianomorphic pairs in Skillings list does not contain the compound of two great snub dodecicosidodecahedra, as the faces would coincide. Removing the coincident faces results in the compound of twenty octahedra, in 4-dimensions, there are a large number of regular compounds of regular polytopes. There are eighteen two-parameter families of regular tessellations of the Euclidean plane
19.
Intersphere
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In geometry, the midsphere or intersphere of a polyhedron is a sphere which is tangent to every edge of the polyhedron. That is to say, it touches any given edge at one point. Not every polyhedron has a midsphere, but for every polyhedron there is a combinatorially equivalent polyhedron, the canonical polyhedron, that does have a midsphere. The midsphere is so-called because, for polyhedra that have a midsphere, a sphere and a circumscribed sphere. The radius of the midsphere is called the midradius, the uniform polyhedra, including the regular, quasiregular and semiregular polyhedra and their duals all have midspheres. In the regular polyhedra, the sphere, midsphere. If O is the midsphere of a polyhedron P, then the intersection of O with any face of P is a circle. The circles formed in this way on all of the faces of P form a system of circles on O that are tangent exactly when the faces they lie in share an edge and that is, the circle is the horizon of the midsphere, as viewed from the vertex. The circles formed in this way are tangent to each other exactly when the vertices correspond to are connected by an edge. If a polyhedron P has a midsphere O, then the polyhedron with respect to O also has O as its midsphere. The face planes of the polar polyhedron pass through the circles on O that are tangent to cones having the vertices of P as their apexes. One stronger form of the circle packing theorem, on representing planar graphs by systems of tangent circles, states that every graph can be represented by a polyhedron with a midsphere. In contrast, there exist polyhedra that do not have an equivalent form with a sphere or circumscribed sphere. The restriction of this transformation to the midsphere is a Möbius transformation. Optimal Möbius transformations for information visualization and meshing, 7th Worksh, algorithms and Data Structures, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,2125, Providence, Rhode Island, Springer-Verlag, pp. 14–25, arXiv, cs. CG/0101006, doi,10. 1007/3-540-44634-6_3. Coxeter, H. S. M.2.1 Regular polyhedra,2.2 Reciprocation, Regular Polytopes, Dover, pp. 16–17, cundy, H. M. Rollett, A. P. Mathematical Models, Oxford University Press, p.117, koebe, Paul, Kontaktprobleme der Konformen Abbildung, Ber. Sachs, Horst, Coin graphs, polyhedra, and conformal mapping, Discrete Mathematics,134, 133–138, doi,10. 1016/0012-365XE0068-F, schramm, Oded, How to cage an egg, Inventiones Mathematicae,107, 543–560, doi,10. 1007/BF01231901, MR1150601
20.
Midsphere
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In geometry, the midsphere or intersphere of a polyhedron is a sphere which is tangent to every edge of the polyhedron. That is to say, it touches any given edge at one point. Not every polyhedron has a midsphere, but for every polyhedron there is a combinatorially equivalent polyhedron, the canonical polyhedron, that does have a midsphere. The midsphere is so-called because, for polyhedra that have a midsphere, a sphere and a circumscribed sphere. The radius of the midsphere is called the midradius, the uniform polyhedra, including the regular, quasiregular and semiregular polyhedra and their duals all have midspheres. In the regular polyhedra, the sphere, midsphere. If O is the midsphere of a polyhedron P, then the intersection of O with any face of P is a circle. The circles formed in this way on all of the faces of P form a system of circles on O that are tangent exactly when the faces they lie in share an edge and that is, the circle is the horizon of the midsphere, as viewed from the vertex. The circles formed in this way are tangent to each other exactly when the vertices correspond to are connected by an edge. If a polyhedron P has a midsphere O, then the polyhedron with respect to O also has O as its midsphere. The face planes of the polar polyhedron pass through the circles on O that are tangent to cones having the vertices of P as their apexes. One stronger form of the circle packing theorem, on representing planar graphs by systems of tangent circles, states that every graph can be represented by a polyhedron with a midsphere. In contrast, there exist polyhedra that do not have an equivalent form with a sphere or circumscribed sphere. The restriction of this transformation to the midsphere is a Möbius transformation. Optimal Möbius transformations for information visualization and meshing, 7th Worksh, algorithms and Data Structures, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,2125, Providence, Rhode Island, Springer-Verlag, pp. 14–25, arXiv, cs. CG/0101006, doi,10. 1007/3-540-44634-6_3. Coxeter, H. S. M.2.1 Regular polyhedra,2.2 Reciprocation, Regular Polytopes, Dover, pp. 16–17, cundy, H. M. Rollett, A. P. Mathematical Models, Oxford University Press, p.117, koebe, Paul, Kontaktprobleme der Konformen Abbildung, Ber. Sachs, Horst, Coin graphs, polyhedra, and conformal mapping, Discrete Mathematics,134, 133–138, doi,10. 1016/0012-365XE0068-F, schramm, Oded, How to cage an egg, Inventiones Mathematicae,107, 543–560, doi,10. 1007/BF01231901, MR1150601
21.
Graph theory
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In mathematics graph theory is the study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of vertices, nodes, or points which are connected by edges, arcs, Graphs are one of the prime objects of study in discrete mathematics. Refer to the glossary of graph theory for basic definitions in graph theory, the following are some of the more basic ways of defining graphs and related mathematical structures. To avoid ambiguity, this type of graph may be described precisely as undirected, other senses of graph stem from different conceptions of the edge set. In one more generalized notion, V is a set together with a relation of incidence that associates with each two vertices. In another generalized notion, E is a multiset of unordered pairs of vertices, Many authors call this type of object a multigraph or pseudograph. All of these variants and others are described more fully below, the vertices belonging to an edge are called the ends or end vertices of the edge. A vertex may exist in a graph and not belong to an edge, V and E are usually taken to be finite, and many of the well-known results are not true for infinite graphs because many of the arguments fail in the infinite case. The order of a graph is |V|, its number of vertices, the size of a graph is |E|, its number of edges. The degree or valency of a vertex is the number of edges that connect to it, for an edge, graph theorists usually use the somewhat shorter notation xy. Graphs can be used to model many types of relations and processes in physical, biological, social, Many practical problems can be represented by graphs. Emphasizing their application to real-world systems, the network is sometimes defined to mean a graph in which attributes are associated with the nodes and/or edges. In computer science, graphs are used to represent networks of communication, data organization, computational devices, the flow of computation, etc. For instance, the structure of a website can be represented by a directed graph, in which the vertices represent web pages. A similar approach can be taken to problems in media, travel, biology, computer chip design. The development of algorithms to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in computer science, the transformation of graphs is often formalized and represented by graph rewrite systems. Graph-theoretic methods, in forms, have proven particularly useful in linguistics. Traditionally, syntax and compositional semantics follow tree-based structures, whose power lies in the principle of compositionality
22.
N-skeleton
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In other words, given an inductive definition of a complex, the n-skeleton is obtained by stopping at the n-th step. The 0-skeleton is a space, and the 1-skeleton a topological graph. The skeletons of a space are used in theory, to construct spectral sequences by means of filtrations. They are particularly important when X has infinite dimension, in the sense that the Xn do not become constant as n → ∞, in geometry, a k-skeleton of n-polytope P consists of all i-polytope elements of dimension up to k. Briefly speaking, a simplicial set K ∗ can be described by a collection of sets K i, i ≥0, together with face and degeneracy maps between them satisfying a number of equations. More precisely, the restriction functor i ∗, Δ o p S e t s → Δ ≤ n o p S e t s has a left adjoint, denoted i ∗. The n-skeleton of some simplicial set K ∗ is defined as s k n, = i ∗ i ∗ K. Moreover, the n-coskeleton is defined as c o s k n, = i. For example, the 0-skeleton of K is the constant simplicial set defined by K0, the 0-coskeleton is given by the Cech nerve ⋯ → K0 × K0 → K0. The above constructions work for more categories as well, provided that the category has fiber products. The coskeleton is needed to define the concept of hypercovering in homotopical algebra and algebraic geometry
23.
Schlegel diagram
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In geometry, a Schlegel diagram is a projection of a polytope from R d into R d −1 through a point beyond one of its facets or faces. The resulting entity is a subdivision of the facet in R d −1 that is combinatorially equivalent to the original polytope. Named for Victor Schlegel, who in 1886 introduced this tool for studying combinatorial and topological properties of polytopes, in dimensions 3 and 4, a Schlegel diagram is a projection of a polyhedron into a plane figure and a projection of a 4-polytope to 3-space, respectively. As such, Schlegel diagrams are used as a means of visualizing four-dimensional polytopes. The most elementary Schlegel diagram, that of a polyhedron, was described by Duncan Sommerville as follows, if it is projected from any external point, since each ray cuts it twice, it will be represented by a polygonal area divided twice over into polygons. It is always possible by suitable choice of the centre of projection to make the projection of one face completely contain the projections of all the other faces and this is called a Schlegel diagram of the polyhedron. The Schlegel diagram completely represents the morphology of the polyhedron, Sommerville also considers the case of a simplex in four dimensions, The Schlegel diagram of simplex in S4 is a tetrahedron divided into four tetrahedra. More generally, a polytope in n-dimensions has a Schegel diagram constructed by a perspective projection viewed from a point outside of the polytope, all vertices and edges of the polytope are projected onto a hyperplane of that facet. If the polytope is convex, a point near the facet will exist which maps the facet outside, and all other facets inside, so no edges need to cross in the projection. Net – A different approach for visualization by lowering the dimension of a polytope is to build a net, disconnecting facets and this maintains the geometric scale and shape, but makes the topological connections harder to see. Victor Schlegel Theorie der homogen zusammengesetzten Raumgebilde, Nova Acta, Ksl, deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher, Band XLIV, Nr. 4, Druck von E. Blochmann & Sohn in Dresden, Victor Schlegel Ueber Projectionsmodelle der regelmässigen vier-dimensionalen Körper, Waren. Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8 Grünbaum, Branko, Kaibel, Volker, Klee, Victor, convex polytopes, New York & London, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-00424-6. George W. Hart, 4D Polytope Projection Models by 3D Printing Nrich maths – for the teenager
24.
Dual graph
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In the mathematical discipline of graph theory, the dual graph of a plane graph G is a graph that has a vertex for each face of G. The dual graph has an edge whenever two faces of G are separated from each other by an edge, and a self-loop when the face appears on both sides of an edge. Thus, each edge e of G has a corresponding dual edge, the definition of the dual depends on the choice of embedding of the graph G, so it is a property of plane graphs rather than planar graphs. For planar graphs generally, there may be multiple dual graphs, historically, the first form of graph duality to be recognized was the association of the Platonic solids into pairs of dual polyhedra. Graph duality is a generalization of the geometric concepts of dual polyhedra and dual tessellations. Variations of planar graph duality include a version of duality for directed graphs, however, these notions of dual graphs should not be confused with a different notion, the edge-to-vertex dual or line graph of a graph. The term dual is used because the property of being a graph is symmetric, meaning that if H is a dual of a connected graph G. When discussing the dual of a graph G, the graph G itself may be referred to as the primal graph, many other graph properties and structures may be translated into other natural properties and structures of the dual. For instance, cycles are dual to cuts, spanning trees are dual to the complements of spanning trees, graph duality can help explain the structure of mazes and of drainage basins. Dual graphs have also applied in computer vision, computational geometry, mesh generation. The unique planar embedding of a cycle graph divides the plane into two regions, the inside and outside of the cycle, by the Jordan curve theorem. However, in an n-cycle, these two regions are separated from each other by n different edges, therefore, the dual graph of the n-cycle is a multigraph with two vertices, connected to each other by n dual edges. Such a graph is called a dipole graph, conversely, the dual to an n-edge dipole graph is an n-cycle. According to Steinitzs theorem, every polyhedral graph must be planar and 3-vertex-connected, whenever two polyhedra are dual, their graphs are also dual. For instance the Platonic solids come in pairs, with the octahedron dual to the cube, the dodecahedron dual to the icosahedron. Polyhedron duality can also be extended to duality of higher dimensional polytopes, a plane graph is said to be self-dual if it is isomorphic to its dual graph. The wheel graphs provide a family of self-dual graphs coming from self-dual polyhedra. However, there also exist self-dual graphs that are not polyhedral and it follows from Eulers formula that every self-dual graph with n vertices has exactly 2n −2 edges
25.
Partially ordered set
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In mathematics, especially order theory, a partially ordered set formalizes and generalizes the intuitive concept of an ordering, sequencing, or arrangement of the elements of a set. A poset consists of a set together with a binary relation indicating that, for pairs of elements in the set. The word partial in the partial order or partially ordered set is used as an indication that not every pair of elements need be comparable. That is, there may be pairs of elements for which neither element precedes the other in the poset, Partial orders thus generalize total orders, in which every pair is comparable. To be an order, a binary relation must be reflexive, antisymmetric. One familiar example of an ordered set is a collection of people ordered by genealogical descendancy. Some pairs of people bear the descendant-ancestor relationship, but other pairs of people are incomparable, a poset can be visualized through its Hasse diagram, which depicts the ordering relation. A partial order is a binary relation ≤ over a set P satisfying particular axioms which are discussed below, when a ≤ b, we say that a is related to b. The axioms for a partial order state that the relation ≤ is reflexive, antisymmetric. That is, for all a, b, and c in P, it must satisfy, in other words, a partial order is an antisymmetric preorder. A set with an order is called a partially ordered set. The term ordered set is also used, as long as it is clear from the context that no other kind of order is meant. In particular, totally ordered sets can also be referred to as ordered sets, for a, b, elements of a partially ordered set P, if a ≤ b or b ≤ a, then a and b are comparable. In the figure on top-right, e. g. and are comparable, while and are not, a partial order under which every pair of elements is comparable is called a total order or linear order, a totally ordered set is also called a chain. A subset of a poset in which no two elements are comparable is called an antichain. A more concise definition will be given using the strict order corresponding to ≤. For example, is covered by in the figure. Standard examples of posets arising in mathematics include, The real numbers ordered by the standard less-than-or-equal relation ≤, the set of subsets of a given set ordered by inclusion
26.
Hasse diagram
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In order theory, a Hasse diagram is a type of mathematical diagram used to represent a finite partially ordered set, in the form of a drawing of its transitive reduction. Concretely, for an ordered set one represents each element of S as a vertex in the plane. These curves may cross each other but must not touch any other than their endpoints. Such a diagram, with labeled vertices, uniquely determines its partial order, Hasse diagrams are named after Helmut Hasse, according to Birkhoff, they are so called because of the effective use Hasse made of them. However, Hasse was not the first to use these diagrams, one example that predates Hasse can be found in Vogt. The phrase Hasse diagram may also refer to the reduction as an abstract directed acyclic graph, independently of any drawing of that graph. Although Hasse diagrams are simple as well as tools for dealing with finite posets. The reason is there will in general be many possible ways to draw a Hasse diagram for a given poset. The following example demonstrates the issue, consider the power set of a 4-element set ordered by inclusion ⊆. Below are four different Hasse diagrams for this partial order, each subset has a node labelled with a binary encoding that shows whether a certain element is in the subset or not, The first diagram makes clear that the power set is a graded poset. The second diagram has the same graded structure, but by making some edges longer than others, the third diagram shows some of the internal symmetry of the structure. In the fourth diagram the vertices are arranged like the elements of a 4×4 matrix, if a partial order can be drawn as a Hasse diagram in which no two edges cross, its covering graph is said to be upward planar. If the partial order has at most one element, or it has at most one maximal element. It is NP-complete to determine whether an order with multiple sources. Helmut Hasse Order theory Partially ordered set Baker, K. A. Fishburn, P. Roberts, F. S. Partial orders of dimension 2, Networks,2, 11–28, bertolazzi, R, Di Battista, G. Mannino, C. Tamassia, R. Optimal upward planarity testing of single-source digraphs, 1st European Symposium on Algorithms, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,726, Springer-Verlag, pp. 37–48, doi,10. 1007/3-540-57273-2_42. Birkhoff, Garrett, Lattice Theory, American Mathematical Society, chan, Hubert, A parameterized algorithm for upward planarity testing, Proc. 12th European Symposium on Algorithms, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,3221, Springer-Verlag, Di Battista, G. Tamassia, R. Algorithms for plane representation of acyclic digraphs, Theoretical Computer Science,61, 175–178, doi,10. 1016/0304-397590123-5
27.
Uniform polyhedron
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A uniform polyhedron is a polyhedron which has regular polygons as faces and is vertex-transitive. It follows that all vertices are congruent, Uniform polyhedra may be regular, quasi-regular or semi-regular. The faces and vertices need not be convex, so many of the uniform polyhedra are also star polyhedra, there are two infinite classes of uniform polyhedra together with 75 others. Dual polyhedra to uniform polyhedra are face-transitive and have regular vertex figures, the dual of a regular polyhedron is regular, while the dual of an Archimedean solid is a Catalan solid. The concept of uniform polyhedron is a case of the concept of uniform polytope. Coxeter, Longuet-Higgins & Miller define uniform polyhedra to be vertex-transitive polyhedra with regular faces, by a polygon they implicitly mean a polygon in 3-dimensional Euclidean space, these are allowed to be non-convex and to intersect each other. There are some generalizations of the concept of a uniform polyhedron, if the connectedness assumption is dropped, then we get uniform compounds, which can be split as a union of polyhedra, such as the compound of 5 cubes. If we drop the condition that the realization of the polyhedron is non-degenerate and these require a more general definition of polyhedra. Some of the ways they can be degenerate are as follows, some polyhedra have faces that are hidden, in the sense that no points of their interior can be seen from the outside. These are usually not counted as uniform polyhedra, some polyhedra have multiple edges and their faces are the faces of two or more polyhedra, though these are not compounds in the previous sense since the polyhedra share edges. There are some non-orientable polyhedra that have double covers satisfying the definition of a uniform polyhedron, there double covers have doubled faces, edges and vertices. They are usually not counted as uniform polyhedra, there are several polyhedra with doubled faces produced by Wythoffs construction. Most authors do not allow doubled faces and remove them as part of the construction, skillings figure has the property that it has double edges but its faces cannot be written as a union of two uniform polyhedra. Regular convex polyhedra, The Platonic solids date back to the classical Greeks and were studied by the Pythagoreans, Plato, Theaetetus, Timaeus of Locri, the Etruscans discovered the regular dodecahedron before 500 BC. Nonregular uniform convex polyhedra, The cuboctahedron was known by Plato, Archimedes discovered all of the 13 Archimedean solids. His original book on the subject was lost, but Pappus of Alexandria mentioned Archimedes listed 13 polyhedra, piero della Francesca rediscovered the five truncation of the Platonic solids, truncated tetrahedron, truncated octahedron, truncated cube, truncated dodecahedron, and truncated icosahedron. Luca Pacioli republished Francescas work in De divina proportione in 1509, adding the rhombicuboctahedron, calling it a icosihexahedron for its 26 faces, which was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci. Johannes Kepler was the first to publish the complete list of Archimedean solids, in 1619, regular star polyhedra, Kepler discovered two of the regular Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra and Louis Poinsot discovered the other two
28.
Vertex figure
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In geometry, a vertex figure, broadly speaking, is the figure exposed when a corner of a polyhedron or polytope is sliced off. Take some vertex of a polyhedron, mark a point somewhere along each connected edge. Draw lines across the faces, joining adjacent points. When done, these form a complete circuit, i. e. a polygon. This polygon is the vertex figure, more precise formal definitions can vary quite widely, according to circumstance. For example Coxeter varies his definition as convenient for the current area of discussion, most of the following definitions of a vertex figure apply equally well to infinite tilings, or space-filling tessellation with polytope cells. Make a slice through the corner of the polyhedron, cutting all the edges connected to the vertex. The cut surface is the vertex figure and this is perhaps the most common approach, and the most easily understood. Different authors make the slice in different places, Wenninger cuts each edge a unit distance from the vertex, as does Coxeter. For uniform polyhedra the Dorman Luke construction cuts each connected edge at its midpoint, other authors make the cut through the vertex at the other end of each edge. For irregular polyhedra, these approaches may produce a figure that does not lie in a plane. A more general approach, valid for convex polyhedra, is to make the cut along any plane which separates the given vertex from all the other vertices. Cromwell makes a cut or scoop, centered on the vertex. The cut surface or vertex figure is thus a spherical polygon marked on this sphere, many combinatorial and computational approaches treat a vertex figure as the ordered set of points of all the neighboring vertices to the given vertex. In the theory of polytopes, the vertex figure at a given vertex V comprises all the elements which are incident on the vertex, edges, faces. More formally it is the -section Fn/V, where Fn is the greatest face and this set of elements is elsewhere known as a vertex star. A vertex figure for an n-polytope is an -polytope, for example, a vertex figure for a polyhedron is a polygon figure, and the vertex figure for a 4-polytope is a polyhedron. Each edge of the vertex figure exists on or inside of a face of the original polytope connecting two vertices from an original face
29.
Cuboctahedron
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In geometry, a cuboctahedron is a polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with 2 triangles and 2 squares meeting at each, as such, it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i. e. an Archimedean solid that is not only vertex-transitive but also edge-transitive. Its dual polyhedron is the rhombic dodecahedron, the cuboctahedron was probably known to Plato, Herons Definitiones quotes Archimedes as saying that Plato knew of a solid made of 8 triangles and 6 squares. Heptaparallelohedron Fuller applied the name Dymaxion to this shape, used in a version of the Dymaxion map. He also called it the Vector Equilibrium and he called a cuboctahedron consisting of rigid struts connected by flexible vertices a jitterbug. With Oh symmetry, order 48, it is a cube or rectified octahedron With Td symmetry, order 24. With D3d symmetry, order 12, it is a triangular gyrobicupola. The area A and the volume V of the cuboctahedron of edge length a are, the cuboctahedron has four special orthogonal projections, centered on a vertex, an edge, and the two types of faces, triangular and square. The last two correspond to the B2 and A2 Coxeter planes, the skew projections show a square and hexagon passing through the center of the cuboctahedron. The cuboctahedron can also be represented as a tiling. This projection is conformal, preserving angles but not areas or lengths, straight lines on the sphere are projected as circular arcs on the plane. The cuboctahedrons 12 vertices can represent the vectors of the simple Lie group A3. With the addition of 6 vertices of the octahedron, these represent the 18 root vectors of the simple Lie group B3. The cuboctahedron can be dissected into two triangular cupolas by a common hexagon passing through the center of the cuboctahedron, if these two triangular cupolas are twisted so triangles and squares line up, Johnson solid J27, the triangular orthobicupola, is created. The cuboctahedron can also be dissected into 6 square pyramids and 8 tetrahedra meeting at a central point and this dissection is expressed in the alternated cubic honeycomb where pairs of square pyramids are combined into octahedra. A cuboctahedron can be obtained by taking a cross section of a four-dimensional 16-cell. Its first stellation is the compound of a cube and its dual octahedron, the cuboctahedron is a rectified cube and also a rectified octahedron. It is also a cantellated tetrahedron, with this construction it is given the Wythoff symbol,33 |2
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Rhombic dodecahedron
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In geometry, the rhombic dodecahedron is a convex polyhedron with 12 congruent rhombic faces. It has 24 edges, and 14 vertices of two types and it is a Catalan solid, and the dual polyhedron of the cuboctahedron. The rhombic dodecahedron is a zonohedron and its polyhedral dual is the cuboctahedron. The long diagonal of each face is exactly √2 times the length of the diagonal, so that the acute angles on each face measure arccos. Being the dual of an Archimedean polyhedron, the rhombic dodecahedron is face-transitive, meaning the symmetry group of the solid acts transitively on the set of faces. In elementary terms, this means that for any two faces A and B there is a rotation or reflection of the solid that leaves it occupying the region of space while moving face A to face B. The rhombic dodecahedron is one of the nine edge-transitive convex polyhedra, the others being the five Platonic solids, the cuboctahedron, the icosidodecahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron can be used to tessellate three-dimensional space. It can be stacked to fill a space much like hexagons fill a plane and this polyhedron in a space-filling tessellation can be seen as the Voronoi tessellation of the face-centered cubic lattice. It is the Brillouin zone of body centered cubic crystals, some minerals such as garnet form a rhombic dodecahedral crystal habit. Honey bees use the geometry of rhombic dodecahedra to form honeycombs from a tessellation of cells each of which is a hexagonal prism capped with half a rhombic dodecahedron, the rhombic dodecahedron also appears in the unit cells of diamond and diamondoids. In these cases, four vertices are absent, but the chemical bonds lie on the remaining edges, the graph of the rhombic dodecahedron is nonhamiltonian. The last two correspond to the B2 and A2 Coxeter planes, the rhombic dodecahedron is a parallelohedron, a space-filling polyhedron. Other symmetry constructions of the dodecahedron are also space-filling. For example, with 4 square faces, and 60-degree rhombic faces and it be seen as a cuboctahedron with square pyramids augmented on the top and bottom. In 1960 Stanko Bilinski discovered a second rhombic dodecahedron with 12 congruent rhombus faces and it has the same topology but different geometry. The rhombic faces in this form have the golden ratio, another topologically equivalent variation, sometimes called a trapezoidal dodecahedron, is isohedral with tetrahedral symmetry order 24, distorting rhombic faces into kites. It has 8 vertices adjusted in or out in sets of 4. Variations can be parametrized by, where b is determined from a for planar faces and this polyhedron is a part of a sequence of rhombic polyhedra and tilings with Coxeter group symmetry
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Point reflection
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Not to be confused with inversive geometry, in which inversion is through a circle instead of a point. In geometry, a point reflection or inversion in a point is a type of isometry of Euclidean space, point reflection can be classified as an affine transformation. Namely, it is an isometric involutive affine transformation, which has one fixed point. It is equivalent to a transformation with scale factor equal to -1. The point of inversion is called homothetic center. The term reflection is loose, and considered by some an abuse of language, with preferred, however. Such maps are involutions, meaning that they have order 2 – they are their own inverse, in dimension 1 these coincide, as a point is a hyperplane in the line. In terms of algebra, assuming the origin is fixed. Reflection in a hyperplane has a single −1 eigenvalue, while point reflection has only the −1 eigenvalue. The term inversion should not be confused with inversive geometry, where inversion is defined with respect to a circle In two dimensions, a point reflection is the same as a rotation of 180 degrees. In three dimensions, a point reflection can be described as a 180-degree rotation composed with reflection across a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation, in dimension n, point reflections are orientation-preserving if n is even, and orientation-reversing if n is odd. Given a vector a in the Euclidean space Rn, the formula for the reflection of a across the point p is R e f p =2 p − a, in the case where p is the origin, point reflection is simply the negation of the vector a. In Euclidean geometry, the inversion of a point X with respect to a point P is a point X* such that P is the midpoint of the segment with endpoints X. In other words, the vector from X to P is the same as the vector from P to X*, the formula for the inversion in P is x*=2a−x where a, x and x* are the position vectors of P, X and X* respectively. This mapping is an isometric involutive affine transformation which has one fixed point. When the inversion point P coincides with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a case of uniform scaling. This is an example of linear transformation, when P does not coincide with the origin, point reflection is equivalent to a special case of homothetic transformation, homothety with homothetic center coinciding with P, and scale factor = -1. This is an example of non-linear affine transformation), the composition of two point reflections is a translation
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Regular polygon
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In Euclidean geometry, a regular polygon is a polygon that is equiangular and equilateral. Regular polygons may be convex or star, in the limit, a sequence of regular polygons with an increasing number of sides becomes a circle, if the perimeter is fixed, or a regular apeirogon, if the edge length is fixed. These properties apply to all regular polygons, whether convex or star, a regular n-sided polygon has rotational symmetry of order n. All vertices of a regular polygon lie on a common circle and that is, a regular polygon is a cyclic polygon. Together with the property of equal-length sides, this implies that every regular polygon also has a circle or incircle that is tangent to every side at the midpoint. Thus a regular polygon is a tangential polygon, a regular n-sided polygon can be constructed with compass and straightedge if and only if the odd prime factors of n are distinct Fermat primes. The symmetry group of a regular polygon is dihedral group Dn, D2, D3. It consists of the rotations in Cn, together with reflection symmetry in n axes that pass through the center, if n is even then half of these axes pass through two opposite vertices, and the other half through the midpoint of opposite sides. If n is odd then all pass through a vertex. All regular simple polygons are convex and those having the same number of sides are also similar. An n-sided convex regular polygon is denoted by its Schläfli symbol, for n <3 we have two degenerate cases, Monogon, degenerate in ordinary space. Digon, a line segment, degenerate in ordinary space. In certain contexts all the polygons considered will be regular, in such circumstances it is customary to drop the prefix regular. For instance, all the faces of uniform polyhedra must be regular, for n >2 the number of diagonals is n 2, i. e.0,2,5,9. for a triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon. The diagonals divide the polygon into 1,4,11,24, for a regular n-gon inscribed in a unit-radius circle, the product of the distances from a given vertex to all other vertices equals n. For a regular simple n-gon with circumradius R and distances di from a point in the plane to the vertices. For a regular n-gon, the sum of the distances from any interior point to the n sides is n times the apothem. This is a generalization of Vivianis theorem for the n=3 case, the sum of the perpendiculars from a regular n-gons vertices to any line tangent to the circumcircle equals n times the circumradius
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Pyramid (geometry)
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In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle, called a lateral face and it is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with a base has n +1 vertices, n +1 faces. A right pyramid has its apex directly above the centroid of its base, nonright pyramids are called oblique pyramids. A regular pyramid has a polygon base and is usually implied to be a right pyramid. When unspecified, a pyramid is usually assumed to be a square pyramid. A triangle-based pyramid is often called a tetrahedron. Among oblique pyramids, like acute and obtuse triangles, a pyramid can be called if its apex is above the interior of the base and obtuse if its apex is above the exterior of the base. A right-angled pyramid has its apex above an edge or vertex of the base, in a tetrahedron these qualifiers change based on which face is considered the base. Pyramids are a subclass of the prismatoids, pyramids can be doubled into bipyramids by adding a second offset point on the other side of the base plane. A right pyramid with a base has isosceles triangle sides, with symmetry is Cnv or. It can be given an extended Schläfli symbol ∨, representing a point, a join operation creates a new edge between all pairs of vertices of the two joined figures. The trigonal or triangular pyramid with all equilateral triangles faces becomes the regular tetrahedron, a lower symmetry case of the triangular pyramid is C3v, which has an equilateral triangle base, and 3 identical isosceles triangle sides. The square and pentagonal pyramids can also be composed of convex polygons. Right pyramids with regular star polygon bases are called star pyramids, for example, the pentagrammic pyramid has a pentagram base and 5 intersecting triangle sides. A right pyramid can be named as ∨P, where is the point, ∨ is a join operator. It has C1v symmetry from two different base-apex orientations, and C2v in its full symmetry, a rectangular right pyramid, written as ∨, and a rhombic pyramid, as ∨, both have symmetry C2v. The volume of a pyramid is V =13 b h and this works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base
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Elongated pyramid
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In geometry, the elongated pyramids are an infinite set of polyhedra, constructed by adjoining an n-gonal pyramid to an n-gonal prism. Along with the set of pyramids, these figures are topologically self-dual, there are three elongated pyramids that are Johnson solids made from regular triangles and square, and pentagons. Higher forms can be constructed with isosceles triangles, contains the original enumeration of the 92 solids and the conjecture that there are no others. The first proof that there are only 92 Johnson solids
35.
Prism (geometry)
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In geometry, a prism is a polyhedron comprising an n-sided polygonal base, a second base which is a translated copy of the first, and n other faces joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel to the bases are translations of the bases, prisms are named for their bases, so a prism with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism. The prisms are a subclass of the prismatoids, a right prism is a prism in which the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces. This applies if the faces are rectangular. If the joining edges and faces are not perpendicular to the base faces, for example a parallelepiped is an oblique prism of which the base is a parallelogram, or equivalently a polyhedron with six faces which are all parallelograms. A truncated prism is a prism with nonparallel top and bottom faces, some texts may apply the term rectangular prism or square prism to both a right rectangular-sided prism and a right square-sided prism. A right p-gonal prism with rectangular sides has a Schläfli symbol ×, a right rectangular prism is also called a cuboid, or informally a rectangular box. A right square prism is simply a box, and may also be called a square cuboid. A right rectangular prism has Schläfli symbol ××, an n-prism, having regular polygon ends and rectangular sides, approaches a cylindrical solid as n approaches infinity. The term uniform prism or semiregular prism can be used for a prism with square sides. A uniform p-gonal prism has a Schläfli symbol t, right prisms with regular bases and equal edge lengths form one of the two infinite series of semiregular polyhedra, the other series being the antiprisms. The dual of a prism is a bipyramid. The volume of a prism is the product of the area of the base, the volume is therefore, V = B ⋅ h where B is the base area and h is the height. The volume of a prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side s is therefore. The surface area of a prism is 2 · B + P · h, where B is the area of the base, h the height. The surface area of a prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side length s and height h is therefore. The rotation group is Dn of order 2n, except in the case of a cube, which has the symmetry group O of order 24. The symmetry group Dnh contains inversion iff n is even, a prismatic polytope is a higher-dimensional generalization of a prism
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Square pyramid
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In geometry, a square pyramid is a pyramid having a square base. If the apex is perpendicularly above the center of the square, if the sides are all equilateral triangles, the pyramid is one of the Johnson solids. The 92 Johnson solids were named and described by Norman Johnson in 1966, a Johnson solid is one of 92 strictly convex polyhedra that have regular faces but are not uniform. They were named by Norman Johnson, who first listed these polyhedra in 1966, the Johnson square pyramid can be characterized by a single edge-length parameter a. The height H, the surface area A, and the volume V of such a pyramid are, other square pyramids have isosceles triangle sides. For square pyramids in general, with length l and height h. Square pyramids fill space with tetrahedra, truncated cubes or cuboctahedra, the square pyramid is topologically a self-dual polyhedron. The dual edge lengths are different due to the polar reciprocation, like all pyramids, the square pyramid is self-dual, having the same number of vertices as faces. A square pyramid can be represented by the Wheel graph W5, eric W. Weisstein, Square pyramid at MathWorld. Square Pyramid -- Interactive Polyhedron Model Virtual Reality Polyhedra www. georgehart. com, The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
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Pentagonal pyramid
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In geometry, a pentagonal pyramid is a pyramid with a pentagonal base upon which are erected five triangular faces that meet at a point. Like any pyramid, it is self-dual, the regular pentagonal pyramid has a base that is a regular pentagon and lateral faces that are equilateral triangles. It is one of the Johnson solids and its height H, from the midpoint of the pentagonal face to the apex, can be computed as, H =5 −510 a ≈0.5257 a. Its surface area, A, can be computed as the area of pentagonal base plus five times the area of one triangle, A = a 2 ≈3.8855 a 2. Its volume when a length is known can be figured out with this formula. It can be seen as the lid of an icosahedron, the rest of the forms a gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid, J11. More generally an order-2 vertex-uniform pentagonal pyramid can be defined with a pentagonal base and 5 isosceles triangle sides of any height. The pentagrammic star pyramid has the vertex arrangement, but connected onto a pentagram base. The dual edge lengths are different due to the polar reciprocation, eric W. Weisstein, Pentagonal pyramid at MathWorld. Virtual Reality Polyhedra www. georgehart. com, The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
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Hexagonal pyramid
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In geometry, a hexagonal pyramid is a pyramid with a hexagonal base upon which are erected six triangular faces that meet at a point. Like any pyramid, it is self-dual, a right hexagonal pyramid with a regular hexagon base has C6v symmetry. Bipyramid, prism and antiprism Weisstein, Eric W. Hexagonal Pyramid, virtual Reality Polyhedra www. georgehart. com, The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra Conway Notation for Polyhedra Try, Y6
39.
Elongated triangular pyramid
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In geometry, the elongated triangular pyramid is one of the Johnson solids. As the name suggests, it can be constructed by elongating a tetrahedron by attaching a triangular prism to its base, like any elongated pyramid, the resulting solid is topologically self-dual. A Johnson solid is one of 92 strictly convex polyhedra that have regular faces but are not uniform and they were named by Norman Johnson, who first listed these polyhedra in 1966. The following formulae for volume and surface area can be used if all faces are regular, a 2 If the edges are not the same length, use the individual formulae for the tetrahedron and triangular prism separately, and add the results together. Topologically, the triangular pyramid is its own dual. Geometrically, the dual has seven irregular faces, one equilateral triangle, the elongated triangular pyramid can form a tessellation of space with square pyramids and/or octahedra. Eric W. Weisstein, Johnson solid at MathWorld
40.
Elongated square pyramid
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In geometry, the elongated square pyramid is one of the Johnson solids. As the name suggests, it can be constructed by elongating a square pyramid by attaching a cube to its square base, like any elongated pyramid, it is topologically self-dual. A Johnson solid is one of 92 strictly convex polyhedra that have regular faces but are not uniform and they were named by Norman Johnson, who first listed these polyhedra in 1966. The dual of the square pyramid has 9 faces,4 triangular,1 square and 4 trapezoidal. The elongated square pyramid can form a tessellation of space with tetrahedra, elongated square bipyramid Eric W. Weisstein, Johnson solid at MathWorld
41.
Elongated pentagonal pyramid
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In geometry, the elongated pentagonal pyramid is one of the Johnson solids. As the name suggests, it can be constructed by elongating a pentagonal pyramid by attaching a pentagonal prism to its base, a Johnson solid is one of 92 strictly convex polyhedra that have regular faces but are not uniform. They were named by Norman Johnson, who first listed these polyhedra in 1966, the dual of the elongated pentagonal pyramid has 11 faces,5 triangular,1 pentagonal and 5 trapezoidal. Elongated pentagonal bipyramid Eric W. Weisstein, Johnson solid at MathWorld
42.
Diminished trapezohedron
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In geometry, a diminished trapezohedron is a polyhedron in an infinite set of polyhedra, constructed by removing one of the polar vertices of a trapezohedron and replacing it by a new face. It has one regular n-gonal base face, n triangles faces around the base, along with the set of pyramids and elongated pyramids, these figures are topologically self-dual. Theyre also related to the pyramids, as augmented antiprisms. This sequence has sets of two instead of kite faces. There are three special case geometries of the trigonal trapezohedron. The simplest is a diminished cube and it can also be seen as a tetrahedron with 3 of 4 of its vertices rectified. The three rhombic faces fold out flat to form half of a hexagram
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Stellated octahedron
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The stellated octahedron is the only stellation of the octahedron. It is also called the stella octangula, a given to it by Johannes Kepler in 1609. It was depicted in Paciolis Divina Proportione,1509 and it is the simplest of five regular polyhedral compounds, and the only regular compound of two tetrahedra. It can also be seen as one of the stages in the construction of a 3D Koch Snowflake, the stellated octahedron can be constructed in several ways, It is a stellation of the regular octahedron, sharing the same face planes. It is also a regular compound, when constructed as the union of two regular tetrahedra. It can be obtained as an augmentation of the regular octahedron, in this construction it has the same topology as the convex Catalan solid, the triakis octahedron, which has much shorter pyramids. It is a facetting of the cube, sharing the vertex arrangement, a compound of two spherical tetrahedra can be constructed, as illustrated. The two tetrahedra of the view of the stellated octahedron are desmic, meaning that each edge of one tetrahedron crosses two opposite edges of the other tetrahedron. One of these two crossings is visible in the octahedron, the other crossing occurs at a point at infinity of the projective space. The same twelve tetrahedron vertices also form the points of Reyes configuration, the stella octangula numbers are figurate numbers that count the number of balls that can be arranged into the shape of a stellated octahedron. They are 0,1,14,51,124,245,426,679,1016,1449,1990, the stellated octahedron appears with several other polyhedra and polyhedral compounds in M. C. Eschers print Stars, and provides the form in Eschers Double Planetoid. Peter R. Cromwell, Polyhedra, Cambridge University Press Polyhedra H. S. M. Coxeter, Regular Polytopes, Dover edition, ISBN 0-486-61480-8,3.6 The five regular compounds, pp. 47-50,6.2 Stellating the Platonic solids, pp. 96-104 Weisstein, Weisstein, Eric W. Compound of two tetrahedra
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Polytope
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In elementary geometry, a polytope is a geometric object with flat sides, and may exist in any general number of dimensions n as an n-dimensional polytope or n-polytope. For example, a polygon is a 2-polytope and a three-dimensional polyhedron is a 3-polytope. Polytopes in more than three dimensions were first discovered by Ludwig Schläfli, the German term polytop was coined by the mathematician Reinhold Hoppe, and was introduced to English mathematicians as polytope by Alicia Boole Stott. The term polytope is nowadays a broad term that covers a class of objects. Many of these definitions are not equivalent, resulting in different sets of objects being called polytopes and they represent different approaches to generalizing the convex polytopes to include other objects with similar properties. In this approach, a polytope may be regarded as a tessellation or decomposition of some given manifold, an example of this approach defines a polytope as a set of points that admits a simplicial decomposition. However this definition does not allow star polytopes with interior structures, the discovery of star polyhedra and other unusual constructions led to the idea of a polyhedron as a bounding surface, ignoring its interior. A polyhedron is understood as a surface whose faces are polygons, a 4-polytope as a hypersurface whose facets are polyhedra and this approach is used for example in the theory of abstract polytopes. In certain fields of mathematics, the terms polytope and polyhedron are used in a different sense and this terminology is typically confined to polytopes and polyhedra that are convex. A polytope comprises elements of different dimensionality such as vertices, edges, faces, cells, terminology for these is not fully consistent across different authors. For example, some authors use face to refer to an -dimensional element while others use face to denote a 2-face specifically, authors may use j-face or j-facet to indicate an element of j dimensions. Some use edge to refer to a ridge, while H. S. M. Coxeter uses cell to denote an -dimensional element, the terms adopted in this article are given in the table below, An n-dimensional polytope is bounded by a number of -dimensional facets. These facets are themselves polytopes, whose facets are -dimensional ridges of the original polytope, Every ridge arises as the intersection of two facets. Ridges are once again polytopes whose facets give rise to -dimensional boundaries of the original polytope and these bounding sub-polytopes may be referred to as faces, or specifically j-dimensional faces or j-faces. A 0-dimensional face is called a vertex, and consists of a single point, a 1-dimensional face is called an edge, and consists of a line segment. A 2-dimensional face consists of a polygon, and a 3-dimensional face, sometimes called a cell, the convex polytopes are the simplest kind of polytopes, and form the basis for several different generalizations of the concept of polytopes. A convex polytope is defined as the intersection of a set of half-spaces. This definition allows a polytope to be neither bounded nor finite, Polytopes are defined in this way, e. g. in linear programming
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Dual polygon
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In geometry, polygons are associated into pairs called duals, where the vertices of one correspond to the edges of the other. The dual of a polygon is an isotoxal polygon. For example, the rectangle and rhombus are duals, in a cyclic polygon, longer sides correspond to larger exterior angles in the dual, and shorter sides to smaller angles. Further, congruent sides in the original polygon yields congruent angles in the dual, for example, the dual of a highly acute isosceles triangle is an obtuse isosceles triangle. In the Dorman Luke construction, each face of a polyhedron is the dual polygon of the corresponding vertex figure. As an example of the duality of polygons we compare properties of the cyclic. This duality is perhaps more clear when comparing an isosceles trapezoid to a kite. The simplest qualitative construction of a polygon is a rectification operation. New edges are formed between these new vertices and that is, the polygon generated by applying it twice is in general not similar to the original polygon. As with dual polyhedra, one can take a circle and perform polar reciprocation in it. Combinatorially, one can define a polygon as a set of vertices, a set of edges, then the dual polygon is obtained by simply switching the vertices and edges. Thus for the triangle with vertices and edges, the triangle has vertices, and edges, where B connects AB & BC. This is not a particularly fruitful avenue, as combinatorially, there is a family of polygons, geometric duality of polygons is more varied. Dual curve Dual polyhedron Self-dual polygon Dual Polygon Applet by Don Hatch
46.
Honeycomb (geometry)
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In geometry, a honeycomb is a space filling or close packing of polyhedral or higher-dimensional cells, so that there are no gaps. It is an example of the general mathematical tiling or tessellation in any number of dimensions. Its dimension can be clarified as n-honeycomb for a honeycomb of n-dimensional space, honeycombs are usually constructed in ordinary Euclidean space. They may also be constructed in non-Euclidean spaces, such as hyperbolic honeycombs, any finite uniform polytope can be projected to its circumsphere to form a uniform honeycomb in spherical space. There are infinitely many honeycombs, which have only been partially classified, the more regular ones have attracted the most interest, while a rich and varied assortment of others continue to be discovered. The simplest honeycombs to build are formed from stacked layers or slabs of prisms based on some tessellations of the plane, in particular, for every parallelepiped, copies can fill space, with the cubic honeycomb being special because it is the only regular honeycomb in ordinary space. Another interesting family is the Hill tetrahedra and their generalizations, which can tile the space. A 3-dimensional uniform honeycomb is a honeycomb in 3-space composed of polyhedral cells. There are 28 convex examples in Euclidean 3-space, also called the Archimedean honeycombs, a honeycomb is called regular if the group of isometries preserving the tiling acts transitively on flags, where a flag is a vertex lying on an edge lying on a face lying on a cell. Every regular honeycomb is automatically uniform, however, there is just one regular honeycomb in Euclidean 3-space, the cubic honeycomb. An infinite number of unique honeycombs can be created by order of patterns of repeating these slab layers. A honeycomb having all cells identical within its symmetries is said to be cell-transitive or isochoric, in the 3-dimensional euclidean space, a cell of such a honeycomb is said to be a space-filling polyhedron. A necessary condition for a polyhedron to be a space-filling polyhedron is that its Dehn invariant must be zero, five space-filling polyhedra can tessellate 3-dimensional euclidean space using translations only. They are called parallelohedra, Cubic honeycomb Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb Rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb Elongated dodecahedral honeycomb, bitruncated cubic honeycomb Other known examples of space-filling polyhedra include, The Triangular prismatic honeycomb. The gyrated triangular prismatic honeycomb The triakis truncated tetrahedral honeycomb, the Voronoi cells of the carbon atoms in diamond are this shape. The trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb Isohedral tilings, sometimes, two or more different polyhedra may be combined to fill space. Two classes can be distinguished, Non-convex cells which pack without overlapping and these include a packing of the small stellated rhombic dodecahedron, as in the Yoshimoto Cube. Overlapping of cells whose positive and negative densities cancel out to form a uniformly dense continuum, in 3-dimensional hyperbolic space, the dihedral angle of a polyhedron depends on its size
47.
Regular polytope
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In mathematics, a regular polytope is a polytope whose symmetry group acts transitively on its flags, thus giving it the highest degree of symmetry. All its elements or j-faces — cells, faces and so on — are also transitive on the symmetries of the polytope, Regular polytopes are the generalized analog in any number of dimensions of regular polygons and regular polyhedra. The strong symmetry of the regular polytopes gives them an aesthetic quality that interests both non-mathematicians and mathematicians, classically, a regular polytope in n dimensions may be defined as having regular facets and regular vertex figures. These two conditions are sufficient to ensure that all faces are alike and all vertices are alike, note, however, that this definition does not work for abstract polytopes. A regular polytope can be represented by a Schläfli symbol of the form, with regular facets as, Regular polytopes are classified primarily according to their dimensionality. They can be classified according to symmetry. For example, the cube and the regular octahedron share the same symmetry, indeed, symmetry groups are sometimes named after regular polytopes, for example the tetrahedral and icosahedral symmetries. Three special classes of regular polytope exist in every dimensionality, Regular simplex Measure polytope Cross polytope In two dimensions there are many regular polygons. In three and four dimensions there are more regular polyhedra and 4-polytopes besides these three. In five dimensions and above, these are the only ones, see also the list of regular polytopes. The idea of a polytope is sometimes generalised to include related kinds of geometrical object, some of these have regular examples, as discussed in the section on historical discovery below. A concise symbolic representation for regular polytopes was developed by Ludwig Schläfli in the 19th Century, the notation is best explained by adding one dimension at a time. A convex regular polygon having n sides is denoted by, so an equilateral triangle is, a square, and so on indefinitely. A regular star polygon which winds m times around its centre is denoted by the fractional value, a regular polyhedron having faces with p faces joining around a vertex is denoted by. The nine regular polyhedra are and. is the figure of the polyhedron. A regular 4-polytope having cells with q cells joining around an edge is denoted by, the vertex figure of the 4-polytope is a. A five-dimensional regular polytope is an, the dual of a regular polytope is also a regular polytope. The Schläfli symbol for the dual polytope is just the original written backwards, is self-dual, is dual to, to
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Uniform polytope
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A uniform polytope of dimension three or higher is a vertex-transitive polytope bounded by uniform facets. The uniform polytopes in two dimensions are the regular polygons and this is a generalization of the older category of semiregular polytopes, but also includes the regular polytopes. Further, star regular faces and vertex figures are allowed, which expand the possible solutions. A strict definition requires uniform polytopes to be finite, while a more expansive definition allows uniform honeycombs of Euclidean, nearly every uniform polytope can be generated by a Wythoff construction, and represented by a Coxeter diagram. Notable exceptions include the antiprism in four dimensions. Equivalently, the Wythoffian polytopes can be generated by applying basic operations to the regular polytopes in that dimension and this approach was first used by Johannes Kepler, and is the basis of the Conway polyhedron notation. Regular n-polytopes have n orders of rectification, the zeroth rectification is the original form. The th rectification is the dual, an extended Schläfli symbol can be used for representing rectified forms, with a single subscript, k-th rectification = tk = kr. Truncation operations that can be applied to regular n-polytopes in any combination, the resulting Coxeter diagram has two ringed nodes, and the operation is named for the distance between them. Truncation cuts vertices, cantellation cuts edges, runcination cuts faces, each higher operation also cuts lower ones too, so a cantellation also truncates vertices. T0,1 or t, Truncation - applied to polygons, a truncation removes vertices, and inserts a new facet in place of each former vertex. Faces are truncated, doubling their edges and it can be seen as rectifying its rectification. A cantellation truncates both vertices and edges and replaces them with new facets, cells are replaced by topologically expanded copies of themselves. There are higher cantellations also, bicantellation t1,3 or r2r, tricantellation t2,4 or r3r, quadricantellation t3,5 or r4r, etc. t0,1,2 or tr, Cantitruncation - applied to polyhedra and higher. It can be seen as a truncation of its rectification, a cantitruncation truncates both vertices and edges and replaces them with new facets. Cells are replaced by topologically expanded copies of themselves, runcination truncates vertices, edges, and faces, replacing them each with new facets. 4-faces are replaced by topologically expanded copies of themselves, There are higher runcinations also, biruncination t1,4, triruncination t2,5, etc. t0,4 or 2r2r, Sterication - applied to Uniform 5-polytopes and higher. It can be seen as birectifying its birectification, Sterication truncates vertices, edges, faces, and cells, replacing each with new facets
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600-cell
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In geometry, the 600-cell is the convex regular 4-polytope with Schläfli symbol. It is also called a C600, hexacosichoron and hexacosidedroid, the 600-cell is regarded as the 4-dimensional analog of the icosahedron, since it has five tetrahedra meeting at every edge, just as the icosahedron has five triangles meeting at every vertex. It is also called a tetraplex and polytetrahedron, being bounded by tetrahedral cells and its boundary is composed of 600 tetrahedral cells with 20 meeting at each vertex. Together they form 1200 triangular faces,720 edges, and 120 vertices, the edges form 72 flat regular decagons. Each vertex of the 600-cell is a vertex of six such decagons, References, S. L. van Oss, F. Buekenhout and M. Parker. Its vertex figure is an icosahedron, and its dual polytope is the 120-cell and it has a dihedral angle of cos−1 = ~164. 48°. Each cell touches, in manner,56 other cells. One cell contacts each of the four faces, two cells contact each of the six edges, but not a face, and ten cells contact each of the four vertices, but not a face or edge. The vertices of a 600-cell centered at the origin of 4-space, with edges of length 1/φ, can be given as follows,16 vertices of the form, the remaining 96 vertices are obtained by taking even permutations of ½. Note that the first 16 vertices are the vertices of a tesseract, the eight are the vertices of a 16-cell. The final 96 vertices are the vertices of a snub 24-cell, when interpreted as quaternions, the 120 vertices of the 600-cell form a group under quaternionic multiplication. This group is called the binary icosahedral group and denoted by 2I as it is the double cover of the ordinary icosahedral group I. Each rotational symmetry of the 600-cell is generated by elements of 2IL and 2IR. The centre of RSG consists of the non-rotation Id and the central inversion -Id and we have the isomorphism RSG ≅ /. The order of RSG equals 120 ×120 /2 =7200, the binary icosahedral group is isomorphic to SL. The full symmetry group of the 600-cell is the Weyl group of H4 and this is a group of order 14400. It consists of 7200 rotations and 7200 rotation-reflections, the rotations form an invariant subgroup of the full symmetry group. The rotational symmetry group was described by S. L. van Oss, one can start by realizing the 600-cell is the dual of the 120-cell
, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-55566-4_21, ISBN 978-3-642-62442-1, MR 2038487.
